**3. VR in kidney cancer**

Within renal cancer, a VR system has been developed by Rai et al. that enhances the novice's ability to localise renal tumour margins [10]. Specific to nephrectomies, Makiyama et al. [11] have developed a VR "rehearsal" simulator for surgeons that plans for anatomical abnormalities and incorporates haptic feedback for pre-operative training. Ueno et al. have developed VR addressing another aspect of nephrectomies—reducing postoperative urine leakage by predicting open urinary tracts on preoperative 3D CT—reconstructions [12]. Whereas, VR might be a great teaching tool in simulated nephrectomies, AR is the platform for practise of medicine and surgery—on real people.
