**2. South Africa's political landscape**

outstanding 0.1%. UNISA has been described as a *mega* university, and the only dedicated distance education provider in the African continent [3, 6–10]. Van Broekhuizen [11] argued that UNISA is South Africa's foremost distance learning institution that accounts for roughly half of all enrolments in the initial teacher education programmes. He noted that, by 2013, UNISA accounted for 36% of South Africa's higher education enrolments. To that end, it is his contention that "trends in South African HE enrolments and graduations will, to a large extent, be a reflection of the underlying trends in enrolments and graduations at UNISA" ([11], p. 18).

In this chapter, we explore UNISA's provision of distance education through *e-learning* in a country that is marked by vast socio-economic inequalities and extreme levels of poverty. We shall differentiate between distance education and *e-learning* [12]. On the one hand, "distance education" is "a set of methods or processes for teaching a diverse range of students located at different places and physically separated from the learning institution, their tutors/teachers as well as other students" ([13], p. 1). On the other hand, *e-learning* "encompasses any form of telecommunications and computer-based learning" ([14], p. 8). We ponder on the potential empowering role of *e-learning*, especially for the poorest of the poor African people who were previously excluded from opportunities by apartheid policies and legislation. South Africa's Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) [15] is committed to "an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more 'satellite' premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)". The reason for this is that just over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, South Africa remains a vastly unequal society, by race, class, gender and socio-

on expenditure data (per capita excluding taxes) and 0.69 based on income data [17]. The previously privileged white minority populations continue to enjoy living standards comparable to those of the *First World*, while the previously marginalised majority of the African people continue to live in abject poverty, way below the official poverty line as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. Drawing on Sir Benjamin Disraeli's 1845 novel

*We therefore make bold to say that South Africa is a country of two nations. One of these nations is white, relatively prosperous, regardless of gender or geographic dispersal. It has ready access to a developed economy, physical, educational, communication and other infrastructure. This enables it to argue that, except for the persistence of gender discrimination against women; all members of this nation have the possibility to exercise their right to equal opportunity, the development opportunities to which the* 

*The second and larger nation of South Africa is black and poor, with the worst affected being women in the rural areas, the black rural population in general and the disabled. This nation lives under conditions of a grossly underdeveloped economic, physical, educational, communication and other infrastructure. It has virtually no possibility to exercise what in reality amounts to a theoretical right to equal opportunity, with that right being equal within this black nation only to the extent that it is equally* 

The Gini coefficient or index is a prominent measure of income inequality. It leverages a scale of 0–1 to derive deviation from perfect income equality. A Gini index of 0 would imply perfect income equality, while an index of 1 would imply

*Sybil, or Two Nations*, Mbeki [18] described South Africa as "Two Nations".

is estimated to be approximately 0.65 based

economic status. The country's Gini coefficient1

*constitution of 1993 committed our country.*

*incapable of realisation.*

complete income disparity (see [16]).

1

122 Trends in E-learning

South Africa's political landscape is uncertain, unstable and unpredictable. The president of the country is embroiled in scandals and faces 783 charges of corruption [20]. As a result, the country's economy is in a state of disarray and shrinking. In his maiden mid-term budget speech, finance minister Malusi Gigaba proposed a downward revision of the country's economic growth from 1.3 to 0.7% for 2017. He estimated the deficit at 4.7%, and projected the country's economic growth "to increase slowly reaching 1.9 per cent in 2020" ([21], p. 15). It is therefore no wonder that South Africa's adult unemployment rates, especially among the African people, who were previously excluded from socio-economic opportunities and privileges, were at a record high of 27.7% in 2017 (see **Figure 1**).

**Figure 1.** South Africa's unemployment rates. Source: Statistics South Africa [22, 23]. *Quarterly Labour Force Survey.*

such as electricity, illuminating paraffin, and petrol and/or diesel will rise exponentially. The value of the local currency (the South Africa Rand) will diminish. People's buying power will be eroded. Interest rates will rise as the banking sector scampers to protect its lending practices with a view to ensuring return on investment. Ordinary people's eligibility for loans will be lost. Those that have mortgaged properties or own vehicles on higher purchase (HP)

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Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country's total population [22, 23], while whites constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet whites constitute over 80% of the university professoriate [30, 31]. During the period 2012–2016, whites dominated top management positions in the South Africa labour market (see **Figure 4**). Statistics South Africa [17] reported that "In terms of the poverty share, black African households made up the vast majority of poor households. In 2006, they accounted for 93. 2% of all poor households - a proportion that marginally grew to 93. 7% in 2009 and to 93.9% in 2011". Statistics South Africa ([22, 23], p. 81) stated that "Given the high incidence of poverty … black Africans continue to carry the highest burden of poverty in the country". For Statistics South Africa ([22, 23], p. 21), "South Africa would not likely achieve the target of reducing inequality to

In the following sections, we examine the different ways in which UNISA can intervene in the

**Figure 3.** The meaning of South Africa's junk economy status. Source: Adapted from Republic of South Africa, National

above-sketched scenario through its provision of distance learning through *e-learning*.

will be forced to consider downgrading or selling (see **Figure 3**).

0.6 by 2030".

Treasury [29].

**Figure 2.** SA's youth unemployment rates (15–34 years). Sources: [24, 25].

South Africa's youth (15–34 years) unemployment rates are even worse than adult (35– 64 years) unemployment rates. For instance, during the period 2012–2016, youth unemployment was above 35%, peaking at 38.8% in 2016 (see **Figure 2**). These high unemployment rates are a manifestation of flawed economic policies that do not augur well for investor confidence in the country.

It therefore came as no surprise that in April 2017 international credit rating agencies Fitch, and Standard & Poors (S&P) decided to downgrade South Africa's economy to non-investment grade, commonly known as *junk* status. As Hlongoane [26] observes,

*The real task for South Africa is to get its political house in order, which will be the foundation for an economic turnaround. The uncertainty around the country's ability to pay its debts stems in part from the perception that there is no political will to stem the ballooning debt problems, and no will to institute the kind of reforms that can drastically improve education and the management of public assets such as Eskom.*

What does the downgrade of the country's economy to *junk* status mean to ordinary South Africans? Our immediate response would be: mammoth socio-economic challenges and devastating hardships, especially for the majority of previously disadvantaged African people who are in the margins of the country's economic opportunities and live below the poverty line2 . South Africa will not be able to attract foreign direct investments, which are essential for injecting the much needed capital to fund projects in agriculture, mining, manufacturing, utilities, construction, trade, transport and finance, which create jobs. Second, the country will fall into recession. The price of consumables such as food as well as basic necessities

<sup>2</sup> The World Bank's international poverty line of \$1.90/day is based on a collection of national poverty lines, which were originally used to set the international poverty line of \$1.25/day at 2005 purchasing power parity (see [27, 28]).

such as electricity, illuminating paraffin, and petrol and/or diesel will rise exponentially. The value of the local currency (the South Africa Rand) will diminish. People's buying power will be eroded. Interest rates will rise as the banking sector scampers to protect its lending practices with a view to ensuring return on investment. Ordinary people's eligibility for loans will be lost. Those that have mortgaged properties or own vehicles on higher purchase (HP) will be forced to consider downgrading or selling (see **Figure 3**).

Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country's total population [22, 23], while whites constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet whites constitute over 80% of the university professoriate [30, 31]. During the period 2012–2016, whites dominated top management positions in the South Africa labour market (see **Figure 4**). Statistics South Africa [17] reported that "In terms of the poverty share, black African households made up the vast majority of poor households. In 2006, they accounted for 93. 2% of all poor households - a proportion that marginally grew to 93. 7% in 2009 and to 93.9% in 2011". Statistics South Africa ([22, 23], p. 81) stated that "Given the high incidence of poverty … black Africans continue to carry the highest burden of poverty in the country". For Statistics South Africa ([22, 23], p. 21), "South Africa would not likely achieve the target of reducing inequality to 0.6 by 2030".

In the following sections, we examine the different ways in which UNISA can intervene in the above-sketched scenario through its provision of distance learning through *e-learning*.

South Africa's youth (15–34 years) unemployment rates are even worse than adult (35– 64 years) unemployment rates. For instance, during the period 2012–2016, youth unemployment was above 35%, peaking at 38.8% in 2016 (see **Figure 2**). These high unemployment rates are a manifestation of flawed economic policies that do not augur well for investor confidence

It therefore came as no surprise that in April 2017 international credit rating agencies Fitch, and Standard & Poors (S&P) decided to downgrade South Africa's economy to non-invest-

*The real task for South Africa is to get its political house in order, which will be the foundation for an economic turnaround. The uncertainty around the country's ability to pay its debts stems in part from the perception that there is no political will to stem the ballooning debt problems, and no will to institute the kind of reforms that can drastically improve education and the management of public assets such as Eskom.* What does the downgrade of the country's economy to *junk* status mean to ordinary South Africans? Our immediate response would be: mammoth socio-economic challenges and devastating hardships, especially for the majority of previously disadvantaged African people who are in the margins of the country's economic opportunities and live below the poverty

. South Africa will not be able to attract foreign direct investments, which are essential for injecting the much needed capital to fund projects in agriculture, mining, manufacturing, utilities, construction, trade, transport and finance, which create jobs. Second, the country will fall into recession. The price of consumables such as food as well as basic necessities

The World Bank's international poverty line of \$1.90/day is based on a collection of national poverty lines, which were originally used to set the international poverty line of \$1.25/day at 2005 purchasing power parity (see [27, 28]).

ment grade, commonly known as *junk* status. As Hlongoane [26] observes,

**Figure 2.** SA's youth unemployment rates (15–34 years). Sources: [24, 25].

in the country.

124 Trends in E-learning

line2

2

**Figure 3.** The meaning of South Africa's junk economy status. Source: Adapted from Republic of South Africa, National Treasury [29].

**Figure 4.** SA population distribution for top management. Source: Commission employment equity reports [32–36].

"to advancing social justice with an emphasis on redress, equity and empowerment of the previously disadvantaged groups in South Africa such as blacks, women, people with disabilities, the rural and urban poor and adults generally who have missed out on opportunities to access higher education". It seeks to position itself "as a leading provider of higher education opportunities through open distance learning (ODL) nationally, on the African continent and internationally". In its *Strategic Plan 2015*, UNISA [38] noted that the institution "is unique in the sense that it is the only dedicated distance education institution, and justly claims to be the only truly national university. Its size, and the aggregated resources and capacities at its disposal, place it in a position to make a vital contribution to development in Southern Africa". The *Strategic Plan* further stated that UNISA's "geographical reach enables it to support highlevel capacity development beyond the borders of South Africa, especially on the continent". The above-mentioned commitments are consistent with the commitments made by South Africa's Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). For instance, the DHET ([15], p. 8) is committed to "an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more 'satellite' premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)". The DHET ([15], p. 22) further committed to "establishing dedicated distance education capacity at one or more of the community colleges, with the requisite resources and capacity to provide education and training opportunities to eligible youth and adults who are unable to attend face-to-face institutions". In its *Draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Open Learning and Distance Education in South African Post-school Education and Training*, the DHET ([39], p. 1) adopted "open learning as a strategy to increase access to education and training opportunities for all and to construct quality learning environments which take account of learners' context and use the most appropriate

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**Figure 5.** UNISA enrolments, 2013–2017. Source: UNISA's institutional information and analysis portal.
