**2. Behaviour analysis**

The experimental analysis of behaviour has a long history, starting with pioneering work in Thorndike's puzzle boxes and Watson's and Pavlov's work on respondent conditioning, exploring involuntary behaviours that resulted from the presentation of a variety of stimuli. Skinner built on this work with explorations and discoveries related to voluntary operant behaviours, focusing on the effect of consequences on responses [4].

Recognition of the effectiveness of behaviour analytic interventions was enshrined in an

Applied Behaviour Analysis and Autism: Science, Profession, and Practice

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75823

11

*In the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, when appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address* 

This legislation requires behavioural intervention plans to be based on a functional behavioural assessment (FBA) [8] and therefore constitute a significant step in the recognition of ABAbased procedures for a wide group of students, including children with autism in the United States of America (USA). In contrast, in the United Kingdom (UK), reports and guidelines, such as those from the National Institute for Clinical Excellence [9], miscategorised 'ABA' as one specific intervention for autism and do not recommend their use in general, although specific ABA-based procedures, such as functional behavioural assessments are recommended. Functional behavioural assessments (FBA) identify the environmental factors of which the targeted behaviour is a function and thereby are the cornerstone of effective behaviour analytic interventions. FBAs include descriptive methods (e.g., record reviews and service user and/or caregiver interviews), direct behavioural observations, as well as functional analysis in which experimental procedures are used to establish the causal relationship between the dependent and independent variables. After ruling out medical reasons for enduring chal-

lenging behaviours, a thorough FBA increases the likelihood of intervention success.

demand; (3) alone; and (4) unstructured play/enriched environment.

sequence of SIB, the task demand was discontinued.

cluded only if the SIB was not considered dangerous.

For situations where the function of a behaviour is difficult to determine by descriptive means alone, several experimental functional analysis conditions have been developed. Iwata and colleagues [10] were the first to explore functional analysis of self-injurious behaviour (SIB). They used four experimental conditions: (1) social disapproval or reprimands; (2) academic

**1.** The social disapproval condition was used to assess if the SIB was positively reinforced. The researcher engaged in an unrelated activity (e.g., reading papers) without interacting with the child, while the child engaged in an activity that was not overly demanding for them. If the child engaged in the challenging target behaviour, the researcher interacted

**2.** The academic demand condition was used to assess if the behaviour in question was negatively reinforced through escape from demand. The child engaged in an activity that was novel, appropriate, and somewhat demanding (e.g., table-top picture matching). As a con-

**3.** The alone condition was used to assess if the SIB had a self-stimulatory function. The child was left in a room on his/her own without toys or other materials. This condition was in-

**4.** The unstructured play/enriched environment condition was used to assess the potential of social reinforcement for alternative behaviours. It consisted of the child sitting in close proximity to the researcher who responded with praise and social interaction in the absence of the target behaviour. Inappropriate/challenging behaviours were ignored in this condition.

with the child by delivering a reprimand (e.g., 'Don't do that'; 'That's not nice').

amendment to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997:

*that behavior (Sect.614 (d)(3)(B)(i)).*

Behavioural pioneers rejected the prevailing mentalistic approach of mainstream psychology, that promulgates a dichotomy between body and mind on the premise that behaviour is caused by an inner state or 'the mind' and coined the term 'radical behaviourism' (from the Greek [rædɪk<sup>ə</sup> l] adj. 'arising from or going to a root or source') to describe the underlying philosophy of behaviourism. By categorizing thoughts and feelings as inner/private behaviour shaped by the same behavioural principles as publicly observable behaviour, radical behaviourism offers a holistic, non-dualistic approach to human behaviour [5].

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA), i.e., the application of behavioural knowledge to socially significant behaviours, is a distinct discipline with dedicated journals (Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis; Behaviour Analysis in Practice), large membership associations (Association for Behaviour Analysis-International, ABAI; European Association for Behaviour Analysis, EABA; Association of Professional Behaviour Analysts, APBA), and professional certification (Behaviour Analyst Certification Board, BACB) recognised as a licenced profession.

ABA employs and expands knowledge gained from the experimental analysis of behaviour for the benefit of socially or clinical important behaviours. Social validity is measured through assessments of social appropriateness and significance of target behaviour, intervention, and outcome [1]. Applied behaviour analytic interventions satisfy seven dimensions. They have to be


ABA provides the tools for behaviour change across many human affairs, e.g., seat belt use, littering, sports, language acquisition, health and exercise, emotional behavioural difficulties (EBD), social validity, and staff training [6, 7].

Recognition of the effectiveness of behaviour analytic interventions was enshrined in an amendment to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997:

**2. Behaviour analysis**

10 Behavior Analysis

iourism' (from the Greek [rædɪk<sup>ə</sup>

human behaviour [5].

They have to be

The experimental analysis of behaviour has a long history, starting with pioneering work in Thorndike's puzzle boxes and Watson's and Pavlov's work on respondent conditioning, exploring involuntary behaviours that resulted from the presentation of a variety of stimuli. Skinner built on this work with explorations and discoveries related to voluntary operant

Behavioural pioneers rejected the prevailing mentalistic approach of mainstream psychology, that promulgates a dichotomy between body and mind on the premise that behaviour is caused by an inner state or 'the mind' and coined the term 'radical behav-

describe the underlying philosophy of behaviourism. By categorizing thoughts and feelings as inner/private behaviour shaped by the same behavioural principles as publicly observable behaviour, radical behaviourism offers a holistic, non-dualistic approach to

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA), i.e., the application of behavioural knowledge to socially significant behaviours, is a distinct discipline with dedicated journals (Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis; Behaviour Analysis in Practice), large membership associations (Association for Behaviour Analysis-International, ABAI; European Association for Behaviour Analysis, EABA; Association of Professional Behaviour Analysts, APBA), and professional certification

ABA employs and expands knowledge gained from the experimental analysis of behaviour for the benefit of socially or clinical important behaviours. Social validity is measured through assessments of social appropriateness and significance of target behaviour, intervention, and outcome [1]. Applied behaviour analytic interventions satisfy seven dimensions.

• Generalizable (behaviour occurs in general, not only where/when/how it was taught) [1].

ABA provides the tools for behaviour change across many human affairs, e.g., seat belt use, littering, sports, language acquisition, health and exercise, emotional behavioural difficulties

(Behaviour Analyst Certification Board, BACB) recognised as a licenced profession.

• Applied (focus on socially significant behaviours)

• Behavioural (targeting measurable behaviours)

• Conceptual (clearly based on behaviour analysis) • Effective (positive impact on the target behaviour)

• Analytical (decisions are based on data)

• Technological (procedures are replicable)

(EBD), social validity, and staff training [6, 7].

l] adj. 'arising from or going to a root or source') to

behaviours, focusing on the effect of consequences on responses [4].

*In the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, when appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address that behavior (Sect.614 (d)(3)(B)(i)).*

This legislation requires behavioural intervention plans to be based on a functional behavioural assessment (FBA) [8] and therefore constitute a significant step in the recognition of ABAbased procedures for a wide group of students, including children with autism in the United States of America (USA). In contrast, in the United Kingdom (UK), reports and guidelines, such as those from the National Institute for Clinical Excellence [9], miscategorised 'ABA' as one specific intervention for autism and do not recommend their use in general, although specific ABA-based procedures, such as functional behavioural assessments are recommended.

Functional behavioural assessments (FBA) identify the environmental factors of which the targeted behaviour is a function and thereby are the cornerstone of effective behaviour analytic interventions. FBAs include descriptive methods (e.g., record reviews and service user and/or caregiver interviews), direct behavioural observations, as well as functional analysis in which experimental procedures are used to establish the causal relationship between the dependent and independent variables. After ruling out medical reasons for enduring challenging behaviours, a thorough FBA increases the likelihood of intervention success.

For situations where the function of a behaviour is difficult to determine by descriptive means alone, several experimental functional analysis conditions have been developed. Iwata and colleagues [10] were the first to explore functional analysis of self-injurious behaviour (SIB). They used four experimental conditions: (1) social disapproval or reprimands; (2) academic demand; (3) alone; and (4) unstructured play/enriched environment.


The functional analysis procedures originally detailed by Iwata and colleagues form the basis of good ABA practice and have been adopted widely and successfully to address many different behaviours, including core indicators of autism.

physical movement (e.g., movement of the right arm) could be introduced to a previously totally non-responsive patient by contingent use of a positive reinforcer (e.g., sweetened milk) [19].

Applied Behaviour Analysis and Autism: Science, Profession, and Practice

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75823

13

Fester [20] and Oppenheim [21] were among the first to utilise behavioural principles to teach new skills to individuals with autism; however, it was not until Lovaas utilised intensive behavioural interventions, mainly Discrete Trial Training (DTT) with young children with autism, that ABA-based procedures became popularised [22]. A follow-up report of the Lovaas et al. study evidenced the long-term maintenance of the gains that had been achieved with the children [23]. For many not familiar with the science of applied behaviour analysis, Lovaas' name became synonymous with ABA interventions for autism. However, Lovaas' studies have often been misinterpreted as an evaluation of a complete intervention system with little or no recognition of its basis in applied behaviour analysis. This kind of misinformation has led to the erroneous perception that Lovaas Therapy, Lovaas Programme, or

Many ABA-based interventions for children on the autism spectrum are conducted in the home, with parents as active partners [24]. Maurice [25], mother of two children with severe autism, was one of the first to recount how home-based intensive behavioural intervention resulted in her children's ability to be included in mainstream schools without additional supports.

Support groups and social media have played a key role in parental advocacy becoming a grass roots movement for rising autism awareness, demanding ABA-based interventions [26], and attaining relevant autism legislation. In the United States of America, Federal Government and States legislation in almost all states have dramatically improved the funding for behavioural interventions by requiring insurance carriers to provide coverage of ABA-based services. Individual State initiatives have also added to the endorsement, e.g., the State of Maine convened a task force to evaluate the educational interventions for autism as a means of determining appropriate State policy in the area. The task force, citing some of the key features of ABA, such as the use of observable goals, reliable data collection, and programme evaluation based on data evidence, declared behavioural interventions substantiated as effective. Similarly, the New York State Department of Health gave the highest rating to behavioural-based interventions [27]; the Kennedy Krieger Institute of Maryland [28] and Autism Speaks [29] are among many other agencies that promote the use of ABA-based interventions for the people with autism.

A non-exhaustive list of ABA-based interventions with empirical support as efficacious for use with individuals with autism spectrum disorders are briefly described below. For further detail on these and other behavioural methods shown to be effective for children and adults

ASD is a diagnosis of behaviour deficits in social-communication skills and behaviour excesses in restricted, repetitive behaviours [13]. These behaviours can challenge or disruptive other activities [30, 31], consistently across age groups [32, 33] and over time [33]. ABA-based interventions to support individuals who experience these challenges include functional behaviour assessment (FBA) and behaviour intervention plans (BIP) [34, 35]. Positive Behaviour Support (PBS) is probably the most widely used behaviour analytic, evidence-based interven-

with autism, see the cited research.

tion package use to support these individuals [36, 37].

Discrete Trial Training (DTT), are the same as the scientific discipline of ABA.
