**Mangrove Faunal Ecology**

[68] Mishra NP, Mishra RK, Singhal GS. Changes in the activities of antioxidant enzymes during exposure of intact wheat leaves to strong visible light at different temperatures in the presence of protein synthesis inhibitors. Plant Physiology. 1993;102:903-910. DOI:

[69] Nakano Y, Asada K. Hydrogen peroxide is scavenged by ascorbate-specific peroxidase in spinach chloroplasts. Plant & Cell Physiology. 1981;22:867-880. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.

[70] Fridovich I. Measuring the activity of superoxide dismutase: An embarrassment of riches. In: Oberly LW, editor. Superoxide Dismutase. Vol. 1. Boca Baton: CPC Press; 1982. pp. 69-77

[71] Laemmli UK. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteri-

[72] Beauchamp P, Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase: Improved assay applicable to acrylamide gels. Analytical Biochemistry. 1971;44:276-287. DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(71)90370-8 [73] Thorup OA, Strole WB, Leavell BS. A method for the localization of catalase on starch

ophage T4. Nature. 1970;227:680-685. DOI: 10.1038/227680a0

gels. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 1961;58:122-128

10.1104/pp.102.3.903

104 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

pcp.a076232

**Chapter 6**

**Provisional chapter**

**Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves**

This research article reports an exhaustive account on the mangrove-associated polychaetes. Polychaetes are an important component in marine benthic communities and they play a major ecological role in mangrove ecosystem. This article gives an overview of polychaete diversity associated to five major mangrove forests of east coast of India (Muthupettai, Pichavaram, Coringa, Bhitarkanika and Sundarban). The results of this survey indicated that the physicochemical parameters did not vary much except a few parameters that showed only marginal variations. With regard to the macrobenthic organisms, the polychaetes topped the list. Crustaceans were found to be the next dominant group in the order of abundance and followed by gastropods and bivalves of the total benthic organisms collected. The results of the statistical analysis revealed that the parameters such as salinity, pH, silt, clay, total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphate (TP) were manifested as best match in determining benthic fauna distributions followed by TOC, slit, clay and TP. The maximum number of polychaete species was recorded from Sundarban mangroves (68 species) and minimum in Muthupettai mangroves (39 species). **Keywords:** environmental factors, macrofauna, population density, statistical analyses,

Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystem contributing as a rich store house of biodiversity. Mangrove forests are extremely important coastal resources [1] which play a pivotal role in socio-economic development. It also plays a major role as nursery ground for juveniles of a plethora of fin and shell fishes. A total of 54 mangrove species belonging to 20 genera and

**Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in** 

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78332

**of East Coast of India**

Perumal Murugesan, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and Gopalan Mahadevan

Perumal Murugesan, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and Gopalan Mahadevan

**Mangroves of East Coast of India**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

**Abstract**

southeast coast of India

**1. Introduction**

#### **Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78332

Perumal Murugesan, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and Gopalan Mahadevan Perumal Murugesan, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and Gopalan Mahadevan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

#### **Abstract**

This research article reports an exhaustive account on the mangrove-associated polychaetes. Polychaetes are an important component in marine benthic communities and they play a major ecological role in mangrove ecosystem. This article gives an overview of polychaete diversity associated to five major mangrove forests of east coast of India (Muthupettai, Pichavaram, Coringa, Bhitarkanika and Sundarban). The results of this survey indicated that the physicochemical parameters did not vary much except a few parameters that showed only marginal variations. With regard to the macrobenthic organisms, the polychaetes topped the list. Crustaceans were found to be the next dominant group in the order of abundance and followed by gastropods and bivalves of the total benthic organisms collected. The results of the statistical analysis revealed that the parameters such as salinity, pH, silt, clay, total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphate (TP) were manifested as best match in determining benthic fauna distributions followed by TOC, slit, clay and TP. The maximum number of polychaete species was recorded from Sundarban mangroves (68 species) and minimum in Muthupettai mangroves (39 species).

**Keywords:** environmental factors, macrofauna, population density, statistical analyses, southeast coast of India

#### **1. Introduction**

Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystem contributing as a rich store house of biodiversity. Mangrove forests are extremely important coastal resources [1] which play a pivotal role in socio-economic development. It also plays a major role as nursery ground for juveniles of a plethora of fin and shell fishes. A total of 54 mangrove species belonging to 20 genera and

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

16 families are reported globally [2]. The most dominant families among mangroves are Avicenniaceae, comprised of one genus and eight species and the Rhizophoraceae having 16 genera and approximately 120 accepted species [3–5]. According to FAO [6] the mangrove area worldwide is estimated to cover from 12 to 20 million hectares. According to Giri *et al*. [7], the mangroves are found in Asia (42%), Africa (20%), North and Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South America (11%). In India, the total area under mangrove cover is 4,445km2 , of which about 60% is found on the east coast, 23% on the west coast and the remaining 17% in Andaman & Nicobar Islands [8]. Three types of mangroves habitats, namely deltaic, backwater- estuarine and insular are reported to occur in India. The deltaic mangroves are luxuriantly present on the east coast (Bay of Bengal) where the gigantic rivers make mighty deltas such as the Gangetic, the Mahanadi, the Godavari and Cauvery deltas. The backwater-estuarine types of mangroves exist along the west coast (Arabian Sea), and are characterized by typical funnel-shaped estuarine system of major rivers (Indus, Narmada, Tapti, etc.) or occur in the backwaters, creeks, and neritic inlets. The insular mangroves are present in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, wherein many tidal estuaries, small rivers, neritic inlets, and lagoons support a rich mangrove flora. The mangroves in east coast are large and widespread owing to the nutrient-rich alluvial soil formed by the rivers-Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery- and a perennial supply of freshwater along the deltaic coast coupled with smooth and gradual slope which provides larger for colonization of mangroves [9].

detection of pollution and are considered as the taxonomic group with the highest level of

No comprehensive study has been undertaken so far on benthic biodiversity in general and polychaete taxonomy in particular in the mangroves of east coast of India. Taking cognizance of the facts stated above, a case study on the diversity and distribution pattern of polychaetes

For the present investigation, survey was conducted in five different mangrove ecosystems of east coast of India. The description of the study area is detailed in the following section

The water, sediment and macrofaunal samples were collected seasonally from five major mangrove ecosystem of east coast of India during 2013–2014. In each mangrove, three stations representing i) Land ward zone, ii) core mangrove, and iii) Seaward zone, were fixed and thus

Muthupettai MUT-1 (LW) 10° 18′ 4.96″ N 79° 22′ 27.59″ E

Pichavaram PIC-1 (LW) 11° 26′ 0.49″ N 79° 48′ 29.06″ E

Coringa COR-1 (LW) 16° 49′ 29.16″ N 82° 20′ 44.74″ E

Bhitarkanika BIT-1 (LW) 20° 42′ 0.96″ N 87° 0′ 56.96″ E

Sundarbans SUN-1 (LW) 21° 44′ 53.02″ N 89° 9′ 29.38″ E

**Table 1.** Geographical location of sampling stations in various mangrove ecosystems covered.

**Latitude (N) Longitude (E)**

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

109

MUT-2 (CM) 10° 18′ 10.27″ N 79° 22′ 26.51″ E MUT-3 (SW) 10° 18′ 14.64″ N 79° 22′ 25.28″ E

PIC-2 (CM) 11° 25′ 46.06″ N 79° 48′ 2.05″ E PIC-3 (SW) 11° 25′ 56.45″ N 79° 48′ 16.14″ E

COR-2 (CM) 16° 47′ 42.17″ N 82° 20′ 11.73″ E COR-3 (SW) 16° 45′ 7.86″ N 82° 19′ 58.86″ E

BIT-2 (CM) 20° 44′ 40.07″ N 86° 53′ 35.99″ E BIT-3 (SW) 20° 42′ 43.98″ N 86° 52′ 39.13″ E

SUN-2 (CM) 21° 50′ 55.37″ N 89° 5′ 12.46″ E SUN-3(SW) 22° 3′ 27.36″ N 89° 2′ 23.73″ E

sensitivity to perturbation of the soft substrata [17].

**2. Material and methods**

altogether 15 stations were sampled:

**Name of the mangroves Station code Locations**

LW = Landward zone, CM = Core mangrove zone, SW = Seaward zone.

**2.1. Study area**

(**Table 1** & **Figure 1**).

in five major mangroves of east coast of India is posted in this article.

Annually, mangroves approximately sequester 22.8 million metric tons of carbon, covering 0.1% of the earth's forests, which is accounting for 11% of terrestrial carbon into the ocean [10] and 10% of the terrestrial dissolved organic carbon exported to the ocean [11]. Despite its enormous benefits, which biodiversity commands, the mangroves have always been given least importance from the point of view of benthic biodiversity by the scientific community.

Benthic communities are either epibenthic or infaunal invertebrates [12, 13] that occur at the soil surface or at the surface of bottom entities, and within the substrate, respectively (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2015). Benthic fauna are divided into two major groups namely macrofauna and meiofauna. The macrofauna are those organisms which are in the size range of more than 0.5 mm or 500 micron and the meiofauna are the fauna which are less than 0.5 mm but greater than 0.062 mm or 62 microns [12]. They are an important component that influences the productivity of the habitat, and thereby helps in recycling of nutrients and in turn promotes primary productivity [14]. Macro-benthos also help in decomposition and the breakdown of particulate organic material by exposing them to microbes and their waste materials contain rich nutrients forming food for other consumers. Of the various macro benthic taxa, polychaetes constitute the most dominant group constituting about 80% of the total macro benthic community and their diet include microbial, meiobial, and organic substances [15]. Polychaetes are secondary producers of mangroves subsoil habitat production, which is essential for tracing the biotic stability of the area from fisheries point of view [16]. For example, decomposition, the fundamental process wherein the dead organic matter and leaf litter is broken down into CO2 and simple inorganic molecules which take place through polychaetes in the benthic environment. Added to the utilities stated above, polychaetes are also used as most veritable marine organisms for the detection of pollution and are considered as the taxonomic group with the highest level of sensitivity to perturbation of the soft substrata [17].

No comprehensive study has been undertaken so far on benthic biodiversity in general and polychaete taxonomy in particular in the mangroves of east coast of India. Taking cognizance of the facts stated above, a case study on the diversity and distribution pattern of polychaetes in five major mangroves of east coast of India is posted in this article.

### **2. Material and methods**

#### **2.1. Study area**

16 families are reported globally [2]. The most dominant families among mangroves are Avicenniaceae, comprised of one genus and eight species and the Rhizophoraceae having 16 genera and approximately 120 accepted species [3–5]. According to FAO [6] the mangrove area worldwide is estimated to cover from 12 to 20 million hectares. According to Giri *et al*. [7], the mangroves are found in Asia (42%), Africa (20%), North and Central America (15%), Oceania (12%) and South America (11%). In India, the total area under mangrove

the remaining 17% in Andaman & Nicobar Islands [8]. Three types of mangroves habitats, namely deltaic, backwater- estuarine and insular are reported to occur in India. The deltaic mangroves are luxuriantly present on the east coast (Bay of Bengal) where the gigantic rivers make mighty deltas such as the Gangetic, the Mahanadi, the Godavari and Cauvery deltas. The backwater-estuarine types of mangroves exist along the west coast (Arabian Sea), and are characterized by typical funnel-shaped estuarine system of major rivers (Indus, Narmada, Tapti, etc.) or occur in the backwaters, creeks, and neritic inlets. The insular mangroves are present in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, wherein many tidal estuaries, small rivers, neritic inlets, and lagoons support a rich mangrove flora. The mangroves in east coast are large and widespread owing to the nutrient-rich alluvial soil formed by the rivers-Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery- and a perennial supply of freshwater along the deltaic coast coupled with smooth and gradual slope which provides larger

Annually, mangroves approximately sequester 22.8 million metric tons of carbon, covering 0.1% of the earth's forests, which is accounting for 11% of terrestrial carbon into the ocean [10] and 10% of the terrestrial dissolved organic carbon exported to the ocean [11]. Despite its enormous benefits, which biodiversity commands, the mangroves have always been given least importance from the point of view of benthic biodiversity by the scientific community. Benthic communities are either epibenthic or infaunal invertebrates [12, 13] that occur at the soil surface or at the surface of bottom entities, and within the substrate, respectively (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2015). Benthic fauna are divided into two major groups namely macrofauna and meiofauna. The macrofauna are those organisms which are in the size range of more than 0.5 mm or 500 micron and the meiofauna are the fauna which are less than 0.5 mm but greater than 0.062 mm or 62 microns [12]. They are an important component that influences the productivity of the habitat, and thereby helps in recycling of nutrients and in turn promotes primary productivity [14]. Macro-benthos also help in decomposition and the breakdown of particulate organic material by exposing them to microbes and their waste materials contain rich nutrients forming food for other consumers. Of the various macro benthic taxa, polychaetes constitute the most dominant group constituting about 80% of the total macro benthic community and their diet include microbial, meiobial, and organic substances [15]. Polychaetes are secondary producers of mangroves subsoil habitat production, which is essential for tracing the biotic stability of the area from fisheries point of view [16]. For example, decomposition, the fundamental process wherein

ecules which take place through polychaetes in the benthic environment. Added to the utilities stated above, polychaetes are also used as most veritable marine organisms for the

and simple inorganic mol-

the dead organic matter and leaf litter is broken down into CO2

, of which about 60% is found on the east coast, 23% on the west coast and

cover is 4,445km2

108 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

for colonization of mangroves [9].

For the present investigation, survey was conducted in five different mangrove ecosystems of east coast of India. The description of the study area is detailed in the following section (**Table 1** & **Figure 1**).

The water, sediment and macrofaunal samples were collected seasonally from five major mangrove ecosystem of east coast of India during 2013–2014. In each mangrove, three stations representing i) Land ward zone, ii) core mangrove, and iii) Seaward zone, were fixed and thus altogether 15 stations were sampled:


**Table 1.** Geographical location of sampling stations in various mangrove ecosystems covered.

v) Sundarban is one among the world's largest delta covering 10,200 sq.km of mangrove forest, spread over India (4200 sq. km of Reserved Forest) and Bangladesh (6000 sq.km approx. of Reserved Forest). The total area of Sundarban region in India is 9600 sq. km,

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

The environmental parameters such as pH, salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO was measured following the modified Winkler's method [18] in the site itself. The sediment nutrient parameters such as total nitrogen (TN) was estimated by following the method of Strickland and Parsons [18], total phosphorous (TP) by following the method of Menzel and Corwin [19]; and total organic carbon (TOC) by following the standard method of El Wakeel

In each station, three replicate samples were collected using Peterson grab. This type of grab is considered to be the most efficient gear in obtaining the good penetrative samples in shallow water environments. The grab employed was found to take a sample covering an area of 0.1m2

The procedure adopted for sampling was following the method of Mackie [21]. After collecting the samples, they were emptied into a plastic tray. The larger organisms were handpicked immediately from the sediments and then sieved through 0.5 mm mesh screen. The organisms retained by the sieve were placed in a labeled container and fixed in 5–7% formalin. Subsequently, the organisms were stained with Rose Bengal solution (0.1 g in 100 ml of distilled water) for greater visibility during sorting. All the species were sorted, enumerated and identified to the advanced possible level with the consultation of available literature. The works of Fauvel [22] and Day [23]

The data were approached to various statistical methods namely univariate, graphical/distributional and multivariate methods available in PRIMER (Ver. 7.) statistical software [24]. The data were analyzed for diversity index (H′) using the method of Shannon – Wiener's formula [25]; for species richness (d) using the formula of Margalef [26] and species evenness

Cluster analysis was done to find out the similarities between the samples/stations/regions. The most commonly used clustering technique is the hierarchical agglomerative method. MDS (non - metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling) [28, 29], was used to find out the similarities (or dissimilarities) between each pair of entities to produce a 'map', which would ideally

The principal component analysis-Bi-plot (PCA-Bi-plot), a multivariate procedure capable of providing a data reduction and easy visualization through the Pearson correlation between the physicochemical parameters and sampling stations were performed using XLSTAT-Pro version 5.1.4. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was also done to relate the abun-

dance of benthic species with linear combination of environmental variables [30, 31].

and http://www.marinespecies.org/polychaeta/ were referred for identification.

.

111

which constitutes the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, West Bengal. India.

**2.2. Collection of water and sediment samples**

**2.3. Biological sample (field and lab routines)**

and Riley [20].

**2.4. Statistical analyses**

(J') using Pielou [27].

show the interrelationships of all.

**Figure 1.** Map showing the various mangrove ecosystems studied in or around east coast of India.

The major mangrove forests selected for the present study are the following:


v) Sundarban is one among the world's largest delta covering 10,200 sq.km of mangrove forest, spread over India (4200 sq. km of Reserved Forest) and Bangladesh (6000 sq.km approx. of Reserved Forest). The total area of Sundarban region in India is 9600 sq. km, which constitutes the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, West Bengal. India.

#### **2.2. Collection of water and sediment samples**

The environmental parameters such as pH, salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO was measured following the modified Winkler's method [18] in the site itself. The sediment nutrient parameters such as total nitrogen (TN) was estimated by following the method of Strickland and Parsons [18], total phosphorous (TP) by following the method of Menzel and Corwin [19]; and total organic carbon (TOC) by following the standard method of El Wakeel and Riley [20].

#### **2.3. Biological sample (field and lab routines)**

In each station, three replicate samples were collected using Peterson grab. This type of grab is considered to be the most efficient gear in obtaining the good penetrative samples in shallow water environments. The grab employed was found to take a sample covering an area of 0.1m2 . The procedure adopted for sampling was following the method of Mackie [21]. After collecting the samples, they were emptied into a plastic tray. The larger organisms were handpicked immediately from the sediments and then sieved through 0.5 mm mesh screen. The organisms retained by the sieve were placed in a labeled container and fixed in 5–7% formalin. Subsequently, the organisms were stained with Rose Bengal solution (0.1 g in 100 ml of distilled water) for greater visibility during sorting. All the species were sorted, enumerated and identified to the advanced possible level with the consultation of available literature. The works of Fauvel [22] and Day [23] and http://www.marinespecies.org/polychaeta/ were referred for identification.

#### **2.4. Statistical analyses**

**Figure 1.** Map showing the various mangrove ecosystems studied in or around east coast of India.

The major mangrove forests selected for the present study are the following:

18'N; Long.790

27'N; Long.790

They are situated 400 km south of Chennai and lie on the southern part of Cauvery deltaic region along the southeast coast of India. Mangroves spread to an area of about 6800 ha, in which *Avicennia marina* is the single dominant mangrove species accounting for about 95%

in the north and the Coleroon estuary in the south. These are a repository of rare, endemic and endangered species of mangroves. In this mangrove, about 81 species belonging to 41

iii) Coringa mangroves (Lat. 16° 44′ to 16°53' N and Long. 82°14′ to 82°22′ E) are located south of Kakinada Bay, Andhra Pradesh state, India. Coringa mangroves receive freshwater from Coringa and Gaderu rivers, distributaries of Gautami Godavari River, and neritic

Baitarani rivers of Odisha state. Next to Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika (Lat. 20°4′ to 20°8′ N; 86°45′ to 87°50′ E) is the second largest viable mangrove ecosystem in India harboring

49′E) are located on a lagoon environment.

47′E) are situated amidst the Vellar estuary

in the river delta of the Brahmani and

i) Muthupettai mangroves (Lat.100

of the vegetative cover.

110 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

ii) Pichavaram mangroves (Lat.110

families have been recorded.

waters from Kakinada bay.

iv) Bhitarkanika mangroves cover an area of 650 km2

more than 70 species of mangrove and its associates.

The data were approached to various statistical methods namely univariate, graphical/distributional and multivariate methods available in PRIMER (Ver. 7.) statistical software [24]. The data were analyzed for diversity index (H′) using the method of Shannon – Wiener's formula [25]; for species richness (d) using the formula of Margalef [26] and species evenness (J') using Pielou [27].

Cluster analysis was done to find out the similarities between the samples/stations/regions. The most commonly used clustering technique is the hierarchical agglomerative method. MDS (non - metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling) [28, 29], was used to find out the similarities (or dissimilarities) between each pair of entities to produce a 'map', which would ideally show the interrelationships of all.

The principal component analysis-Bi-plot (PCA-Bi-plot), a multivariate procedure capable of providing a data reduction and easy visualization through the Pearson correlation between the physicochemical parameters and sampling stations were performed using XLSTAT-Pro version 5.1.4. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was also done to relate the abundance of benthic species with linear combination of environmental variables [30, 31].

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) allows to obtaining a simultaneous representation of the sites, the objects, and the variables in two or three dimensions that is optimal for a variance criterion [30]. To confirm the results obtained through CCA, BIO-ENV procedure [32] was also employed. A weighted Spearman rank correlation coefficient (ρω) was used to determine the harmonic rank correlation between the biological variable and all possible combinations of the environmental variables.

#### **2.5. Results**

#### *2.5.1. Environmental variables*

The mean values of physicochemical parameters recorded at each sampling station are summarized in **Table 2**. The temperature ranged between 20.43°C and 33.67°C with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; salinity values varied between 12.3 psu and 33.12 psu with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; pH values fluctuated between 7.10 and 8.23 with maximum at Pichavaram and minimum at Sundarbans; Dissolved Oxygen ranged between 3.80 and 8.23 mg/l with maximum at Bhitarkanika and minimum at Pichavaram. Total nitrogen value ranged between 3.48 and 5.98 μg/g with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; Total phosphate value ranged between 0.88 and 1.74 μg/g with maximum at Coringa and minimum at Bhitarkanika; TOC (Total organic carbon) in sediment ranged between 6.45 and 16.52 μg/g with maximum at Sundarbans and minimum at Coringa mangroves. The level of sand in sediment ranged between 47.9% and 78.64% with maximum at Pichavaram and minimum at Sundarban mangroves; Silt in sediment ranged between 10.1 and 31.4% with maximum at Sundarbans and minimum at Bhitarkanika mangroves and the clay content ranged between 6.5 and 23.8% with maximum at Sundarbans and minimum at Pichavaram mangroves.

#### *2.5.2. Principal component analysis*

The PCA was performed using physicochemical parameters to set a well defined distinction between the stations and the parameters. The PCA drawn for five mangroves showed 85.67% variance of the total axis wherein the first axis (F1) explained up to 62.47% of the total variance and F2 axis explained only 23.20% of the total variance. When the results were viewed, the parameters such as salinity, pH, Silt, Clay, TN, TP and TOC got positively correlated with MUT-1, PIC-1, BIT-2, PIC-2, SUN-2 and SUN-3 and MUT-1 while water temperature, DO and sand were negatively correlated with stations MUT-3, PIC-3, BIT-1, BIT-3, SUN-1, COR-1, COR-2 and COR-3 (**Figure 2**).

#### *2.5.3. Biological entities*

#### *2.5.3.1. Species composition of macrofauna*

In the present study, organisms of the following five groups were recorded in the benthic samples collected: 1. polychaetes, 2. crustaceans, 3. bivalves, 4. gastropods and 5. 'others.' As many as 97 species of macrofauna were recorded from 5 mangrove ecosystems of the present **Parameters**

**Muthupettai**

**Min**

Temperature 0

Salinity (psu)

pH DO mg/l TN μg/g TP μg/g TOC mgC/g

Sand %

Silt % Clay % **Table 2.**

9.01 ± 0.86

12 ± 0.02

6.5 ± 0.56 Physicochemical parameters recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem of east coast of India.

10.5 ± 0.09

12.21 ± 0.45

18.2 ± 0.27

14.34 ± 0.74

20.78 ± 0.15

18.2 ± 0.32

23.8 ± 0.19

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

113

22.99 ± 0.51

33.22 ± 0.54

14.08 ± 0.64

29.83 ± 0.21

12.34 ± 0.78

21.35 ± 0.17

10.1 ± 0.43

12.32 ± 0.24

26.1 ± 0.29

31.4 ± 0.46

56.4 ± 0.36

67.18 ± 0.05

63.55 ± 0.41

78.64 ± 0.45

64.01 ± 0.28

70.45 ± 0.32

67.6 ± 0.27

75.41 ± 0.09

47.9 ± 0.98

52.1 ± 0.29

9.86 ± 0.07

16.36 ± 0.43

9.98 ± 0.90

16.36 ± 0.22

6.45 ± 0.35

14.4 ± 0.51

7.5 ± 0.07

15.54 ± 0.42

6.55 ± 0.41

16.52 ± 0.13

1.12 ± 0.17

1.45 ± 0.28

1.30 ± 0.24

1.62 ± 0.09

0.95 ± 0.05

1.74 ± 0.14

0.88 ± 0.03

1.32 ± 0.08

1.02 ± 0.19

1.47 ± 0.15

4.69 ± 0.52

5.98 ± 0.78

4.78 ± 0.24

5.03 ± 0.46

4.22 ± 0.78

4.75 ± 0.15

3.76 ± 0.26

5.01 ± 0.09

3.48 ± 0.21

5.41 ± 0.34

5.34 ± 0.86

6.37 ± 0.41

3.80 ± 0.53

5.23 ± 0.10

4.06 ± 0.18

6.45 ± 0.05

4.33 ± 0.18

7.27 ± 0.34

4.06 ± 0.63

6.33 ± 0.42

7.13 ± 0.35

7.85 ± 0.47

7.33 ± 0.21

8.23 ± 0.15

7.18 ± 0.32

7.67 ± 0.28

7.2 ± 0.09

7.47 ± 0.14

7.10 ± 0.23

7.7 ± 0.21

29.34 ± 0.19

33.12 ± 0.68

18.80 ± 0.43

30.33 ± 0.32

17.5 ± 0.17

29.40 ± 0.31

12.5 ± 0.21

21.77 ± 0.7

12.3 ± 0.45

27.07 ± 0.73

C

26 ± 0.02

33.67 ± 0.41

26.33 ± 0.23

30.50 ± 0.52

22.5 ± 0.21

29.17 ± 0.29

23.5 ± 0.32

29.33 ± 0.40

20.43 ± 0.31

31.17 ± 0.29

**Max**

**Min**

**Max**

**Min**

**Max**

**Min**

**Max**

**Min**

**Max**

**Pichavaram**

**Coringa**

**Bhitarkanika**

**Sundarbans**


Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) allows to obtaining a simultaneous representation of the sites, the objects, and the variables in two or three dimensions that is optimal for a variance criterion [30]. To confirm the results obtained through CCA, BIO-ENV procedure [32] was also employed. A weighted Spearman rank correlation coefficient (ρω) was used to determine the harmonic rank correlation between the biological variable and all possible

The mean values of physicochemical parameters recorded at each sampling station are summarized in **Table 2**. The temperature ranged between 20.43°C and 33.67°C with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; salinity values varied between 12.3 psu and 33.12 psu with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; pH values fluctuated between 7.10 and 8.23 with maximum at Pichavaram and minimum at Sundarbans; Dissolved Oxygen ranged between 3.80 and 8.23 mg/l with maximum at Bhitarkanika and minimum at Pichavaram. Total nitrogen value ranged between 3.48 and 5.98 μg/g with maximum at Muthupettai and minimum at Sundarbans; Total phosphate value ranged between 0.88 and 1.74 μg/g with maximum at Coringa and minimum at Bhitarkanika; TOC (Total organic carbon) in sediment ranged between 6.45 and 16.52 μg/g with maximum at Sundarbans and minimum at Coringa mangroves. The level of sand in sediment ranged between 47.9% and 78.64% with maximum at Pichavaram and minimum at Sundarban mangroves; Silt in sediment ranged between 10.1 and 31.4% with maximum at Sundarbans and minimum at Bhitarkanika mangroves and the clay content ranged between 6.5 and 23.8% with maximum

The PCA was performed using physicochemical parameters to set a well defined distinction between the stations and the parameters. The PCA drawn for five mangroves showed 85.67% variance of the total axis wherein the first axis (F1) explained up to 62.47% of the total variance and F2 axis explained only 23.20% of the total variance. When the results were viewed, the parameters such as salinity, pH, Silt, Clay, TN, TP and TOC got positively correlated with MUT-1, PIC-1, BIT-2, PIC-2, SUN-2 and SUN-3 and MUT-1 while water temperature, DO and sand were negatively correlated with stations MUT-3, PIC-3, BIT-1, BIT-3, SUN-1, COR-1,

In the present study, organisms of the following five groups were recorded in the benthic samples collected: 1. polychaetes, 2. crustaceans, 3. bivalves, 4. gastropods and 5. 'others.' As many as 97 species of macrofauna were recorded from 5 mangrove ecosystems of the present

combinations of the environmental variables.

at Sundarbans and minimum at Pichavaram mangroves.

*2.5.2. Principal component analysis*

COR-2 and COR-3 (**Figure 2**).

*2.5.3.1. Species composition of macrofauna*

*2.5.3. Biological entities*

**2.5. Results**

*2.5.1. Environmental variables*

112 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Table 2.** Physicochemical parameters recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem of east coast of India. study. Of these species, polychaetes were found to be the largest component in the collection with 68 species. Crustaceans emerged as next dominant group in the order of abundance with 11 species. The bivalves and gastropods came next in the order with 8 and 6 species respectively and the group 'others' came last in the order with 4 species.

**S. No Polychaetes S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S. No Polychaetes S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5** 1. *Amphinome* sp. \* \* \* — \* 35. *Nereis diversicolor* \* \* \* — \* 2. *Ancistrosyllis* sp. \* \* \* \* \* 36. *Nereis* sp. \* \* \* \* \* 3. *Boccardia polybranchia* \* — \* \* — 37. *Notomastus aberans* \* \* \* \* \* 4. *Brada villosa,* \* — \* \* \* 38. *Notomastus latericeus* — — \* — \* 5. *Capitella capitata* \* \* \* \* \* 39. *Notoproctus pacificus* \* — \* \* \* 6. *Chone collaris* \* \* \* — \* 40. *Orbinia angrapequensis* \* \* \* \* — 7. *Chone letterstedti* \* — \* \* \* 41. *Paraonidea sp* \* \* \* — \* 8. *Cirratulus sp.* \* \* \* — — 42. *Paraonis sp.* \* \* \* \* — 9. *Cirrophorus branchiatus* \* \* \* \* \* 43. *Perinereis* sp. \* \* \* \* \* 10. *Cossura coasta* \* — \* \* \* 44. *Perinereis falsovariegata* \* — \* \* \* 11. *Dendronereis arborifera* — \* \* \* \* 45. *Pherusa monroi* \* — \* \* \* 12. *Euclymene .oerstedii* \* — \* — — 46. *Phylo* sp. \* \* \* \* — 13. *Euclymene sp.* \* \* \* — \* 47. *Pista cristata* \* — \* \* \* 14. *Eunice sp* \* \* \* \* \* 48. *Platynereis dumerilii* \* — \* \* \* 15. *Eurythoe complanata* \* \* \* \* \* 49. *Polydora sp.* \* \* \* \* \*

17. *Exogone clavator* — \* \* \* \* 51. *Prionospio cirrifera* \* \* \* \* \* 18. *Fabrica filamentosa* \* — \* — \* 52. *Prionospio pinnata* \* \* \* \* \* 19. *Glycera benguellana* \* — \* \* \* 53. *Prionospio sexoculata* \* — \* \* \* 20. *Glycera longipinnis* \* \* \* — \* 54. *Prionospio sp* \* — \* — —

22. *Goniada emerita* \* \* \* \* \* 56. *Prionospio pinnata* \* — \* — — 23. *Hyalinoecia tubicola* — — \* \* \* 57. *Prionospio saldanha* \* \* \* \* \* 24. *Hyboscolex longiseta* \* — \* \* — 58. *Sabella* sp. \* \* \* \* \* 25. *Laonice cirrata* \* \* \* \* \* 59. *Sabellaria intoshi* \* \* \* \* \* 26. *Lumbrineris albidentata* — — \* \* \* 60. *Scolelepis squamata* \* — \* \* — 27. *Magelona cincta* \* \* \* — — 61. *Spio filicornis* \* \* \* \* \*

29. *Maldane sarsi* \* — \* — \* 63. *Sternaspis scutata* \* \* \* \* \*

31. *Megaloma* sp. — \* \* \* \* 65. *Syllis benguellana* \* \* \* \* \* 32. *Minuspio cirrifera* \* — \* — — 66. *Syllis gracilis* \* \* \* \* \* 33. *Neanthes* sp. \* \* \* \* \* 67. *Syllis sp.* \* \* \* \* \* 34. *Nephtys dibranchis* — — \* \* \* 68. *Terebellides stroemi* \* — \* \* \*

**Table 3.** Distribution and diversity of polychaete in different mangrove ecosystems of east coast of India.

21. *Glycera unicornis* — \* \* — \* 55. *Prionospio* 

28. *Malacocerous indica* \* \* \* \* \* 62. *Spiophomianes*

S-1, Pichavaram; S-2, Muthupettai; S-3, Sundarban; S-4, Coringa; S-5, Bhitarkanika

\* — \* \* — 50. *Polyphysia crassa* \* — \* — \*

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

115

*cirrobranchiata*

*soderstromi*

— — \* \* \* 64. *Streblosoma persia* \* — \* — \*

\* \* \* \* \*

\* — \* \* —

16. *Eurythoe* 

30. *Megalomma quadrioculatum*

\*presence —absence

*parvecarunculata*

In Muthupettai mangroves, a total of 69 species were recorded. Among these, 39 species belonged to polychaetes, 10 species to crustaceans, 8 species each to bivalves and gastropods and 4 species to group 'others.' With respect to Pichavaram mangroves, a total of 88 species of macrofauna were recorded. Among these, there were 59 species of polychaetes, 10 species were crustaceans, 8 and 7 species were bivalves and gastropods respectively and 4 species of 'others.'

Regarding Coringa, 77 species of macrofauna were found. Among these, 50 species of polychaetes, 9 species of crustaceans and 8 and 7 species of bivalves and gastropods and 3 species of 'others' were recorded. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, 81 species of macrofauna were found. Among these, 54 species of polychaetes, 10 species of crustaceans and 7 species each of bivalves and gastropods and 3 species of 'others' were recorded.

Coming to Sundarban mangroves, 97 species of macrofauna were found. Of these, 68 species of polychaetes, 11 species of crustaceans and 8 and 6 species of bivalves and gastropods respectively, and 4 species of 'Others' were recorded.

Among the polychaetes, *Amphinome* sp., *Ancistrosyllis* sp., *Brada villosa, Capitella capitata, Chone collaris, Cossura coasta*, *Eunice* sp*., Euclymene* sp., *Glycera unicornis*, *Goniada* sp., *Hyboscolex longiseta*, *Notomastus aberans, Perinereis* sp., *Phylo* sp., *Pherusa monroi, Pista cristata, Polydora capensis, Cirratulus* sp.*, Laonice cirrata, Maldane sarsi,*. *Magelona cincta, Malacoceros indicus, Nephtys dibranchis, Nereis diversicolor, Prionospio pinnata, Prionospio sexoculata, Sabella* sp., *Spio filicornis*, *Sternaspis scutata* and *Syllis gracilis* were found to be the commonly occurring species in the samples collected in five mangrove ecosystems. With respect to crustaceans, *Apseudes* sp., *Grandidierella* sp., *Gammarus* sp., *Urothoe* sp., *Angeliera* sp., *Mirocerberus* sp. and *Campylaspis* sp. showed consistency

**Figure 2.** Principle component analysis – Biplot drawn for the relation between physico chemical parameters and stations in five mangrove ecosystems.


study. Of these species, polychaetes were found to be the largest component in the collection with 68 species. Crustaceans emerged as next dominant group in the order of abundance with 11 species. The bivalves and gastropods came next in the order with 8 and 6 species

In Muthupettai mangroves, a total of 69 species were recorded. Among these, 39 species belonged to polychaetes, 10 species to crustaceans, 8 species each to bivalves and gastropods and 4 species to group 'others.' With respect to Pichavaram mangroves, a total of 88 species of macrofauna were recorded. Among these, there were 59 species of polychaetes, 10 species were crustaceans, 8 and 7 species were bivalves and gastropods respectively and 4 species of 'others.' Regarding Coringa, 77 species of macrofauna were found. Among these, 50 species of polychaetes, 9 species of crustaceans and 8 and 7 species of bivalves and gastropods and 3 species of 'others' were recorded. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, 81 species of macrofauna were found. Among these, 54 species of polychaetes, 10 species of crustaceans and 7 species each of

Coming to Sundarban mangroves, 97 species of macrofauna were found. Of these, 68 species of polychaetes, 11 species of crustaceans and 8 and 6 species of bivalves and gastropods

Among the polychaetes, *Amphinome* sp., *Ancistrosyllis* sp., *Brada villosa, Capitella capitata, Chone collaris, Cossura coasta*, *Eunice* sp*., Euclymene* sp., *Glycera unicornis*, *Goniada* sp., *Hyboscolex longiseta*, *Notomastus aberans, Perinereis* sp., *Phylo* sp., *Pherusa monroi, Pista cristata, Polydora capensis, Cirratulus* sp.*, Laonice cirrata, Maldane sarsi,*. *Magelona cincta, Malacoceros indicus, Nephtys dibranchis, Nereis diversicolor, Prionospio pinnata, Prionospio sexoculata, Sabella* sp., *Spio filicornis*, *Sternaspis scutata* and *Syllis gracilis* were found to be the commonly occurring species in the samples collected in five mangrove ecosystems. With respect to crustaceans, *Apseudes* sp., *Grandidierella* sp., *Gammarus* sp., *Urothoe* sp., *Angeliera* sp., *Mirocerberus* sp. and *Campylaspis* sp. showed consistency

**Figure 2.** Principle component analysis – Biplot drawn for the relation between physico chemical parameters and

respectively and the group 'others' came last in the order with 4 species.

bivalves and gastropods and 3 species of 'others' were recorded.

respectively, and 4 species of 'Others' were recorded.

114 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

stations in five mangrove ecosystems.

—absence

S-1, Pichavaram; S-2, Muthupettai; S-3, Sundarban; S-4, Coringa; S-5, Bhitarkanika

**Table 3.** Distribution and diversity of polychaete in different mangrove ecosystems of east coast of India.

in their occurrence in the entire mangrove ecosystem. With respect to bivalves, *Anadara rhombea*, *Crassostrea madrasensis*, *Katelysia opima, Meretrix meretrix*, *Meretrix casta*, *Perna indica*, and similarly among gastropods, *Cerithidea cingulata, Nassarius stollatus*, *Turritella acutangula* and *Murex trapa* were recorded frequently*.* Group "others" constitute fish larvae, s*ea urchins,* crab and foraminiferans. The common macro benthic species recorded in various stations of five mangrove ecosystems is shown in **Table 3** & **Figure 3**.

*2.5.3.3. Percentage composition of benthos*

total benthic organisms recorded.

are given below:

India.

The percentage composition of macrofauna recorded in five different mangroves ecosystems

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

117

In Muthupettai, when the results of percentage composition of benthic fauna were viewed, polychaetes constituted the maximum with 54% of the total benthic organisms followed by crustaceans with 14%, bivalves with 12%, gastropods with 13% each and group 'others' with 7% to the samples collected in Muthupettai mangroves. With respect to Pichavaram mangroves, polychaetes continued to emerge as the dominant group in terms of abundance with a percentage occurrence of 56%. Crustaceans ranked second with a percentage contribution of 15%. Gastropods, bivalves contributed 11%, 12% respectively and 'others' with 6% to the

Regarding Coringa, as in other mangroves, polychaetes continued to be the dominant group with 61%, followed by crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods and 'others' with 13%, 12%, 9% and 5% respectively. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, polychaetes remained as the dominant group with a percentage contribution of 53%. Crustaceans were found to be the next dominant group with a percentage contribution of 13%. Gastropods, bivalves and 'others' contributed 8%, 11% and 5% respectively to the total benthic organisms collected. In Sundarban mangroves, polychaetes topped the list in terms of abundance with a percentage of 62%. Crustaceans

**Figure 4.** Population density of benthic faunal groups recorded in five different mangroves ecosystems of east coast of

#### *2.5.3.2. Population density of macrofauna*

The results of population density recorded in five mangroves are given in the following section: In Muthupettai mangroves, the population density of benthic macrofauna varied from 417 to 3545nos/m2 with the maximum was noticed during summer and minimum during monsoon. Coming to Pichavaram mangroves, the density of benthic organisms varied between 451 and 5645 nos/m2 with during summer and minimum during monsoon. Regarding Coringa mangroves, the density of benthic organisms ranged from 386 to 4262 nos/m2 with maximum during summer and minimum during monsoon. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, the density of benthic organisms varied between 433 and 4862 nos/m2 with maximum during summer and minimum during monsoon. With respect to Sundarban mangroves, the density of organisms varied from 511 to 6845 nos/m2 . The minimum density was recorded monsoon and maximum during summer. Among the mangroves, the maximum density of macrofauna was recorded in Sundarbans (6845 nos/m2 ) during summer and minimum in Muthupettai (3545nos/m2 ) during monsoon (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 3.** Polychaete species recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem from east coast of India.

#### *2.5.3.3. Percentage composition of benthos*

The percentage composition of macrofauna recorded in five different mangroves ecosystems are given below:

In Muthupettai, when the results of percentage composition of benthic fauna were viewed, polychaetes constituted the maximum with 54% of the total benthic organisms followed by crustaceans with 14%, bivalves with 12%, gastropods with 13% each and group 'others' with 7% to the samples collected in Muthupettai mangroves. With respect to Pichavaram mangroves, polychaetes continued to emerge as the dominant group in terms of abundance with a percentage occurrence of 56%. Crustaceans ranked second with a percentage contribution of 15%. Gastropods, bivalves contributed 11%, 12% respectively and 'others' with 6% to the total benthic organisms recorded.

Regarding Coringa, as in other mangroves, polychaetes continued to be the dominant group with 61%, followed by crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods and 'others' with 13%, 12%, 9% and 5% respectively. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, polychaetes remained as the dominant group with a percentage contribution of 53%. Crustaceans were found to be the next dominant group with a percentage contribution of 13%. Gastropods, bivalves and 'others' contributed 8%, 11% and 5% respectively to the total benthic organisms collected. In Sundarban mangroves, polychaetes topped the list in terms of abundance with a percentage of 62%. Crustaceans

**Figure 4.** Population density of benthic faunal groups recorded in five different mangroves ecosystems of east coast of India.

**Figure 3.** Polychaete species recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem from east coast of India.

in their occurrence in the entire mangrove ecosystem. With respect to bivalves, *Anadara rhombea*, *Crassostrea madrasensis*, *Katelysia opima, Meretrix meretrix*, *Meretrix casta*, *Perna indica*, and similarly among gastropods, *Cerithidea cingulata, Nassarius stollatus*, *Turritella acutangula* and *Murex trapa* were recorded frequently*.* Group "others" constitute fish larvae, s*ea urchins,* crab and foraminiferans. The common macro benthic species recorded in various stations of five mangrove

The results of population density recorded in five mangroves are given in the following section: In Muthupettai mangroves, the population density of benthic macrofauna varied from 417 to

Coming to Pichavaram mangroves, the density of benthic organisms varied between 451 and

during summer and minimum during monsoon. Coming to Bhitarkanika mangroves, the

summer and minimum during monsoon. With respect to Sundarban mangroves, the density

and maximum during summer. Among the mangroves, the maximum density of macrofauna

groves, the density of benthic organisms ranged from 386 to 4262 nos/m2

density of benthic organisms varied between 433 and 4862 nos/m2

with the maximum was noticed during summer and minimum during monsoon.

with during summer and minimum during monsoon. Regarding Coringa man-

with maximum

with maximum during

. The minimum density was recorded monsoon

) during summer and minimum in Muthupettai

ecosystems is shown in **Table 3** & **Figure 3**.

of organisms varied from 511 to 6845 nos/m2

was recorded in Sundarbans (6845 nos/m2

) during monsoon (**Figure 4**).

*2.5.3.2. Population density of macrofauna*

116 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

3545nos/m2

5645 nos/m2

(3545nos/m2

formed second dominant group with a percentage contribution of 15%. Gastropods, bivalves contributed with 7% and 10% respectively and 'others' with 6% of the total benthic organisms (**Figure 5**).

#### *2.5.3.4. Diversity indices*

The Diversity indices (mean value) recorded at each sampling station is summarized in **Table 4**. The species diversity varied from 3.018 to 4.476 with maximum in Sundarbans and minimum in Muthupettai mangroves; species richness fluctuated from 3.216 to 4.194 with maximum in Sundarbans and minimum in Coringa mangroves; with respect to Pielou's evenness, it varied from 0.852 to 0.991 with maximum in Bhitarkanika and minimum in Coringa mangroves.

fact was further confirmed through MDS, and the results also revealed the same pattern of

**Stations Diversity (H′) Richness (S) Evenness (J')**

**Table 4.** Diversity indices recorded in five different mangrove ecosystems from east coast of India.

Muthupettai 3.018 4.193 3.564 4.094 0.872 0.969 Pichavaram 3.214 4.414 3.487 4.182 0.854 0.976 Coringa 3.364 4.279 3.216 4.105 0.852 0.965 Bhitarkanika 3.214 4.389 3.314 4.216 0.854 0.991 Sundarbans 3.386 4.476 3.316 4.194 0.872 0.981

**Min Max Min Max Min Max**

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

119

Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was done to ascertain the relationship between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density. The CCA drawn for five mangrove ecosystem showed 91.43% variance of the total axis wherein the F1 axis showed 74.56% and F2 axis 16.87% of the total variance. The environmental parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN were showing strong correlation with the benthic faunal diversity, while other parameters like water temperature, depth, sand and DO had weak correlation with the

In the BIO-ENV procedure, which was employed to measure the agreement between the rank correlations of the biological (Bray–Curtis similarity) and environmental (Euclidean distance) matrices, ten environmental variables were allowed to match the biota. The results of best

**Figure 6.** Dendrogram and MDS for the benthic faunal data collected in various mangrove ecosystems during 2013–2014.

groupings as recognized in cluster analysis (**Figure 6**).

*2.5.3.6. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)*

benthic faunal distribution (**Figure 7**).

*2.5.3.7. BIO-ENV (biota-environment matching)*

#### *2.5.3.5. Cluster analysis*

The seaward stations (MUT-1, PIC-1, COR-1, BIT-1 and SUN-1) in all the mangroves got grouped at the highest level of similarity followed by stations of core mangrove zone (MUT-2, PIC-2, COR-2, BIT-2 & SUN-2) and stations of landward zone (MUT-3, PIC-3, COR-3, BIT-3 & SUN-3) got grouped to form cluster based on the species composition with the exception of a few outliers (stations), which might be due to the species commonality between zones. This

**Figure 5.** Percentage composition of benthic faunal groups recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem from east coast of India.


**Table 4.** Diversity indices recorded in five different mangrove ecosystems from east coast of India.

fact was further confirmed through MDS, and the results also revealed the same pattern of groupings as recognized in cluster analysis (**Figure 6**).

#### *2.5.3.6. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)*

Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was done to ascertain the relationship between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density. The CCA drawn for five mangrove ecosystem showed 91.43% variance of the total axis wherein the F1 axis showed 74.56% and F2 axis 16.87% of the total variance. The environmental parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN were showing strong correlation with the benthic faunal diversity, while other parameters like water temperature, depth, sand and DO had weak correlation with the benthic faunal distribution (**Figure 7**).

#### *2.5.3.7. BIO-ENV (biota-environment matching)*

**Figure 5.** Percentage composition of benthic faunal groups recorded in five different mangroves ecosystem from east

formed second dominant group with a percentage contribution of 15%. Gastropods, bivalves contributed with 7% and 10% respectively and 'others' with 6% of the total benthic organisms

The Diversity indices (mean value) recorded at each sampling station is summarized in **Table 4**. The species diversity varied from 3.018 to 4.476 with maximum in Sundarbans and minimum in Muthupettai mangroves; species richness fluctuated from 3.216 to 4.194 with maximum in Sundarbans and minimum in Coringa mangroves; with respect to Pielou's evenness, it varied from 0.852 to 0.991 with maximum in Bhitarkanika and minimum in Coringa

The seaward stations (MUT-1, PIC-1, COR-1, BIT-1 and SUN-1) in all the mangroves got grouped at the highest level of similarity followed by stations of core mangrove zone (MUT-2, PIC-2, COR-2, BIT-2 & SUN-2) and stations of landward zone (MUT-3, PIC-3, COR-3, BIT-3 & SUN-3) got grouped to form cluster based on the species composition with the exception of a few outliers (stations), which might be due to the species commonality between zones. This

coast of India.

(**Figure 5**).

mangroves.

*2.5.3.4. Diversity indices*

118 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

*2.5.3.5. Cluster analysis*

In the BIO-ENV procedure, which was employed to measure the agreement between the rank correlations of the biological (Bray–Curtis similarity) and environmental (Euclidean distance) matrices, ten environmental variables were allowed to match the biota. The results of best

**Figure 6.** Dendrogram and MDS for the benthic faunal data collected in various mangrove ecosystems during 2013–2014.

combinations are given in **Table 5**. In this case, as evidenced in CCA plot, salinity, silt, clay, TOC, total nitrogen and total phosphorous were featured as the major variables explaining the best match (0.90) with faunal distributions followed by pH, TOC and total nitrogen were also got manifested in the second best variable combinations in determining the faunal distribution in the mangrove ecosystems.

#### **2.6. Discussion**

Composition of benthic communities and their role varies from one habitat to another depending upon the water and sediment characteristics of the mangroves. The distribution of mangrove fauna in relation to water quality has been described quantitatively [33]. Among the five mangroves, the maximum temperature was recorded at Muthupettai during summer and minimum in Sundarbans, which could be ascribed to the effect of atmospheric cooling. Similar conclusion was also drawn earlier by Bolam *et al*. [34] in UK continental shelf waters and in shelf waters of southeast coast of India [35]. The temperature levels recorded presently are comparable with the study made by Kathiresan [36] who reported the temperature range of 28–31°C.

the five mangroves and was alkaline throughout the study period. Higher pH observed in

**Table 5.** Harmonic rank correlations (ρω) between faunal and environmental similarity matrices in various stations

**S. No. No. of variables Best variable combinations Correlation (**ρ**ω)**

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

1. 6 Salinity–Silt–Clay–TOC–Total Nitrogen–Total Phosphorous 0.90 2. 5 Sand–Clay–pH–TOC–Total Nitrogen 0.89 3. 5 Sand–Silt–Clay–Total Phosphorous–TOC 0.88 4. 5 Silt–Clay–DO–Salinity–Total Phosphorous 0.76 5. 4 Temperature–Salinity–Clay–Silt 0.70

and the lower pH during monsoon season could be due to the dilution of saline water with

Coming to dissolved oxygen, (DO) it varied from 3.80 to 7.27 mg/l with the maximum (7.27) during wet season and minimum 3.80 was recorded during dry season. All the stations of various mangroves showed the similar seasonal pattern in the distribution of dissolved oxygen with minimum value during dry months and maximum during wetter months. The relatively low DO values observed in the summer are attributed to the entry of high saline waters in to the mangroves, as well as fluctuations in temperature and salinity, which in turn affect the dissolution of oxygen [40]. This fact is in close agreement with earlier studies done elsewhere [38, 41]. Mangrove ecosystems are able to store large amounts of organic carbon [42]. In the present study, the maximum TOC of 16.52mgC/g was recorded at SUN-12 during dry season and minimum of 6.45mgC/g was recorded at COR-13 during wet season. As noticed in temperature and salinity, all the stations showed similar seasonal pattern in the distribution of organic carbon content with maximum value during dry months and minimum during wet months. Similarly, Hasrizal *et al*. [43] studied the seasonal changes of organic carbon content in the surface sediments of the Terengganu near shore coastal area of Malaysia with maximum value during postmonsoon and summer seasons and they also opined that the sediment characteristics and the organic carbon concentration are largely influenced by southwest and northeast monsoons. In the present study, total nitrogen content showed striking seasonal variation with maximum TN (5.98 μg/g) was recorded during monsoon and minimum (3.48 μg/g) during dry season. Likewise, the maximum TP (1.73 μg/g) was recorded during wet season and minimum (0.88 μg/g) was recorded during dry season. The maximum values in wet season might be attributed to the higher amount of rainfall and river runoff as has been reported earlier by Sreedevi [44]. Similarly Kamykowski and Zentoura [45] also opined that the accumulation of nitrite in the near bottom samples depends on diffusion from sediments as well as mechanisms such as nitrification near the sediment and water interface. Similar observation was made by Gouda and Panigrahy [46] in Rushikulya estuary, Orissa, east coast of India. Manikoth and Salih [47] recorded high nitrogen concentration during monsoon season in the Vembanad estuarine complex, southwest coast of India. Joshi and Ghose [48] studied nutrient

fresh-water inflow from nearby sources as has been reported by Murugesan *et al*. [37].

by the photosynthetic organisms

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

121

summer season could be attributed to the removal of CO2

(mangroves).

The high salinity values observed during summer compared to other seasons is might be due to low rain fall and the rise in atmospheric temperature resulting in high evaporation rate of the surface water. Similar seasonal variations were observed by Manokaran [35] in the inshore waters of Parangipettai and Cuddalore; by Murugesan *et al*. [37] in Tuticorin coastal waters and Rahaman *et al*. [38] in Sundarbans mangroves; Sivaraj *et al*. [39] in Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system.

In the present study, the maximum pH of 8.23 was recorded during summer and minimum of 7.1 was recorded during wet season. Hydrogen-ion concentration was found to vary among

**Figure 7.** Canonical correspondence analysis drawn for the correlation between benthic faunal composition and environmental variables in five mangrove ecosystems.


**Table 5.** Harmonic rank correlations (ρω) between faunal and environmental similarity matrices in various stations (mangroves).

the five mangroves and was alkaline throughout the study period. Higher pH observed in summer season could be attributed to the removal of CO2 by the photosynthetic organisms and the lower pH during monsoon season could be due to the dilution of saline water with fresh-water inflow from nearby sources as has been reported by Murugesan *et al*. [37].

Coming to dissolved oxygen, (DO) it varied from 3.80 to 7.27 mg/l with the maximum (7.27) during wet season and minimum 3.80 was recorded during dry season. All the stations of various mangroves showed the similar seasonal pattern in the distribution of dissolved oxygen with minimum value during dry months and maximum during wetter months. The relatively low DO values observed in the summer are attributed to the entry of high saline waters in to the mangroves, as well as fluctuations in temperature and salinity, which in turn affect the dissolution of oxygen [40]. This fact is in close agreement with earlier studies done elsewhere [38, 41].

Mangrove ecosystems are able to store large amounts of organic carbon [42]. In the present study, the maximum TOC of 16.52mgC/g was recorded at SUN-12 during dry season and minimum of 6.45mgC/g was recorded at COR-13 during wet season. As noticed in temperature and salinity, all the stations showed similar seasonal pattern in the distribution of organic carbon content with maximum value during dry months and minimum during wet months. Similarly, Hasrizal *et al*. [43] studied the seasonal changes of organic carbon content in the surface sediments of the Terengganu near shore coastal area of Malaysia with maximum value during postmonsoon and summer seasons and they also opined that the sediment characteristics and the organic carbon concentration are largely influenced by southwest and northeast monsoons.

In the present study, total nitrogen content showed striking seasonal variation with maximum TN (5.98 μg/g) was recorded during monsoon and minimum (3.48 μg/g) during dry season. Likewise, the maximum TP (1.73 μg/g) was recorded during wet season and minimum (0.88 μg/g) was recorded during dry season. The maximum values in wet season might be attributed to the higher amount of rainfall and river runoff as has been reported earlier by Sreedevi [44]. Similarly Kamykowski and Zentoura [45] also opined that the accumulation of nitrite in the near bottom samples depends on diffusion from sediments as well as mechanisms such as nitrification near the sediment and water interface. Similar observation was made by Gouda and Panigrahy [46] in Rushikulya estuary, Orissa, east coast of India. Manikoth and Salih [47] recorded high nitrogen concentration during monsoon season in the Vembanad estuarine complex, southwest coast of India. Joshi and Ghose [48] studied nutrient

**Figure 7.** Canonical correspondence analysis drawn for the correlation between benthic faunal composition and

combinations are given in **Table 5**. In this case, as evidenced in CCA plot, salinity, silt, clay, TOC, total nitrogen and total phosphorous were featured as the major variables explaining the best match (0.90) with faunal distributions followed by pH, TOC and total nitrogen were also got manifested in the second best variable combinations in determining the faunal distri-

Composition of benthic communities and their role varies from one habitat to another depending upon the water and sediment characteristics of the mangroves. The distribution of mangrove fauna in relation to water quality has been described quantitatively [33]. Among the five mangroves, the maximum temperature was recorded at Muthupettai during summer and minimum in Sundarbans, which could be ascribed to the effect of atmospheric cooling. Similar conclusion was also drawn earlier by Bolam *et al*. [34] in UK continental shelf waters and in shelf waters of southeast coast of India [35]. The temperature levels recorded presently are comparable with the study made by Kathiresan [36] who reported the temperature range

The high salinity values observed during summer compared to other seasons is might be due to low rain fall and the rise in atmospheric temperature resulting in high evaporation rate of the surface water. Similar seasonal variations were observed by Manokaran [35] in the inshore waters of Parangipettai and Cuddalore; by Murugesan *et al*. [37] in Tuticorin coastal waters and Rahaman *et al*. [38] in Sundarbans mangroves; Sivaraj *et al*. [39] in Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system.

In the present study, the maximum pH of 8.23 was recorded during summer and minimum of 7.1 was recorded during wet season. Hydrogen-ion concentration was found to vary among

environmental variables in five mangrove ecosystems.

bution in the mangrove ecosystems.

120 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**2.6. Discussion**

of 28–31°C.

characteristics of Sundarban mangroves. Martin *et al*. [49] studied on the benthic fauna in a tropical estuary of Cochin backwaters and Sekar *et al*. [50] in Pichavaram and Muthupettai mangroves in relation to nutrient characteristics.

macrofauna is governed by various environmental variables such as temperature, salinity, sediment type, organic carbon level in the sediments besides tidal action [66]. Monsoon months registered low density followed by gradual increase in postmonsoon and peaked during summer

The population density recorded presently is comparable with the following studies made in the back waters along the east and west coasts of India: Harkantra *et al*. [66] (50–3175

Muthupettai mangroves; Sivaraj [41] (254 to 6124 nos. m2 and 654 and 7845 nos. m−2) in

In the present study, a marked seasonal variation in the Shannon diversity was found with minimum diversity value (3.018) in Muthupettai mangroves during monsoon and maximum (4.476) in Sundarbans mangroves during dry season. Similar range of diversity values was recorded earlier in Vellar estuary [71]. Shillabeer and Tapp [72] stated that the estuarine and mangrove environment is far more dynamic than the fully marine and therefore, there may

As in the species diversity, species richness values were also low during wet season and high during dry season, which might be due to adaptability to high salinities at high temperatures than at low temperatures [73], as a result more marine forms are able to flourish in tropical waters [74]. The trend with respect to richness values of the present study is evident in the studies made by Raveenthiranath Nehru [14] in Coleroon estuary and Sebastin Raja [14] in Sunnambar estuary; Palanisamy and Anisa [51] in Pondicherry coastal waters. With respect to evenness (J'), it largely

With respect to classification and ordination techniques, the stations of marine zone (seaward) grouped at the highest level of similarity followed by stations of core mangrove zone and stations of fresh water zone (landward zone) grouped to form clusters based on the species composition. The physicochemical parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN in landward zone and core mangrove were found relatively similar and it highly influenced the benthic faunal diversity, while in seaward zone the trends of the same parameters varied significantly and it didn't affect the distribution and diversity of the benthic fauna. The MDS results also largely followed the trend of dendrogram. Investigation similar to this was carried out by Sivaraj *et al*. [41] who made a comparative study of Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system using macrobenthic communities through cluster analysis. The stress value observed

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was done to ascertain the relationship between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density. Similar combinations of environmental variables influencing benthic faunal distribution was reported in Nandgaon coastal waters, Maharashtra, India [56]; Sivaraj *et al*. [41] in Vellar-Coleroon estuarine

) in Vellar estuary; Muthuvelu [71] (40–8028 and 40–8328) in Parangipettai

) in Coleroon estuary; Murugan [68] (80–3142

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

) and Murugesan [70]

123

) in Pichavaram and

season, which are in agreement with the results of Sekar *et al*. [38, 50].

) in Uppanar backwaters; Thangaraj [69] (50–2172 nos/m2

and Cuddalore coastal waters; Sekar *et al*. [50] (78–119 ind./1 cm2

be a wide range of variations in the benthic diversity of an estuary.

); Jegadeesan [67] (158–4138 nos. m2

nos. m<sup>2</sup>

nos. m<sup>2</sup>

(635–5125 nos. m2

Vellar and Coleroon estuary.

followed the trend of species diversity.

in MDS plot is comparable with the studies [75–77].

Studies on the sediment composition are of paramount importance in benthic ecology. The comprehensive knowledge on the sediment composition is a pre-requisite and inevitable one to understand the benthic ecology [51]. The nature of the substratum has a profound effect on the bottom fauna and conversely, the benthos can influence the sediment characteristics. Gray and Snelgrove and Butman [52, 53] posted the information regarding the relationship between sediments and benthic organisms. They also pointed out that the grain size distribution of the sediments is of great importance in determining the distribution of benthos. Snelgrove and Butman [53] also concluded that the relationship was a complex interaction of the seabed flow and sediment characteristics and that could explain the distribution of organisms across all sedimentary habitats.

The correlation between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density for the surveyed five mangrove ecosystem showed that the environmental parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN were showing strong correlation with the benthic faunal diversity, while other parameters like water temperature, depth, sand and DO had weak correlation with the benthic faunal distribution. Similar variables combination were reported earlier by Sundaray *et al.* in Mahanadi River [54]; Satheeshkumar *et al*. [55] in Pondicherry coast; Sivaraj *et al*. [56] in Nandgoan coastal waters; Sivaraj *et al*. [41] in Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system.

Percentage contribution of benthic species composition of the present study showed in the order of polychaetes, crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods and groups 'others'. The dominance of polychaetes in terms of density and species composition in diverse ecological niche is due to their high degree of adaptability to a wide range of environmental factors. Similar preponderance of polychaetes has been observed earlier by Kumar [32] in Cochin backwaters; Prabha Devi [57] in Coleroon estuary, and Ansari *et al*. [58], in Mandovi estuary. Athalye and Gokhale [59] reported the dominance of polychaetes followed by gastropods, bivalves, and hermit crabs in Thane creek, Mumbai. The dominance of polychaetes might be due to the fact that firm substrate provided by roots and dense canopy of the mangroves which also provide protection against desiccation [60]. Similar dominance of polychaetes was also reported in other tropical waters [61, 62].

In a study conducted by Harkantra and Parulekar [63], polychaetes outnumbered the other faunal groups where the substratum was mainly composed of mud. Bhat and Neelakandan [64] also observed maximum number of polychaetes in the clayey-silty substratum, the fine particles of mud and clay substratum, which retains more water than coarse particles (sand and gravel). Such fine deposits or particles are commonly composed of decomposable organic constituents. As the organic content represents an important direct or indirect food source for benthic organisms, elevated organic matter may result in an enhancement of benthic faunal diversity [52, 65]. Therefore, it is clear that polychaetes abound in finer sediments as noticed by the above referred researchers. This fact also corroborates the results of present study. The population density of macrofauna is governed by various environmental variables such as temperature, salinity, sediment type, organic carbon level in the sediments besides tidal action [66]. Monsoon months registered low density followed by gradual increase in postmonsoon and peaked during summer season, which are in agreement with the results of Sekar *et al*. [38, 50].

characteristics of Sundarban mangroves. Martin *et al*. [49] studied on the benthic fauna in a tropical estuary of Cochin backwaters and Sekar *et al*. [50] in Pichavaram and Muthupettai

Studies on the sediment composition are of paramount importance in benthic ecology. The comprehensive knowledge on the sediment composition is a pre-requisite and inevitable one to understand the benthic ecology [51]. The nature of the substratum has a profound effect on the bottom fauna and conversely, the benthos can influence the sediment characteristics. Gray and Snelgrove and Butman [52, 53] posted the information regarding the relationship between sediments and benthic organisms. They also pointed out that the grain size distribution of the sediments is of great importance in determining the distribution of benthos. Snelgrove and Butman [53] also concluded that the relationship was a complex interaction of the seabed flow and sediment characteristics and that could explain the distribution of organ-

The correlation between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density for the surveyed five mangrove ecosystem showed that the environmental parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN were showing strong correlation with the benthic faunal diversity, while other parameters like water temperature, depth, sand and DO had weak correlation with the benthic faunal distribution. Similar variables combination were reported earlier by Sundaray *et al.* in Mahanadi River [54]; Satheeshkumar *et al*. [55] in Pondicherry coast; Sivaraj *et al*. [56] in Nandgoan coastal waters; Sivaraj *et al*. [41] in Vellar-

Percentage contribution of benthic species composition of the present study showed in the order of polychaetes, crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods and groups 'others'. The dominance of polychaetes in terms of density and species composition in diverse ecological niche is due to their high degree of adaptability to a wide range of environmental factors. Similar preponderance of polychaetes has been observed earlier by Kumar [32] in Cochin backwaters; Prabha Devi [57] in Coleroon estuary, and Ansari *et al*. [58], in Mandovi estuary. Athalye and Gokhale [59] reported the dominance of polychaetes followed by gastropods, bivalves, and hermit crabs in Thane creek, Mumbai. The dominance of polychaetes might be due to the fact that firm substrate provided by roots and dense canopy of the mangroves which also provide protection against desiccation [60]. Similar dominance of polychaetes was also reported in

In a study conducted by Harkantra and Parulekar [63], polychaetes outnumbered the other faunal groups where the substratum was mainly composed of mud. Bhat and Neelakandan [64] also observed maximum number of polychaetes in the clayey-silty substratum, the fine particles of mud and clay substratum, which retains more water than coarse particles (sand and gravel). Such fine deposits or particles are commonly composed of decomposable organic constituents. As the organic content represents an important direct or indirect food source for benthic organisms, elevated organic matter may result in an enhancement of benthic faunal diversity [52, 65]. Therefore, it is clear that polychaetes abound in finer sediments as noticed by the above referred researchers. This fact also corroborates the results of present study. The population density of

mangroves in relation to nutrient characteristics.

122 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

isms across all sedimentary habitats.

Coleroon estuarine system.

other tropical waters [61, 62].

The population density recorded presently is comparable with the following studies made in the back waters along the east and west coasts of India: Harkantra *et al*. [66] (50–3175 nos. m<sup>2</sup> ); Jegadeesan [67] (158–4138 nos. m2 ) in Coleroon estuary; Murugan [68] (80–3142 nos. m<sup>2</sup> ) in Uppanar backwaters; Thangaraj [69] (50–2172 nos/m2 ) and Murugesan [70] (635–5125 nos. m2 ) in Vellar estuary; Muthuvelu [71] (40–8028 and 40–8328) in Parangipettai and Cuddalore coastal waters; Sekar *et al*. [50] (78–119 ind./1 cm2 ) in Pichavaram and Muthupettai mangroves; Sivaraj [41] (254 to 6124 nos. m2 and 654 and 7845 nos. m−2) in Vellar and Coleroon estuary.

In the present study, a marked seasonal variation in the Shannon diversity was found with minimum diversity value (3.018) in Muthupettai mangroves during monsoon and maximum (4.476) in Sundarbans mangroves during dry season. Similar range of diversity values was recorded earlier in Vellar estuary [71]. Shillabeer and Tapp [72] stated that the estuarine and mangrove environment is far more dynamic than the fully marine and therefore, there may be a wide range of variations in the benthic diversity of an estuary.

As in the species diversity, species richness values were also low during wet season and high during dry season, which might be due to adaptability to high salinities at high temperatures than at low temperatures [73], as a result more marine forms are able to flourish in tropical waters [74]. The trend with respect to richness values of the present study is evident in the studies made by Raveenthiranath Nehru [14] in Coleroon estuary and Sebastin Raja [14] in Sunnambar estuary; Palanisamy and Anisa [51] in Pondicherry coastal waters. With respect to evenness (J'), it largely followed the trend of species diversity.

With respect to classification and ordination techniques, the stations of marine zone (seaward) grouped at the highest level of similarity followed by stations of core mangrove zone and stations of fresh water zone (landward zone) grouped to form clusters based on the species composition. The physicochemical parameters such as salinity, Silt, Clay, TOC, TP and TN in landward zone and core mangrove were found relatively similar and it highly influenced the benthic faunal diversity, while in seaward zone the trends of the same parameters varied significantly and it didn't affect the distribution and diversity of the benthic fauna. The MDS results also largely followed the trend of dendrogram. Investigation similar to this was carried out by Sivaraj *et al*. [41] who made a comparative study of Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system using macrobenthic communities through cluster analysis. The stress value observed in MDS plot is comparable with the studies [75–77].

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was done to ascertain the relationship between the physicochemical parameters and benthic faunal density. Similar combinations of environmental variables influencing benthic faunal distribution was reported in Nandgaon coastal waters, Maharashtra, India [56]; Sivaraj *et al*. [41] in Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system. This fact was further confirmed through BIO-ENV, which yielded the combinations of six environmental entities (salinity–silt–clay–TOC–TN–TP) as best match 'defining' the faunal distributions. The associated coefficient of environmental to biotic similarity was 0.90. True to this, studies [39, 71] reported the similar combinations of environmental variables influencing the benthic faunal distribution. Clarke and Ainsworth [62] also reported the organic carbon-sediment particle size, to constitute the best match explaining the distribution of meiobenthic organisms. Similarly, Mackie *et al*. [78, 79] reported the combination as silt-clay-organic carbon forming the best match in explaining the faunal distribution. The combinations recognized in the above referred studies corroborate the results of the present study.

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

Gopalan Mahadevan

**References**

this work forms a part of an MoEF & CC funded project.

\*Address all correspondence to: pmurugesaan74@gmail.com

University, Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu, India

Lak. Thailand: 2007. p. 213

Ecology and Biogeography. 2011;**20**(1):154-159

The authors are thankful to the Director and Dean, CAS in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, for encouragement and facilities provided. We gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Environment Forests & Climate Change, Govt. of India, for financial support as

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

125

Perumal Murugesan\*, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Annamalai

in marine biology. 2001;**40**:81-251. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2881(01)40003-4

Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 2007. 978-0-19-856870-4

Plants of the Neotropics. 2009. <www.kew.org/neotropikey>

[1] Kathiresan K, Bingham BL. Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances

[2] Tomlinson PB. Handbook of the botany of mangroves. Cambridge Tropical Biology Series. Cambridge, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press; 1986. 413 p

[3] Hogarth PJ. Handbook of the Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses. 2nd ed. United

[4] Prance GT. Neotropical Rhizophoraceae. In: Milliken W, Klitgård B, Baracat A, editors. (2009 Onwards),Neotropikey Interactive Key and Information Resources for Flowering

[5] Spalding M, Kainume M, Collins L. Handbook on world atlas of mangroves. The Nature

[6] FAO. Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami: What role for forests and trees? In: Proceedings of the Regional Workshop; 28-31 August 2006; Khao

[7] Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Duke N. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global

Conservancy. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems. 2010:1-304

Comparing our own data with the studies made elsewhere in mangroves of other Asian countries, a few inferences could be drawn. In our study, as many as 68 species of polychaetes were recorded from 5 mangrove ecosystems of the present study. The density and number of species recorded presently is comparable with the works carried out in mangroves of other Asian countries barring a few variations in their density and diversity which might be due to the dynamic nature of the mangrove environment. Shillabeer and Tapp [72] stated that the mangrove environment is far more dynamic than the fully marine and therefore, there is every possibility in the variations in the occurrence of species. Similarly, there was no pronounced variation with respect to commonality in the species occurrence between our data and data of others. With regard to representation of polychaete families, by and large the representatives from Errant polychaetes were found to outnumber compared to sedentary counterparts. The similar dominance of errant polychaetes could be seen invariably in the works done in the mangroves of other Asian countries.

### **3. Conclusion**

Based on the foregoing account, it is concluded that the present study yielded quite a good amount of information on the benthic biodiversity in general and polychaete taxonomy in particular in the mangroves of east coast of India. As there was no comprehensive report on the polychaetes of mangroves of east coast of India, comparison was done only based on the available sporadic reports and thus a clear –cut inference could not be drawn.

On the other hand, studies related to taxonomy of benthic fauna is limited as the researchers worldwide did not evince much interest in this line besides the enrolment of a new generation of benthic taxonomists has also been poor in the recent past. There are several reasons for this: (i) indifferent attitudes, both in society and educational systems, and (ii) organisms that are "invisible" from the perspective of immediate economic and medical interest to man and more importantly poor funding from the Government. To achieve this, an intensive collaboration of benthic researchers among the Asian countries is need of the hour, as it will throw an important beam of light on the Polychaete taxonomy in the mangroves with a view to formulate management strategies and also to arrive at meaningful conclusions for the policy makers.

### **Acknowledgements**

system. This fact was further confirmed through BIO-ENV, which yielded the combinations of six environmental entities (salinity–silt–clay–TOC–TN–TP) as best match 'defining' the faunal distributions. The associated coefficient of environmental to biotic similarity was 0.90. True to this, studies [39, 71] reported the similar combinations of environmental variables influencing the benthic faunal distribution. Clarke and Ainsworth [62] also reported the organic carbon-sediment particle size, to constitute the best match explaining the distribution of meiobenthic organisms. Similarly, Mackie *et al*. [78, 79] reported the combination as silt-clay-organic carbon forming the best match in explaining the faunal distribution. The combinations recognized in the above referred studies corroborate the results of the

Comparing our own data with the studies made elsewhere in mangroves of other Asian countries, a few inferences could be drawn. In our study, as many as 68 species of polychaetes were recorded from 5 mangrove ecosystems of the present study. The density and number of species recorded presently is comparable with the works carried out in mangroves of other Asian countries barring a few variations in their density and diversity which might be due to the dynamic nature of the mangrove environment. Shillabeer and Tapp [72] stated that the mangrove environment is far more dynamic than the fully marine and therefore, there is every possibility in the variations in the occurrence of species. Similarly, there was no pronounced variation with respect to commonality in the species occurrence between our data and data of others. With regard to representation of polychaete families, by and large the representatives from Errant polychaetes were found to outnumber compared to sedentary counterparts. The similar dominance of errant polychaetes could be seen invariably in the works done in the

Based on the foregoing account, it is concluded that the present study yielded quite a good amount of information on the benthic biodiversity in general and polychaete taxonomy in particular in the mangroves of east coast of India. As there was no comprehensive report on the polychaetes of mangroves of east coast of India, comparison was done only based on the

On the other hand, studies related to taxonomy of benthic fauna is limited as the researchers worldwide did not evince much interest in this line besides the enrolment of a new generation of benthic taxonomists has also been poor in the recent past. There are several reasons for this: (i) indifferent attitudes, both in society and educational systems, and (ii) organisms that are "invisible" from the perspective of immediate economic and medical interest to man and more importantly poor funding from the Government. To achieve this, an intensive collaboration of benthic researchers among the Asian countries is need of the hour, as it will throw an important beam of light on the Polychaete taxonomy in the mangroves with a view to formulate management strategies and also to arrive at meaningful conclusions for the policy makers.

available sporadic reports and thus a clear –cut inference could not be drawn.

present study.

124 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

mangroves of other Asian countries.

**3. Conclusion**

The authors are thankful to the Director and Dean, CAS in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, for encouragement and facilities provided. We gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Environment Forests & Climate Change, Govt. of India, for financial support as this work forms a part of an MoEF & CC funded project.

### **Author details**

Perumal Murugesan\*, Palanivel Partha Sarathy, Samikkannu Muthuvelu and Gopalan Mahadevan

\*Address all correspondence to: pmurugesaan74@gmail.com

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Faculty of Marine Sciences, Annamalai University, Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu, India

### **References**


[8] Mathew G, Jeyabaskaran R, Prema D. Mangrove ecosystems in India and their conservation. In: Coastal Fishery Resources in India-Conservation and Sustainable Utilization. 2010. pp. 186-196

[24] Clark KR, Gorley RN. Primer v7: User Mannual/Tutorial. Plymouth: Primer-E; 2006. p. 182 [25] Shannon CE, Wiener W. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana: University

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

127

[26] Margalef R. Information theory in ecology. International Journal of General Systems.

[27] Pielou EC. The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. Journal

[28] Shepard RN. The analysis of proximaties: Multidimensional scaling with an unknown

[29] Kruskal JB. Multidimensional scaling by optimising goodness of fit to a nonmetric

[30] TerBraak CJF. Canonical correspondence analysis: A new eigenvector technique for mul-

[31] Leps J, Šmilauer P. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data Using Canoco. Cambridge:

[32] Kumar RS. Macro benthos in the mangrove ecosystem of cochin backwaters, Kerala

[33] Guerreiro J, Freitas S, Pereira PJ, Paula MA. Sediment macrobenthos of mangrove flats at

[34] Bolam SG, Barrio-Frojan CRS, Eggleton JD. Macrofaunal production along the U. K con-

[35] Manokaran S. Diversity and Trophic Relationship of Shelf Macrobenthos of Southeast

[36] Kathiresan K. A review of studies on Pichavaram mangrove, Southeast India. Hydro-

[37] Murugesan P, Muniasamy M, Muthuvelu S, Vijayalakshmi S, Balasubramanian T. Utility of benthic diversity in assessing the health of an ecosystem. Indian Journal of Marine Science.

[38] Rahaman SH, Lipton S, Rahaman M, Ghosh AK, Islam S. Nutrient dynamics in the Sundarbans mangrove estuarine system of Bangladesh under different weather and tidal

[39] Sivaraj S. Studies on Polychaetes of Vellar-Coleroon Estuarine Complex: Biodiversity, Molecular Taxonomy and Ecological Assessment (AMBI Indices) [Thesis]. India: Annamalai

[40] Vijayakumar S, Rajesh KM, Mridula RM, Hariharan V. Seasonal distribution and behavior of nutrients with reference to tidal rhythm in the Mulki estuary, southwest coast of

India. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India. 2000;**42**:21-31

cycles. Ecological Processes. 2013;**2**:29. DOI: 10.1186/2192-1709-2-29

(southwest coast of India). Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1995;**24**:56-61

Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Cahiers de Biologie Marine. 1996;**37**:309-327

of Ilinois. Press; 1949

of Theoretical Biology. 1966;**13**:131-144

hypothesis. Pscyhometrika. 1964;**29**:1-27

Cambridge University Press; 2003

biologia. 2000;**430**(1-3):185-205

2011;**40**:783-793

University; 2014

distance function. Phychometrika. 1962;**27**:125-140

tivariate direct gradient analysis. Ecology. 1986;**67**:1167-1179

tinental shelf. Journal of Sea Research. 2010;**64**:166-179

Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 2011

1958;**3**:36-71


[24] Clark KR, Gorley RN. Primer v7: User Mannual/Tutorial. Plymouth: Primer-E; 2006. p. 182

[8] Mathew G, Jeyabaskaran R, Prema D. Mangrove ecosystems in India and their conservation. In: Coastal Fishery Resources in India-Conservation and Sustainable Utilization. 2010.

[9] Gopal B, Krishnamurthy K.Handbook on wetlands of South Asia. In: Wetlands of the World: Inventory, Ecology and Management. Vol. I. Netherlands: Springer; 1993. pp. 345-414

[10] Jennerjahn TC, Ittekkot V. Relevance of mangroves for the production and deposition of organic matter along tropical continental margins. Die Naturwissenschaften. 2002;**89**(1):

[11] Dittmar T, Hertkorn N, Kattner G, Lara RJ. Mangroves, a major source of dissolved

[12] Dittmann S. Abundance and distribution of small infauna in mangroves of Missionary Bay, North Queensland, Australia. Revista de Biología Tropical. 2001;**49**(2):535-544

[13] Kathiresan K, Rajendran N. Mangrove ecosystems of the Indian Ocean region. Indian

[14] Raveenthiranath N. Ecology of Macrobenthos in and around Mahandrapalli Region of Coleroon Estuary, Southeast Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 1990

[15] Shou L, Huang Y, Zeng J, Gao A, Liao Y, Chen Q. Seasonal changes of macro-benthos distribution and diversity in Zhoushan Sea area. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management.

[16] Kumar RS. Biomass, horizontal zonation and vertical stratification of polychaete fauna in the littoral sediment of cochin estuarine mangrove habitat, south west coast of India.

[17] Markert BA, Breure AM. In: Zechmeister HG, editor. Bioindicators & Biomonitors. 2nd

[18] Strickland JDH, Parsons TR. A practical handbook of seawater analysis. In: The Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. 2nd ed. Vol. 167. 1986. 310 p

[19] Menzel DW, Corwin N. The measurement of total phosphorus in seawater based on the liberation of organically bound fractions by persulfate oxidation. Limnology and

[20] El Wakeel SK, Riley JP. The determination of organic carbon in marine muds. ICES

[21] Mackie ASY. Adercodon pleijeli gen. Et sp. nov. (Polychaeta, Ampharetidae) from the Mediterranean Sea. Mémoires du Muséum national D'histoire naturelle. 1994;**162**:243-250

[22] Fauvel P. The Fauna of India Including Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma and Malaya. Annelida:

[23] Day JH. A Monograph on the Polychaeta of Southern Africa. Part II Sedentaria. London:

organic carbon to the oceans. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 2006;**20**(1):1-7

Journal of Marine Sciences. 2005;**34**(1):104-113

Indian Journal of Marine Sciences. 2002;**31**(2):100-107

ed. Oxford, UK: Elsevier; 2004. p. 997

Oceanography. 1965;**10**(2):280-282

Journal of Marine Science. 1956;**22**:180-183

Polychaeta. Allahabad: The Indian Press, Ltd.; 1953. p. 507

British Museum of Natural History; 1967. pp. 459-878

pp. 186-196

126 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

23-30

2009;**12**(1):110-115


[41] Sivaraj S, Murugesan P, Silambarasan A, Preetha Mini Jose HM, Bharathidasan V. AMBI indices and multivariate approach to assess the ecological health of Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system undergoing various human activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2015;**100**(1):334-343. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.08.028

[55] Satheeshkumar P, Manjusha U, Pillai NGK. Conservation of mangrove forest covers in

Diversity and Distribution of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78332

129

[56] Sivaraj S, Murugesan P, Muthuvelu S, Vivekanandan KE, Vijayalakshmi S. AMBI and M-AMBI indices as a robust tool for assessing the effluent stressed ecosystem in Nandgaon coastal waters, Maharashtra, India. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2014;**146**:60-67

[57] Prabha DL. Environmental Inventory of Tidal and Gradient Zones of Coleroon Estuary,

[58] Ansari ZA, Ingole BS, Parulekar AH. Effect of high organic enrichment of benthic polychaete population in an estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1986;**17**(8):361-365

[59] Athalye RP, Gokhale KS. Macrobenthos from the mudflats of thane creek, Maharashtra,

[60] Raveenthiranaath R. Ecology of Macrobenthos in and around Mahendrapalli Region of Coleroon Estuary, Southeast Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 1990

[61] Kumar RS. Biodiversity and affinity of polychaetous annelids within the mangrove ecosystem of indo-Pacific region. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India.

[62] Muthuvelu S, Murugesan P, Muniasamy M, Vijayalakshmi S, Balasubramanian T. Changes in benthic macrofaunal assemblages in relation to bottom trawling in Cuddalore and Parangipettai coastal waters, southeast coast of India. Ocean Science Journal. 2013;**48**(2):

[63] Harkantra SN, Parulekar AH. Benthos off cochin, southwest coast of India. Indian Jornal

[64] Bhat UG, Neelakantan B. Environmental impact on the macrobenthos distribution of Kali estuary, Karwar, central west coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1988;**17**:

[65] Meksumpun C, Meksumpun S. Polychaete–sediment relations in Rayong, Thailand.

[66] Maurer DL, Keck RT, Tinsman JC, Leathem WA, Wethe CA. Vertical migration of benthos in simulated dredged material overburdens. In: Marine Benthos. Vol. I. Delaware Univ Lewes Coll Of Marine Studies; Tech Report D-78-35. US Army Engineer Water-ways

[67] Jegadeesan P. Studies on Environmental Inventory of the Marine Zone of Coleroon Estuary and Inshore Waters of Pazhayar, Southeast Coast of India[Thesis]. India:

[68] Murugan A. Ecobiology of Cuddalore, Uppanar Backwaters, Southeast Coast of India

Experiment Station; 1978. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a058725.pdf

Southeast Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 1994

India. Journal-Bombay Natural History Society. 1998;**95**:258-266

Kochi coast. Current Science. 2011;**101**(11):1400

2001;**43**(1-2):206-213

of Marine Science. 1987;**16**:57-59

Annamalai University; 1986

Environmental Pollution. 1999;**105**(3):447-456

[Thesis]. India: Annamali Universtiy; 1989

183-195

134-142


[55] Satheeshkumar P, Manjusha U, Pillai NGK. Conservation of mangrove forest covers in Kochi coast. Current Science. 2011;**101**(11):1400

[41] Sivaraj S, Murugesan P, Silambarasan A, Preetha Mini Jose HM, Bharathidasan V. AMBI indices and multivariate approach to assess the ecological health of Vellar-Coleroon estuarine system undergoing various human activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin.

[42] Nagelkerken IS, Blaber JM, Boullin S, Green P, Haywood M, Kirton LG, Meynecke JO, Pawlik J, Penrose HM, Sasikumar A, Somerfield PJ. The habitat function of mangroves

[43] Hasrizal SB, Kamaruzzaman Y, Sakri I, Ong MC, Noor Azharm MS. Seasonal distribution of organic carbon in the surface sediments of the Terengganu near shore coastal

[44] Sreedevi C. Impact of Bottom Trawling on Benthic Ecology along the Coastal Waters of Kerala with Special Reference to Meiofauna [Thesis]. India: Kerala University; 2008.

[45] Kamykowski D, Zentoura S. Spatio-temporal and process oriented views of nitrite in the world ocean as recorded in the historical data set. Deep-Sea Research. 1991;**38**(4):445-464

[46] Gouda R, Panigrahy RC. Seasonal distribution and behavior of nitrite and phosphate in Rushikulya estuary, east coast of India. Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1995;**24**:233-235

[47] Manikoth S, Salih KYM. Distribution characteristics of nutrients in the estuarine com-

[48] Joshi H, Ghose M. Forest structure and species distribution along soil salinity and pH gradient in mangrove swamps of the Sundarbans. Tropical Ecology. 2003;**44**(2):195-204

[49] Martin GD, Nisha PA, Balachandran KK, Madhu NV, Nair M, Shaiju P, Joseph T, Srinivas K, Gupta GVM. Eutrophication induced changes in benthic community structure of a flowrestricted tropical estuary (Cochin backwaters), India. Environmental Monitoring and

[50] Sekar V, Prithiviraj N, Savarimuthu A, Rajasekaran R. Macrofaunal assemblage on two mangrove ecosystems, southeast coast of India. International Journal of Recent Scientific

[51] Sebastin RS. Studies on the Ecology of Benthos in Sunnambar Estuary, Pondicherry,

[52] Gray JS. The ecology of marine sediment. In: An Introduction to the Structure and Function of Benthic Communities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1981 [53] Snelgrove PVR, Butman CA. Animal-sediment relationships revisited: Cause versus effects. Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review. 1994;**32**:111-177

[54] Sundaray SK, Panda UC, Nayak BB, Bhatta D. Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variation in water quality of the Mahanadi Riverestuarine system (India)-a case study. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 2006;

Southeast Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 1990

for terrestrial and marine fauna: A review. Aquatic Botany. 2008;**89**:155-185

area. American Journal of Environmental Science. 2009;**5**(1):111-115

plex of cochin. Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1974;**3**:125-130

Assessment. 2011;**176**(1-4):427-438

Research. 2013;**4**(5):530-535

**28**(4):317-330

2015;**100**(1):334-343. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.08.028

pp. 1-324

128 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function


[69] Thangaraja GS. Ecobiology of the Marine Zone of the Vellar Estuary [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 1984

**Section 5**

**Mangrove Geochemistry**


**Mangrove Geochemistry**

[69] Thangaraja GS. Ecobiology of the Marine Zone of the Vellar Estuary [Thesis]. India:

[70] Murugesan P. Benthic Biodiversity in the Marine Zone of Vellar Estuary (Southeast

[71] Muthuvelu S. Impact of Bottom Trawling on Infaunal Communities of Inshore Waters of Parangipettai and Cuddalore, Southeast Coast of India [Thesis]. India: Annamalai

[72] Shillabeer N, Tapp JF. Improvements in the benthic fauna of the tees estuary after a period of reduced pollution loadings. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1989;**20**:119-123

[73] Sanders HL. Marine benthic diversity: A comparative study. The American Naturalist.

[74] Panikkar NK. Influence of temperature on osmotic behaviour of some crustacea and its

[75] Palanisamy SK, Anisa BK. The distribution and diversity of benthic macroinvertebrate

[76] Ajmal Khan S, Raffi SM, Lyla PS. Brachyuran crab diversity in natural (Pichavaram) and artificially developed mangroves (Vellar estuary). Current Science. 2005;**88**(8):1316-1324

[77] Tolhurst TJ, Chapman MG. Patterns in biogeochemical properties of sediments and benthic animals among different habitats in mangrove forests. Austral Ecology. 2007;**32**:

[78] Mackie ASY, Oliver PG, Rees EIS. Benthic biodiversity in the southern Irish Sea. Studies in marine biodiversity and systematics from the National Museum of Wales. BIOMOR

[79] Mackie ASY, Parmiter C, Tong. Distribution and diversity of polychaeta in the southern

bearing on problems of animal distribution. Nature. 1940;**146**:366

lrish sea. Bulletin Marine Science. 1997;**60**(2):467-481

fauna in Pondicherry mangroves. India. Aquatic Biosystems. 2013;**9**:15

Coast of India) [Thesis]. India: Annamalai University; 2002

Annamalai University; 1984

130 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

University; 2013

1968;**102**(925):243-282

775-788

Reports. 1995;**1**:263

**Chapter 7**

**Provisional chapter**

**Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of**

**Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79142

**Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine Influence: A**

**Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine Influence: A** 

The preservation of mangrove ecosystem requires knowledge on soil Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics, for understanding the requirements for their sustainability and preservation. Seven pedons of mangrove soil, five under fluvial and two under marine influence, located in the Subaé River basin were described and classified. Samples of horizons were collected for physical and chemical analyses, including Pb and Cd. The moist soils were suboxidic, with Eh below 350 mV. The pH of the pedons under fluvial influence ranged from moderately acid to alkaline, and pedons under marine influence was around 7.0. Mangrove soils under fluvial influence were characterized with the highest Pb and Cd concentrations in the pedons, which could be perhaps due to it closeness to the mining company Plumbum, while the lowest Pb concentrations was registered in the pedon furthest from the factory. Because the pedons had at least one metal above the reference level they were considered potentially toxic. The soils were classified as Gleissolos Tiomórficos Órticos (sálicos) sódico neofluvissólico, according to the Brazilian Soil Classification System and as Thiomorphic orthic Gleysol (salic) sodicluvissol (potentially toxic, very poorly drained) according with FAO. The pedon under marine influence was classified in the same subgroup, but the metal concentrations met

**Keywords:** pedogenesis, hydromorphism, heavy metals, contamination, pollution

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Case Study on Subaé River Basin, Bahia, Brazil**

**Case Study on Subaé River Basin, Bahia, Brazil**

Marcela Rebouças Bomfim, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos,

Marcela Rebouças Bomfim, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos,

Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao,

Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao,

and Maria da Conceição de Almeida

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Alyne Araújo da Silva, Claudineia de Souza Souza

Claudineia de Souza Souza and Maria da Conceição de Almeida

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

the acceptable standard.

Oldair Vinhas Costa,

Oldair Vinhas Costa,

Alyne Araújo da Silva,

**Abstract**

#### **Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine Influence: A Case Study on Subaé River Basin, Bahia, Brazil Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine Influence: A Case Study on Subaé River Basin, Bahia, Brazil**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79142

Marcela Rebouças Bomfim, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos, Oldair Vinhas Costa, Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao, Alyne Araújo da Silva, Claudineia de Souza Souza and Maria da Conceição de Almeida Marcela Rebouças Bomfim, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos, Oldair Vinhas Costa, Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao, Alyne Araújo da Silva, Claudineia de Souza Souza and Maria da Conceição de Almeida

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

#### **Abstract**

The preservation of mangrove ecosystem requires knowledge on soil Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics, for understanding the requirements for their sustainability and preservation. Seven pedons of mangrove soil, five under fluvial and two under marine influence, located in the Subaé River basin were described and classified. Samples of horizons were collected for physical and chemical analyses, including Pb and Cd. The moist soils were suboxidic, with Eh below 350 mV. The pH of the pedons under fluvial influence ranged from moderately acid to alkaline, and pedons under marine influence was around 7.0. Mangrove soils under fluvial influence were characterized with the highest Pb and Cd concentrations in the pedons, which could be perhaps due to it closeness to the mining company Plumbum, while the lowest Pb concentrations was registered in the pedon furthest from the factory. Because the pedons had at least one metal above the reference level they were considered potentially toxic. The soils were classified as Gleissolos Tiomórficos Órticos (sálicos) sódico neofluvissólico, according to the Brazilian Soil Classification System and as Thiomorphic orthic Gleysol (salic) sodicluvissol (potentially toxic, very poorly drained) according with FAO. The pedon under marine influence was classified in the same subgroup, but the metal concentrations met the acceptable standard.

**Keywords:** pedogenesis, hydromorphism, heavy metals, contamination, pollution

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1. The mangrove soils**

Mangrove forests are tropical and subtropical ecosystem characterized by the presence of plant species adapted to high temperatures and organic matter content, and fluctuating salinities and oxygen conditions.

materials and energy, and specific processes related to aggradation, salinization, gleization, sulfurization, bioturbation and paludization that result in the formation of different mangrove soils. The local sedimentation processes depends on the geological, geomorphological, climatic and vegetation factors, quantity and quality of the mineral and organic materials fluvio-lacustre and marine deposited of each region [3]. There exist a significant interaction among highland, estuary (physiographic basin), ocean and atmosphere, as a result of local influence and environment specific factors such as climate, relief, and organisms altered formation processes. The sediments deposited in the fluvio-marine plains of calmer regions, over time transform

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

135

Mangroves ecosystems are located in lower landscape environments. The soils formed in mangroves ecosystems are located in lower landscape because of that they are constantly receiving fluvial and marine additions of mineral and organic material to their surface (aggradation) [12]. The sediment accumulation is facilitated by vegetation, especially by mangrove species with complex root system and by flocculating salinity effect that leads to the deposition of fine clay particles carried out by rivers. The rates of sediment deposition in mangrove environments in different part of the world vary according to the characteristics of the local [13]. According to [14] it is difficult to determine the rate of mud sedimentation beneath mangroves the author observed deposition rates from 1 to 8 mm year−1, in different regions. The

The primary contribution of the Mekong tropical delta helped to understand the stratigraphy and history of the formation of mud inland deposits on time scales of centuries and millennia [8]. The sediment accumulation ranges from 0.47 [16] to 10 cm year−1 [8]. The energy of the rivers, ocean waves and currents, downstream relief features, root density of mangrove species, among other factors determines an uneven and unstable sedimentation pattern. The sedimentary or crystalline nature of the rocks occurring in the basins that drain the mangrove environments influence: the mineralogy and the texture of the deposited material [3]; the distribution and extension of quaternary deposits [6, 14, 17]; the distribution of the particle size

The frequent floods in the mangrove soils by marine salt water trigger the process of saliniza-

have high rate of sodium saturation coupled with high salt concentrations [12]. Another effect of constant flooding of mangrove soil by fluvial and marine influence is the reduction of oxygen supply and high biological oxygen demand (BOD). These two factors will result in the formation of an environment with low concentration of oxygen that in turn will influence

Sulfates are abundant in sea water and together with Fe are important elements in the biogeochemical cycles of mangrove areas [3]. For sulfur the combination of high organic matter content, reactive Fe sources and a large quantity of sulfates, readily available, makes the mangrove soils an environment conducive to the occurrence of bacterial reduction process of sulfidization. The oscillations of redox conditions, due to seasonality, plant action, fauna or anthropogenic interventions may result in a more oxidizing condition in the soil, promoting sulfide oxidation (sulfurization) [12]. The reduction of iron forms in mangrove soils leads to

in the marine water many mangrove soils

more common rate of vertical accumulation is close to 5 mm year−1 [15].

of the mangrove soils [18]; and the geomorphology of the coastal region.

tion. Because of the high concentrations of Na+

the chemistry of sulfur and iron.

into soils through pedogenetic process [3, 11].

Mangroves provide ecosystem services of great social, economic and environmental importance. They are nurseries for several species of birds, fish and shellfish; they hold a complex community supporting benthic organisms that live in salt water and, they are sources of substantial part of the proteins (shellfish, crustaceans and fish) consumed or marketed by the riverside communities [1]. Despite their ecologic, social and economic functions, and benefits to coastal communities, mangroves are disappearing worldwide at the rate of 1–2% per year due to industrial development, rapid urbanization, population growth and anthropogenic activities [2].

Geology, oceanography, biology, geomorphology and pedology researchers, among others, classify the mangrove substrate as sediments or soils [3]. Hereafter, the mangrove substrate will be referred to as soil because it meets the criteria used by the Soil Survey Staff [4]. That is, they have the capacity to support life (i.e. microorganisms such as bacteria and macro organisms such as plants), filter water, recycle and purify waste and to provide food for the populations that leave riverside. Mangrove soils occur in coastal environments of tropical and subtropical regions and they are originated from sedimentary material deposited by river and marine actions or from the alteration of the sedimentary substrate (parent material). The sediments are further altered by organisms adapted to flood, anaerobic and salt conditions [3, 5–7].

Mangrove formation in different regions of the globe is related to sedimentation processes occurring in the Quaternary Period, as well as to the relative variations of sea level, in marine regressions and transgressions of the last 8–12 thousand years before the present [3, 7–9].

The textural, physical and geotechnical parameters, clay minerals, and pollen records in sediments from a paleo-delta, in southwest coast of India, throw insights on climate change and environment of deposition during the Holocene. Variations in the textural characteristics of sediments evaluated reveal a change in depositional environment of deltaic facies, apparently from marine to fluvial environment during mid-Holocene marine regression. Further, sand and silt mixture in the upper part of borehole suggests that fluvial environment was influenced by the variation in the intensity of monsoon [10].

With the end of the Holocene, the last transgression began, and the sea drowned the valleys excavated by hydrography and reworked the Pleistocene sediments forming Holocene sediments, which filled lagoons, bays and coastal strands [6]. Evaluation of major delta processes indicates that deceleration in sea-level was the key factor in Holocene delta formation [9].

Once formed, these points and islands sheltered on their inner side protected areas that from lagoons evolved to swamp areas with mangroves [8]. The sediments deposited in the marshy areas underwent to general pedogenic processes of addition, removal, transformation, translocation of materials and energy, and specific processes related to aggradation, salinization, gleization, sulfurization, bioturbation and paludization that result in the formation of different mangrove soils.

**1. Introduction**

activities [2].

**1.1. The mangrove soils**

134 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

ties and oxygen conditions.

Mangrove forests are tropical and subtropical ecosystem characterized by the presence of plant species adapted to high temperatures and organic matter content, and fluctuating salini-

Mangroves provide ecosystem services of great social, economic and environmental importance. They are nurseries for several species of birds, fish and shellfish; they hold a complex community supporting benthic organisms that live in salt water and, they are sources of substantial part of the proteins (shellfish, crustaceans and fish) consumed or marketed by the riverside communities [1]. Despite their ecologic, social and economic functions, and benefits to coastal communities, mangroves are disappearing worldwide at the rate of 1–2% per year due to industrial development, rapid urbanization, population growth and anthropogenic

Geology, oceanography, biology, geomorphology and pedology researchers, among others, classify the mangrove substrate as sediments or soils [3]. Hereafter, the mangrove substrate will be referred to as soil because it meets the criteria used by the Soil Survey Staff [4]. That is, they have the capacity to support life (i.e. microorganisms such as bacteria and macro organisms such as plants), filter water, recycle and purify waste and to provide food for the populations that leave riverside. Mangrove soils occur in coastal environments of tropical and subtropical regions and they are originated from sedimentary material deposited by river and marine actions or from the alteration of the sedimentary substrate (parent material). The sediments are

Mangrove formation in different regions of the globe is related to sedimentation processes occurring in the Quaternary Period, as well as to the relative variations of sea level, in marine regressions and transgressions of the last 8–12 thousand years before the present [3, 7–9].

The textural, physical and geotechnical parameters, clay minerals, and pollen records in sediments from a paleo-delta, in southwest coast of India, throw insights on climate change and environment of deposition during the Holocene. Variations in the textural characteristics of sediments evaluated reveal a change in depositional environment of deltaic facies, apparently from marine to fluvial environment during mid-Holocene marine regression. Further, sand and silt mixture in the upper part of borehole suggests that fluvial environment was influ-

With the end of the Holocene, the last transgression began, and the sea drowned the valleys excavated by hydrography and reworked the Pleistocene sediments forming Holocene sediments, which filled lagoons, bays and coastal strands [6]. Evaluation of major delta processes indicates that deceleration in sea-level was the key factor in Holocene delta formation [9].

Once formed, these points and islands sheltered on their inner side protected areas that from lagoons evolved to swamp areas with mangroves [8]. The sediments deposited in the marshy areas underwent to general pedogenic processes of addition, removal, transformation, translocation of

further altered by organisms adapted to flood, anaerobic and salt conditions [3, 5–7].

enced by the variation in the intensity of monsoon [10].

The local sedimentation processes depends on the geological, geomorphological, climatic and vegetation factors, quantity and quality of the mineral and organic materials fluvio-lacustre and marine deposited of each region [3]. There exist a significant interaction among highland, estuary (physiographic basin), ocean and atmosphere, as a result of local influence and environment specific factors such as climate, relief, and organisms altered formation processes. The sediments deposited in the fluvio-marine plains of calmer regions, over time transform into soils through pedogenetic process [3, 11].

Mangroves ecosystems are located in lower landscape environments. The soils formed in mangroves ecosystems are located in lower landscape because of that they are constantly receiving fluvial and marine additions of mineral and organic material to their surface (aggradation) [12]. The sediment accumulation is facilitated by vegetation, especially by mangrove species with complex root system and by flocculating salinity effect that leads to the deposition of fine clay particles carried out by rivers. The rates of sediment deposition in mangrove environments in different part of the world vary according to the characteristics of the local [13]. According to [14] it is difficult to determine the rate of mud sedimentation beneath mangroves the author observed deposition rates from 1 to 8 mm year−1, in different regions. The more common rate of vertical accumulation is close to 5 mm year−1 [15].

The primary contribution of the Mekong tropical delta helped to understand the stratigraphy and history of the formation of mud inland deposits on time scales of centuries and millennia [8]. The sediment accumulation ranges from 0.47 [16] to 10 cm year−1 [8]. The energy of the rivers, ocean waves and currents, downstream relief features, root density of mangrove species, among other factors determines an uneven and unstable sedimentation pattern. The sedimentary or crystalline nature of the rocks occurring in the basins that drain the mangrove environments influence: the mineralogy and the texture of the deposited material [3]; the distribution and extension of quaternary deposits [6, 14, 17]; the distribution of the particle size of the mangrove soils [18]; and the geomorphology of the coastal region.

The frequent floods in the mangrove soils by marine salt water trigger the process of salinization. Because of the high concentrations of Na+ in the marine water many mangrove soils have high rate of sodium saturation coupled with high salt concentrations [12]. Another effect of constant flooding of mangrove soil by fluvial and marine influence is the reduction of oxygen supply and high biological oxygen demand (BOD). These two factors will result in the formation of an environment with low concentration of oxygen that in turn will influence the chemistry of sulfur and iron.

Sulfates are abundant in sea water and together with Fe are important elements in the biogeochemical cycles of mangrove areas [3]. For sulfur the combination of high organic matter content, reactive Fe sources and a large quantity of sulfates, readily available, makes the mangrove soils an environment conducive to the occurrence of bacterial reduction process of sulfidization. The oscillations of redox conditions, due to seasonality, plant action, fauna or anthropogenic interventions may result in a more oxidizing condition in the soil, promoting sulfide oxidation (sulfurization) [12]. The reduction of iron forms in mangrove soils leads to the formation of a process known as gleização [19]. Moreover, the reduction condition leads to the accumulation of organic material due to the low energy yield from the main mineralization pathway, replacing the aerobic microbial metabolism in a process called Paludization [12]. Also, variation in hydroperiod and soil moisture content affect the amount of organic matter in the sediments [20].

the organic material the accumulation of organic matter increases. The larger organic matter content of mangrove soils influence the status of nutrient in the soil as well as pH and redox

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

137

On the other hand, the distribution of mangrove species along the coast has been attributed to: the eco-physiological response of plants to one or more series of environmental gradients; the combination of factors such as frequency and duration of flooding, substrate flooding, pore water salinity and pore water potential [14] and; the change in the environment deposition during the Holocene, and to neotectonic factors, such as changes in sea level and varied intensity of the southwestern monsoon [10]. Due to this strong interaction and specificities of the estuarine environment, mangroves are considered fragile ecosystems, highly sensitive to changes in the environment, mainly due to anthropic actions, which tend to disrupt the

There are about 50 species of mangroves found in the world adapted to tidal oscillations, temperature, salinity and soil texture. The mangrove species most commonly found are *Rhizophora mangle* (red mangrove), identified by the tangle of aerial roots that promote the exchange of oxygen, *Avicennia germinans* (black mangrove), identified by projections called pneumatophores, projected in the soil surrounding the trunk of the tree and *Laguncularia racemosa* (white mangrove) species that projects salts in its leaves. These species may present high growth rates in soils without nutritional limitations [36]. There is a relationship between the soil characteristics and mangrove species [25, 37]. For instance, *Rhizophora* is found in environments with a more alkaline pH, as well as high levels of N, P and C; *Laguncularia* in soils with sandy loamy

As upland soils, the evaluation of mangrove soils may provide suitable indicators of the macrofaunal and nutrient status [38, 39] as well as the effect of anthropogenic impact as indicated

In spite of the increased awareness of the value and significance, the mangroves are threat-

Given the importance of mangrove forests and the impacts of global climate change and anthropogenic activities on this ecosystem, mangroves should be legally protected however, less than 10% fall into this category [40, 41]. According to the Brazilian Law No. 12.727/2012 of the Forest Code [42] classifies the mangrove forests as Areas of Permanent Preservation. In general, the destruction of these forests is linked to anthropic interests, activities and needs such as industrial demand, population growth, or poor coastal management, which reflect the

Uncontrolled industrialization and urbanization in coastal regions, has damaged the mangrove ecosystem threaten biodiversity, human health [44, 45] and marine life. Heavy metals are considered as anthropogenic pollutants of great impact on mangrove ecosystems [46]. The effect of heavy metals in mangrove environments is worrying because these ecosystems are a nursery for several species (e.g. fish, crabs, oysters), which are consumed and marketed by

ened worldwide by the risk of disappearing, due to economic and social pressure.

alteration, degradation and loss of the natural habitat of several species [43].

texture; and *Avicennia germinans* in environments with lower tidal influence.

by the presence of organic and inorganic contaminants.

**1.3. Impact of anthropogenic activities on mangrove**

potential soils among others [35].

system by modifying the environment.

The high concentration of organic matter in estuarine environments is explained by factors, such as the bioturbation [12] of the local fauna and the contribution of organic material (leaf, branches and roots) from the mangrove vegetation. The concentration of C-organic tend to be higher in the first horizons where there is a greater amount of roots, algae (diatoms) and remains of animal in decomposition [21, 22]. The deposition of these materials associated with the hydromorphism reduces the rate of decomposition of the organic compounds.

#### **1.2. Interaction between mangrove vegetation and soil morphological, chemical and physical characteristics**

Soils of mangrove ecosystems are the result of complex interactions between abiotic factors, such as tidal oscillations and biotic factors as the activities of the species and organisms [23]. Soils provide essential nutrients for mangrove species growth and physical structure for plant anchorage and stability. They also influence wildlife conservation, and balance the environmental condition. The soil type and its morphological, physical, chemical and physicochemical characteristics are resultant of interactions between factors such as topography, climate, hydrodynamic processes, tidal margin and long-term sea level changes. Therefore, mangrove soils have a unique history in any environment [15].

Mangrove soils are generally characterized by reducing conditions and highly variable soil salinity [24, 25]. The physiographical position of mangroves within the estuary influence the soil properties (pH, Eh, electrical conductivity) and composition (clay mineralogy, organic matter and metal concentration) greatly affects soil attributes and environmental functions [26, 27]. Mangrove growth is also affected by soil texture, salinity, redox potential, and temperature [28, 29]. The texture of soils is broadly distinguished into sandy loams and silt loams, but there is great variability from one region to another.

In a mangrove environment, soils and vegetation have a strong interaction with each other, resulting both in the formation process of the former and in the characteristic of the growing environment of plants, which develop in communities directly influenced by soil characteristics. The plant species of the mangroves have their development influenced by the physical and chemical soil characteristics [30] which may compromise the growth and structure of species [31]. Texture, potential redox, pH, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon and electro conductivity can influence nutrient uptake by plants, despite the difference of selectivity of each species to remove nutrient from the same environment [32–34].

The concentration of organic matter in mangrove forest varies with the plant species age. There exist interrelationships between mangrove vegetation and soil characteristics. As the species age, the productivity and the production of litter and organic detritus that are deposited in the forest floor and within the soil profile increase [35]. After decomposition of the organic material the accumulation of organic matter increases. The larger organic matter content of mangrove soils influence the status of nutrient in the soil as well as pH and redox potential soils among others [35].

On the other hand, the distribution of mangrove species along the coast has been attributed to: the eco-physiological response of plants to one or more series of environmental gradients; the combination of factors such as frequency and duration of flooding, substrate flooding, pore water salinity and pore water potential [14] and; the change in the environment deposition during the Holocene, and to neotectonic factors, such as changes in sea level and varied intensity of the southwestern monsoon [10]. Due to this strong interaction and specificities of the estuarine environment, mangroves are considered fragile ecosystems, highly sensitive to changes in the environment, mainly due to anthropic actions, which tend to disrupt the system by modifying the environment.

There are about 50 species of mangroves found in the world adapted to tidal oscillations, temperature, salinity and soil texture. The mangrove species most commonly found are *Rhizophora mangle* (red mangrove), identified by the tangle of aerial roots that promote the exchange of oxygen, *Avicennia germinans* (black mangrove), identified by projections called pneumatophores, projected in the soil surrounding the trunk of the tree and *Laguncularia racemosa* (white mangrove) species that projects salts in its leaves. These species may present high growth rates in soils without nutritional limitations [36]. There is a relationship between the soil characteristics and mangrove species [25, 37]. For instance, *Rhizophora* is found in environments with a more alkaline pH, as well as high levels of N, P and C; *Laguncularia* in soils with sandy loamy texture; and *Avicennia germinans* in environments with lower tidal influence.

As upland soils, the evaluation of mangrove soils may provide suitable indicators of the macrofaunal and nutrient status [38, 39] as well as the effect of anthropogenic impact as indicated by the presence of organic and inorganic contaminants.

#### **1.3. Impact of anthropogenic activities on mangrove**

the formation of a process known as gleização [19]. Moreover, the reduction condition leads to the accumulation of organic material due to the low energy yield from the main mineralization pathway, replacing the aerobic microbial metabolism in a process called Paludization [12]. Also, variation in hydroperiod and soil moisture content affect the amount of organic

The high concentration of organic matter in estuarine environments is explained by factors, such as the bioturbation [12] of the local fauna and the contribution of organic material (leaf, branches and roots) from the mangrove vegetation. The concentration of C-organic tend to be higher in the first horizons where there is a greater amount of roots, algae (diatoms) and remains of animal in decomposition [21, 22]. The deposition of these materials associated with

the hydromorphism reduces the rate of decomposition of the organic compounds.

**1.2. Interaction between mangrove vegetation and soil morphological, chemical and** 

Soils of mangrove ecosystems are the result of complex interactions between abiotic factors, such as tidal oscillations and biotic factors as the activities of the species and organisms [23]. Soils provide essential nutrients for mangrove species growth and physical structure for plant anchorage and stability. They also influence wildlife conservation, and balance the environmental condition. The soil type and its morphological, physical, chemical and physicochemical characteristics are resultant of interactions between factors such as topography, climate, hydrodynamic processes, tidal margin and long-term sea level changes. Therefore, mangrove

Mangrove soils are generally characterized by reducing conditions and highly variable soil salinity [24, 25]. The physiographical position of mangroves within the estuary influence the soil properties (pH, Eh, electrical conductivity) and composition (clay mineralogy, organic matter and metal concentration) greatly affects soil attributes and environmental functions [26, 27]. Mangrove growth is also affected by soil texture, salinity, redox potential, and temperature [28, 29]. The texture of soils is broadly distinguished into sandy loams and silt loams,

In a mangrove environment, soils and vegetation have a strong interaction with each other, resulting both in the formation process of the former and in the characteristic of the growing environment of plants, which develop in communities directly influenced by soil characteristics. The plant species of the mangroves have their development influenced by the physical and chemical soil characteristics [30] which may compromise the growth and structure of species [31]. Texture, potential redox, pH, cation exchange capacity, organic carbon and electro conductivity can influence nutrient uptake by plants, despite the difference of selectivity of

The concentration of organic matter in mangrove forest varies with the plant species age. There exist interrelationships between mangrove vegetation and soil characteristics. As the species age, the productivity and the production of litter and organic detritus that are deposited in the forest floor and within the soil profile increase [35]. After decomposition of

matter in the sediments [20].

136 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**physical characteristics**

soils have a unique history in any environment [15].

but there is great variability from one region to another.

each species to remove nutrient from the same environment [32–34].

In spite of the increased awareness of the value and significance, the mangroves are threatened worldwide by the risk of disappearing, due to economic and social pressure.

Given the importance of mangrove forests and the impacts of global climate change and anthropogenic activities on this ecosystem, mangroves should be legally protected however, less than 10% fall into this category [40, 41]. According to the Brazilian Law No. 12.727/2012 of the Forest Code [42] classifies the mangrove forests as Areas of Permanent Preservation. In general, the destruction of these forests is linked to anthropic interests, activities and needs such as industrial demand, population growth, or poor coastal management, which reflect the alteration, degradation and loss of the natural habitat of several species [43].

Uncontrolled industrialization and urbanization in coastal regions, has damaged the mangrove ecosystem threaten biodiversity, human health [44, 45] and marine life. Heavy metals are considered as anthropogenic pollutants of great impact on mangrove ecosystems [46]. The effect of heavy metals in mangrove environments is worrying because these ecosystems are a nursery for several species (e.g. fish, crabs, oysters), which are consumed and marketed by the riverine population. In Brazil and in the world, the effect of metals has been reported on soils, plant species and animals of mangroves [11, 41, 47]. Oil spill can cause lethal impacts to plants by preventing transport of oxygen [48]. Enterprises and activities associated with these pollutants have been observed located closer to mangroves, becoming potential threatening ecosystems [46].

Because they are in environments bordering large human settlements, mangroves are under great pressure of use and occupation across the globe. In addition to being exploited, without a rational system of use and management, plants and animals are collected for different purposes. In addition to that, the mangrove directly affected by: the discharge of solid and liquid wastes from the cities that border the rivers and drain their waters to the sea; and by the disorderly occupation of people who drain and bury the mangrove for expansion of urban centers. In the municipality of Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil, in addition to all the previously related problems, the mangroves were contaminated by waste from Pb processing in a factory located on the banks of the Subaé River.

### **2. Study of case: mangrove soil contamination from lead processing industry**

Industrial activities are known for the deleterious effects on mangroves, particularly for the presence of high concentrations of toxic elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and zinc (Zn) that cause adverse effects to fauna and flora of mangrove forests, directly or indirectly affecting human health.

is a part of the river basin complex "Recôncavo Norte", located in Northeastern of Bahia, with

**Figure 1.** Location of the estuarine zone of the Subaé river, Bahia, Brazil. (a) Location of Santo Amaro in the Brazilian

Sauípe, Pojuca, Jacuípe, Joanes, Açu and the secondary rivers from "Baia de todos os Santos"

The regional climate is Af (tropical rain forest climate), according to Köppen's classification, i.e., tropical humid to sub-humid and dry to subhumid, with average annual temperature of 25.4°C (maximum average of 31°C and minimum of 21.9°C) and annual average rainfall varying from 1000 to 1700 mm in the rainiest months and from 60 to 100 mm in the driest months [52]. About 2/3 of the territory of Santo Amaro has smooth, wavy relief, coastal pla-

The region of study is in the Northeaster face from San Francisco craton (Recôncavo Sedimentary Basin), of Meso-Cenozoic age, delimited by a subparallel system of normal faults. The geology of the area is composed by rocks of the following groups: Santo Amaro (Candeias formation: interleaved shale and silt, with levels of limestone and dolomite, sandstone); Island Islands (interleaved shale and sandstone, loam, calciferous sandstone, carbonaceous shale, silicon and calcilutite); and Brotas (Sergi Formation: fine sandstone to conglomerate, conglomerate and subordinate pellet), as well as reservoirs of marshes and

The sample area mangrove areas, there is a predominance of Vertisols, Argisols, Neosols, in addition to Gleysols [54] are class of soil prevailing in the area. The plant species found in the study area are: *Rhizophora mangle* (Red mangrove, RM), *Laguncularia racemosa* (white mangrove, WM) and *Avicennia schaueriana* (black mangrove, BM). The sample location, the profile code, the prevailing vegetation and the geographical coordinates are shown

. This area is drained, aside from the Subaé River, by: Subaúma, Catu,

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

139

a total area of 18,015 km2

mangroves [53].

in **Table 1**.

(BTS) and the Inhambupe River [51].

region. (b) Study area in Santo Amaro. (c) Location of the pedons.

teau, marine and fluvial marine waters.

Negative effects of the presence of toxic elements from industrial activities in mangroves have been reported [11], due to galena processing activities in the municipality of Santo Amaro-Bahia. The mining-metallurgical complex installed in 1960, 2.5 km Northwest of the city for the production of lead alloys (Pb), in addition to atmospheric contamination, left a liability of around 500 thousand tons of slag (21% Cd and up to 3% of Pb) that resulted in the contamination of the Subaé River and its estuary due to overflow of the tailings pond.

It is believed that Santo Amaro has the highest urban lead contamination in the world, with serious effects on human health, as indicated by the incidence of metal-induced diseases in the population and by the environment contamination.

Studies indicate that the presence of heavy metals in the mangroves of the Subaé River Basin cause social, economic and health impacts, as the ecosystem is a source of subsistence and income for riverside residents, who may be consuming contaminated fish [49, 50]. Negative effects on the mangroves of Santo Amaro and São Francisco do Conde were reported by [11], which is presented in this study of case. The study characterized and classified mangrove soils from Subaé Basin and evaluated the Pb and Cd distribution in horizons of mangrove.

#### **2.1. Materials and methods**

The mangroves evaluated in this study are located in the Subáe Basin, Bahia, Brazil, in the municipalities of Santo Amaro and São Francisco do Conde (**Figure 1**). The Subaé River basin

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142 139

the riverine population. In Brazil and in the world, the effect of metals has been reported on soils, plant species and animals of mangroves [11, 41, 47]. Oil spill can cause lethal impacts to plants by preventing transport of oxygen [48]. Enterprises and activities associated with these pollutants have been observed located closer to mangroves, becoming potential threatening

Because they are in environments bordering large human settlements, mangroves are under great pressure of use and occupation across the globe. In addition to being exploited, without a rational system of use and management, plants and animals are collected for different purposes. In addition to that, the mangrove directly affected by: the discharge of solid and liquid wastes from the cities that border the rivers and drain their waters to the sea; and by the disorderly occupation of people who drain and bury the mangrove for expansion of urban centers. In the municipality of Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil, in addition to all the previously related problems, the mangroves were contaminated by waste from Pb processing in a factory

**2. Study of case: mangrove soil contamination from lead processing** 

Industrial activities are known for the deleterious effects on mangroves, particularly for the presence of high concentrations of toxic elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and zinc (Zn) that cause adverse effects to fauna and flora of mangrove

Negative effects of the presence of toxic elements from industrial activities in mangroves have been reported [11], due to galena processing activities in the municipality of Santo Amaro-Bahia. The mining-metallurgical complex installed in 1960, 2.5 km Northwest of the city for the production of lead alloys (Pb), in addition to atmospheric contamination, left a liability of around 500 thousand tons of slag (21% Cd and up to 3% of Pb) that resulted in the contamina-

It is believed that Santo Amaro has the highest urban lead contamination in the world, with serious effects on human health, as indicated by the incidence of metal-induced diseases in

Studies indicate that the presence of heavy metals in the mangroves of the Subaé River Basin cause social, economic and health impacts, as the ecosystem is a source of subsistence and income for riverside residents, who may be consuming contaminated fish [49, 50]. Negative effects on the mangroves of Santo Amaro and São Francisco do Conde were reported by [11], which is presented in this study of case. The study characterized and classified mangrove soils from Subaé Basin and evaluated the Pb and Cd distribution in horizons of mangrove.

The mangroves evaluated in this study are located in the Subáe Basin, Bahia, Brazil, in the municipalities of Santo Amaro and São Francisco do Conde (**Figure 1**). The Subaé River basin

tion of the Subaé River and its estuary due to overflow of the tailings pond.

ecosystems [46].

138 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**industry**

located on the banks of the Subaé River.

forests, directly or indirectly affecting human health.

the population and by the environment contamination.

**2.1. Materials and methods**

**Figure 1.** Location of the estuarine zone of the Subaé river, Bahia, Brazil. (a) Location of Santo Amaro in the Brazilian region. (b) Study area in Santo Amaro. (c) Location of the pedons.

is a part of the river basin complex "Recôncavo Norte", located in Northeastern of Bahia, with a total area of 18,015 km2 . This area is drained, aside from the Subaé River, by: Subaúma, Catu, Sauípe, Pojuca, Jacuípe, Joanes, Açu and the secondary rivers from "Baia de todos os Santos" (BTS) and the Inhambupe River [51].

The regional climate is Af (tropical rain forest climate), according to Köppen's classification, i.e., tropical humid to sub-humid and dry to subhumid, with average annual temperature of 25.4°C (maximum average of 31°C and minimum of 21.9°C) and annual average rainfall varying from 1000 to 1700 mm in the rainiest months and from 60 to 100 mm in the driest months [52]. About 2/3 of the territory of Santo Amaro has smooth, wavy relief, coastal plateau, marine and fluvial marine waters.

The region of study is in the Northeaster face from San Francisco craton (Recôncavo Sedimentary Basin), of Meso-Cenozoic age, delimited by a subparallel system of normal faults. The geology of the area is composed by rocks of the following groups: Santo Amaro (Candeias formation: interleaved shale and silt, with levels of limestone and dolomite, sandstone); Island Islands (interleaved shale and sandstone, loam, calciferous sandstone, carbonaceous shale, silicon and calcilutite); and Brotas (Sergi Formation: fine sandstone to conglomerate, conglomerate and subordinate pellet), as well as reservoirs of marshes and mangroves [53].

The sample area mangrove areas, there is a predominance of Vertisols, Argisols, Neosols, in addition to Gleysols [54] are class of soil prevailing in the area. The plant species found in the study area are: *Rhizophora mangle* (Red mangrove, RM), *Laguncularia racemosa* (white mangrove, WM) and *Avicennia schaueriana* (black mangrove, BM). The sample location, the profile code, the prevailing vegetation and the geographical coordinates are shown in **Table 1**.


of sample was dispersed in 100 mL of water and 10 mL of 1 mol L−1 sodium hexametaphosphate [56]. After that samples were kept overnight to settle down in bottom, the samples were shaken for 16 h at 30 rpm in a Wagner agitator, model TE-161, following the other procedures of the method. The samples were assessed to the following chemical properties: electrical conductivity (EC) in the saturation extract; pH in water (1:2.5 soil:solution ratio); exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+, through titration after extraction with a 1 mol L−1 KCl solution; Na and K by flame photometry, following extraction through Mehlich-1; H + Al extracted through 0.5 mol L−1 calcium acetate at pH 7.0, and determined with 0.025 mol L−1 NaOH. Based on the obtained data, it was calculated the sum of bases (S), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and base saturation (V). The phosphorus content was determined by photocolorimetry. All determinations were carried out as described by [56]. Organic carbon was determined by the dry method (muffle) for classification according to [57]. The sulfur content was determined by sample digestion with HCl 1:1, and then calculated by gravimetry after precipitation with BaCl<sup>2</sup>

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

In order to assess the existence of thionic sulfur in the soil, a 0.01 m soil layer, at field capacity,

Metals were extracted and determined by method 3050B [58], by which 0.5 g of the dry soil

digestion block heated to 95 ± 5°C for about 2 h. Samples were cooled for 15 min, then 5 mL

completed to 50 mL and the metals Pb and Cd, determined with an atomic absorption spec-

Based on the morphological description and the analytical results, pedons were classified according to the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS) [57], the U.S. Soil Taxonomy

The results of morphological and physical analyses of pedons located on a plain relief, directly exposed to tides, under fluvial (P1 to P5) and marine (P6 and P7) influence, from fluvialmaritime sediments, deposited on a sediment rocky mineral (shale), are shown in **Table 2**.

The seven pedons are poorly drained, due to constant flooding by the tide, and, under anaerobiose conditions, they favor the waterlogging process, which affects the removal, translocation, and transformation processes of Fe compounds, resulting in bluish and greenish colors,

Generally, Gleysols have a massive structure, identified in all horizons and layers of the pedons under study (**Table 2**). Although the consistency was not measured in the field, the flooding condition resulted in very or extremely hard soils when dry. The transition between horizons was

solution was added again. To complete digestion, 5 mL of concentrated HCl and

O2

O were also added. After digestion, the samples were cooled, filtered,

was incubated at room temperature for 8 weeks. Soils with ΔpH [pH(KCl) − pH(H<sup>2</sup>

fraction was ground in an agate mortar and digested in 10 mL of a HNO<sup>3</sup>

lower than 0.5 units after incubation were considered thionic [57].

solution, at a 1:1 proportion, with addition of 10 mL H<sup>2</sup>

[54], and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources [59].

with red or yellowish mottles in horizons and layers (**Table 2**).

trophotometer (model AAS Varian AA 220 FS).

of a HNO<sup>3</sup>

10 mL of deionized H<sup>2</sup>

*2.3.3. Soil classification*

**3. Results and discussion**

[56].

141

O)] values

O deionized

:H<sup>2</sup>

for organic matter oxidation, in a

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

**Table 1.** Geographic coordinates of the profiles and respective vegetation predominant along the Subaé Basin.

#### **2.2. Soil sampling**

Based on aerial photography data, the closeness to the factory, field observation, tide tables, and information provided by local fishermen, seven pedons (P) were selected and sampled, of which five pedons represented the fluvial lowland of the Subaé River (P1 to P5) in higher areas and 2 of them in lower areas, closer to the sea (P6 and P7) (**Figure 1**). The pedons P1, P3, P4, P5 and P6 are located at Cajaíba island, which divides the Subaé River into two branches near its mouth, in an anthropic undisturbed environment (P7) as compared with the mangrove forest along the river banks on the continent; and one pedon in the neighboring area of the former Plumbum Mining (P2).

The sites for vertical cuts of soils were defined by following the tide table: when the tide is low, some fluvial dams are formed on the river banks, which enabled the morphological description of profiles and the sampling process, carried out according to [55]. After describing the profiles horizon and layer samples were collected, stored in plastic bags, and maintained in a cold chamber at 4°C, for subsequent chemical and physical analyses.

#### **2.3. Analytical procedures**

#### *2.3.1. Oxidation and reduction potential and pH measurements*

The oxi-reduction potential (Eh) and pH level of all pedon horizons and layers were measured in the field. The Eh readings (Hanna HI 8424) were obtained by using a platinum electrode and corrected by adding potential of the calomelane reference electrode (+244 mV) and the pH levels were measured with a glass electrode, which was previously calibrated with standard pH solutions at 4.0 and 7.0, after balancing samples and electrodes.

#### *2.3.2. Laboratory*

Soil samples were air-dried, around 35°C, crumbled, and ground with a soil hammer mill, using a 2 mm sieve, to obtain air-dried fine soil.

For texture test, soluble salts were previously removed with 60% ethylic alcohol and organic matter by hydrogen peroxide. The pipette method was used with some modifications: 20 g of sample was dispersed in 100 mL of water and 10 mL of 1 mol L−1 sodium hexametaphosphate [56]. After that samples were kept overnight to settle down in bottom, the samples were shaken for 16 h at 30 rpm in a Wagner agitator, model TE-161, following the other procedures of the method. The samples were assessed to the following chemical properties: electrical conductivity (EC) in the saturation extract; pH in water (1:2.5 soil:solution ratio); exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+, through titration after extraction with a 1 mol L−1 KCl solution; Na and K by flame photometry, following extraction through Mehlich-1; H + Al extracted through 0.5 mol L−1 calcium acetate at pH 7.0, and determined with 0.025 mol L−1 NaOH. Based on the obtained data, it was calculated the sum of bases (S), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and base saturation (V). The phosphorus content was determined by photocolorimetry. All determinations were carried out as described by [56]. Organic carbon was determined by the dry method (muffle) for classification according to [57]. The sulfur content was determined by sample digestion with HCl 1:1, and then calculated by gravimetry after precipitation with BaCl<sup>2</sup> [56]. In order to assess the existence of thionic sulfur in the soil, a 0.01 m soil layer, at field capacity, was incubated at room temperature for 8 weeks. Soils with ΔpH [pH(KCl) − pH(H<sup>2</sup> O)] values lower than 0.5 units after incubation were considered thionic [57].

Metals were extracted and determined by method 3050B [58], by which 0.5 g of the dry soil fraction was ground in an agate mortar and digested in 10 mL of a HNO<sup>3</sup> :H<sup>2</sup> O deionized solution, at a 1:1 proportion, with addition of 10 mL H<sup>2</sup> O2 for organic matter oxidation, in a digestion block heated to 95 ± 5°C for about 2 h. Samples were cooled for 15 min, then 5 mL of a HNO<sup>3</sup> solution was added again. To complete digestion, 5 mL of concentrated HCl and 10 mL of deionized H<sup>2</sup> O were also added. After digestion, the samples were cooled, filtered, completed to 50 mL and the metals Pb and Cd, determined with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (model AAS Varian AA 220 FS).

#### *2.3.3. Soil classification*

**2.2. Soil sampling**

140 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

the former Plumbum Mining (P2).

**2.3. Analytical procedures**

*2.3.2. Laboratory*

Based on aerial photography data, the closeness to the factory, field observation, tide tables, and information provided by local fishermen, seven pedons (P) were selected and sampled, of which five pedons represented the fluvial lowland of the Subaé River (P1 to P5) in higher areas and 2 of them in lower areas, closer to the sea (P6 and P7) (**Figure 1**). The pedons P1, P3, P4, P5 and P6 are located at Cajaíba island, which divides the Subaé River into two branches near its mouth, in an anthropic undisturbed environment (P7) as compared with the mangrove forest along the river banks on the continent; and one pedon in the neighboring area of

**Table 1.** Geographic coordinates of the profiles and respective vegetation predominant along the Subaé Basin.

**Mangrove Identification Vegetation Latitude Longitude** Santo Amaro P1 WM 0533387 N 8,610,674 E São Brás P2 WM and RM 0529852 N 8,606,114 E São Bento das Lajes P3 RM and WM 0532483 N 8,605,736 E Santo Amaro P4 RM and WM 0532395 N 8,607,834 E Santo Amaro P5 RM, WM and BM 0531579 N 8,605,970 E Ilha Cajaíba P6 RM and BM 0534697 N 8,602,227 E Ilha de Araçá P7 WM and BM 0532211 N 8,601,506 E

The sites for vertical cuts of soils were defined by following the tide table: when the tide is low, some fluvial dams are formed on the river banks, which enabled the morphological description of profiles and the sampling process, carried out according to [55]. After describing the profiles horizon and layer samples were collected, stored in plastic bags, and maintained in a

The oxi-reduction potential (Eh) and pH level of all pedon horizons and layers were measured in the field. The Eh readings (Hanna HI 8424) were obtained by using a platinum electrode and corrected by adding potential of the calomelane reference electrode (+244 mV) and the pH levels were measured with a glass electrode, which was previously calibrated with stan-

Soil samples were air-dried, around 35°C, crumbled, and ground with a soil hammer mill,

For texture test, soluble salts were previously removed with 60% ethylic alcohol and organic matter by hydrogen peroxide. The pipette method was used with some modifications: 20 g

cold chamber at 4°C, for subsequent chemical and physical analyses.

dard pH solutions at 4.0 and 7.0, after balancing samples and electrodes.

*2.3.1. Oxidation and reduction potential and pH measurements*

using a 2 mm sieve, to obtain air-dried fine soil.

Based on the morphological description and the analytical results, pedons were classified according to the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS) [57], the U.S. Soil Taxonomy [54], and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources [59].

### **3. Results and discussion**

The results of morphological and physical analyses of pedons located on a plain relief, directly exposed to tides, under fluvial (P1 to P5) and marine (P6 and P7) influence, from fluvialmaritime sediments, deposited on a sediment rocky mineral (shale), are shown in **Table 2**.

The seven pedons are poorly drained, due to constant flooding by the tide, and, under anaerobiose conditions, they favor the waterlogging process, which affects the removal, translocation, and transformation processes of Fe compounds, resulting in bluish and greenish colors, with red or yellowish mottles in horizons and layers (**Table 2**).

Generally, Gleysols have a massive structure, identified in all horizons and layers of the pedons under study (**Table 2**). Although the consistency was not measured in the field, the flooding condition resulted in very or extremely hard soils when dry. The transition between horizons was


**Horizons Depth Color Structure Transition Texture** 

Gley 2 10GB 4/1 and Gley 1 5G 6/2

2.5 YR 2.5/4

**P5—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P6—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

5G 5/1

5G 4/1

10GY 3/1

5G 4/1

10B 4/1

10B 3/1

2 5 PB 5/1

5G 5/2

1 5GY 3/1

10Y 3/1

5G 3/1

5G 4/1

10Y 3/1

10Y 4/1

10Y 4/1

**P7—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, very poorly drained**

3Agnj 18–41 Gley 1

4Agnj 41–60 Gley 1

4Crgnj 60–70 Gley 1

Agn 0–15 Gley 1

2Agn 15–26 Gley 2

3Agn 26–43 Gley 2

4Agn 43–60 Gley

4Crgn 60–70 Gley 1

Agn 0–15 Gley

2Agn 15–33 Gley 1

3Agn 33–48 Gley 1

4Agn 48–60 Gley 1

Agn 0–9 Gley 1

2Agn 9–17 Gley 1

2Crgn 17–28 Gley 1

Classification according to Embrapa [57].

1

Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

**cm Hue Mottle g kg−1**

— Massif Wavy and

5YR 4/6 Massif Flat and

5YR 4/6 Massif Flat and

— Massif Irregular and

— Massif Irregular and

7YR 3/3 Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

7YR 3/3 Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

**Table 2.** Morphological properties and physical attributes of pedons from mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin, Santo

Massif Flat and clear

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

abrupt

gradual.

gradual

Abrupt

Abrupt

diffuse

diffuse

clear

diffuse

diffuse

abrupt

— Massif — Very

— Massif — Clayey 211 238 551

**class1**

— — Medium 648 109 244

Very Clayey

Very Clayey

Very Clayey

Very clayey

clayey

**Sand Silt Clay**

143

26 150 824

27 233 740

27 38 935

Medium 269 677 54

Medium 439 458 103

Silty 86 828 86

Medium 321 637 42

Medium 291 686 24

Silty 100 836 64

119 272 609

315 27 659

Sandy 910 3 88

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

Medium 688 63 249

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142 143


**Horizons Depth Color Structure Transition Texture** 

**P1—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

7. 5 YR 5/6

7.5 YR 5/6

7.5 YR 5/6

**P2—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P3—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P4—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

Gley 1 5G 2.5 /1 and 7.5 YR 4/6

1–10 GY 4/1

1–10 GY 4/1

1–10 GY 4/1

1–10 GY 4/1

1 10Y 2.5/1

1 10Y 2.5/1

10Y 3/1

10Y 4/1

5G 4/1

5G 4/1

1 5GY 4/1

5G 4/1

5G 3/1

10B 3/1

Agn 0–8 Gley

142 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

2Agn 8–20 Gley

3Agn 20–34 Gley

4Agn 34–55 Gley

Agn 0–20 Gley

2Agn 20–32 Gley

3Agn 32–61 Gley 1

4Agn 61–83 Gley 1

Agn 0–5 Gley 1

2Agn 5–25 Gley 1

3Agn 25–49 Gley

4Agn 49–71 Gley 1

Agn 0–7 Gley 1

2Agnj 7–18 Gley 2

**cm Hue Mottle g kg−1**

Massif Flat and

Massif Flat and

Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

10YR 4/6 Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

2.5YR 4/8 Massif Flat and

— Massif Flat and

10 YR 3/6 Massif Flat and

10B 4/1 Massif Flat and

5Agn 83–102 — — Massif — Clayey 308 271 421

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

diffuse

Massif Flat and clear

clear

— Massif — Clayey 439 209 352

**class1**

Very clayey

Very clayey

Very clayey

Very clayey **Sand Silt Clay**

16 196 788

29 192 778

39 122 839

66 102 832

Medium 459 208 333

Medium 476 213 311

Medium 494 185 321

Medium 383 295 322

Medium 477 254 270

Medium 609 86 305

Clayey 486 124 390

Medium 666 78 255

Medium 378 419 203

**Table 2.** Morphological properties and physical attributes of pedons from mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

flat and diffuse (P1, P2, P3, P4, P6, and P7) or gradual (P5), showing sedimentation with layers consisting of material with similar composition and homogenized by the action of organisms.

favoring greater particle removal. This behavior is very clear in P7, located in the southern part of the island, in the mouth of "Baía de Todos os Santos", where parental material is

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

145

Dark brown mottles (7YR 3/3) of horizons Agn of P6 and P7 occur due to oxidation of reduced Fe forms in microenvironments created by roots and soil biota [61, 63]. The texture of these pedons ranged from medium in the surface to very clayey, indicating an alternation of different materials deposited over time (**Table 2**). In P7, high silt percentage may be related to the greater particle deposition in the area, the scarce presence or absence of vegetation, and presence of soft rock at a depth of 0.17 m. The sequence of Agn horizons or layers was identified in P6 and Agn-Crg in P7, for the same reasons as explained for pedons under fluvial influence.

The results of chemical analyses of pedons under fluvial (P1–P5) and marine (P6 and P7) influence are shown in the **Tables 3** and **4**. Of the seven pedons, four had only an A horizon (P1–P3, and P6) and three had an A horizon and a C layer (P4, P5, and P7). All pedons are formed by a gley horizon, or a reductive environment, due to tidal movements that maintain

> **(H2 O)**

**pH incubation levels1**

**cm (%) 02 15 30 days 45 60 ΔpH<sup>3</sup>**

almost exposed, in addition to sparse or almost absent presence of vegetation.

**3.3. Chemical properties**

the soil waterlogged most of the time.

**Profile Depth S pH** 

**P1—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P2—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P3—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P4—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

Agn 0–8 3.6 6.7 6.3 6.3 6.6 6.8 4.9 1.4 2Abgnj 8–20 3.6 6.4 7.1 4.0 3.3 3.1 2.5 4.6 3Abgnj 20–34 3.5 6.2 7.1 3.1 3.1 2.9 2.6 4.5 4Abgnj 34–55 3.7 6.1 8.1 4.2 3.9 3.3 3.1 5.0

Agnj 0–20 3.8 5.8 6.3 5.0 3.7 2.7 3.0 3.3 2Agnj 20–32 3.6 6.0 6.1 3.1 2.4 1.7 2.2 3.9 3Agnj 32–61 3.8 5.9 7.0 3.0 2.2 2.1 2.3 4.7 4Agn 61–83 3.6 6.5 7.5 — — — — — 5Agn 83–102+ 3.8 7.0 7.5 — — — — —

Agnj 0–5 4.0 6.0 7.0 3.7 2.9 2.6 2.4 4.6 2Agnj 5–25 3.9 4.7 6.1 3.4 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.2 3Agnj 25–49 3.8 5.8 7.0 3.0 2.4 2.4 2.3 4.7 4Agnj 49–71+ 3.7 6.4 7.5 3.4 2.5 2.6 2.3 5.2

Agn 0–7 3.8 6.4 6.6 5.8 5.4 4.7 4.2 2.4 2Agnj 7–18 3.8 4.7 6.6 3.1 2.4 1.7 2.3 4.3

In mangroves, there is a constant sedimentation of fine dust (silt and clay) brought by tidal variation, which may be explained by the low-energy environment [60]. Texture varied from medium to very clayey, with a predominance of the finer over the sandy fraction (**Table 2**). Also, irregular variation of texture between the soil horizons and layers, in all pedons, indicates major changes in the environmental conditions of the system [61]. Clay in the pedons ranged from 2.4 to 93.5%, showing wide texture variability, to, is a characteristic of mangrove soils [21]. In most horizons and layers from P1 to P5, the pedons influenced by the river, there is a prevalence of the clay fraction, while in the pedons influenced by the sea, P6 and P7, silt and clay are predominant.

#### **3.1. Pedons formed under fluvial influence**

From the pedons under fluvial influence, P1 located on the edge of the mangrove of the sampled region was shallowest (0.55 m). All horizons and layers had a 1 10GY Gley color, which indicates a flooded environment and oxidation process promoted by roots and soil microorganisms. Along P1, a more homogenous texture distribution was observed when compared to the other pedons, which may be related to the fact of being in a zone with lower fluvial influence, on the riverbank (continent); therefore, in a more protected environment (**Table 2**).

The deepest pedon was P2 (1.02 m), due to its location at a higher position, so that it is not completely flooded for a long time. The layers and horizons of this pedon had a 1 10Y Gley color in the whole profile, due to its continuous drying cycles, as well as the presence of very fine to thick roots, up to the horizon 5 Agn. The horizon textures of this pedon were medium, and the last was the most clayey, possibly indicating accumulation of particulate material in the aforementioned horizons (**Table 2**).

The pedons P3, P4, and P5 have similar depths (around 0.70 m), with colors varying from 1 5G 4/1 Gley to 2 10B 4/1 Gley and a texture ranging from medium (P3 and P4) to very clayey (P5), indicating pedons formed in accumulation and storage regions, respectively. In P4, a horizon (4 Agnj) with shell deposition was found, attributed to two possible causes: presence of oysters that use the stem and roots of the plant species *Rhizophora mangle* (predominating in the area) as habitat and fall on the ground and are incorporated with time; or as a shell disposal area for the fishermen, still on site, as a result of shell fishing (information provided by local fishermen).

The sequence of Ag horizons or layers was identified in P1, P2, and P3 and the Agr sequence in P4 and P5, with material discontinuity (fluvial nature), evidenced by stratifications, with an irregular texture variation (**Table 2**) and in-depth organic C content, found in all pedons, indicating fluvial sediment storage [59]. In these soils, there are moderate a horizons and the Cr layer of P4 and P5 corresponds to a soft rocky mineral, derived from blue-greenish shales of the island group, also called "green rust" [62].

#### **3.2. Pedons formed under marine influence**

Pedons formed under marine were shallower than those formed under fluvial influence (**Table 2**), which is related to a longer submersion time and the location in a marine estuary, favoring greater particle removal. This behavior is very clear in P7, located in the southern part of the island, in the mouth of "Baía de Todos os Santos", where parental material is almost exposed, in addition to sparse or almost absent presence of vegetation.

Dark brown mottles (7YR 3/3) of horizons Agn of P6 and P7 occur due to oxidation of reduced Fe forms in microenvironments created by roots and soil biota [61, 63]. The texture of these pedons ranged from medium in the surface to very clayey, indicating an alternation of different materials deposited over time (**Table 2**). In P7, high silt percentage may be related to the greater particle deposition in the area, the scarce presence or absence of vegetation, and presence of soft rock at a depth of 0.17 m. The sequence of Agn horizons or layers was identified in P6 and Agn-Crg in P7, for the same reasons as explained for pedons under fluvial influence.

#### **3.3. Chemical properties**

flat and diffuse (P1, P2, P3, P4, P6, and P7) or gradual (P5), showing sedimentation with layers consisting of material with similar composition and homogenized by the action of organisms.

In mangroves, there is a constant sedimentation of fine dust (silt and clay) brought by tidal variation, which may be explained by the low-energy environment [60]. Texture varied from medium to very clayey, with a predominance of the finer over the sandy fraction (**Table 2**). Also, irregular variation of texture between the soil horizons and layers, in all pedons, indicates major changes in the environmental conditions of the system [61]. Clay in the pedons ranged from 2.4 to 93.5%, showing wide texture variability, to, is a characteristic of mangrove soils [21]. In most horizons and layers from P1 to P5, the pedons influenced by the river, there is a prevalence of the clay fraction, while in the pedons influenced by the sea, P6 and P7, silt

From the pedons under fluvial influence, P1 located on the edge of the mangrove of the sampled region was shallowest (0.55 m). All horizons and layers had a 1 10GY Gley color, which indicates a flooded environment and oxidation process promoted by roots and soil microorganisms. Along P1, a more homogenous texture distribution was observed when compared to the other pedons, which may be related to the fact of being in a zone with lower fluvial influence, on the riverbank (continent); therefore, in a more protected environment (**Table 2**).

The deepest pedon was P2 (1.02 m), due to its location at a higher position, so that it is not completely flooded for a long time. The layers and horizons of this pedon had a 1 10Y Gley color in the whole profile, due to its continuous drying cycles, as well as the presence of very fine to thick roots, up to the horizon 5 Agn. The horizon textures of this pedon were medium, and the last was the most clayey, possibly indicating accumulation of particulate material in

The pedons P3, P4, and P5 have similar depths (around 0.70 m), with colors varying from 1 5G 4/1 Gley to 2 10B 4/1 Gley and a texture ranging from medium (P3 and P4) to very clayey (P5), indicating pedons formed in accumulation and storage regions, respectively. In P4, a horizon (4 Agnj) with shell deposition was found, attributed to two possible causes: presence of oysters that use the stem and roots of the plant species *Rhizophora mangle* (predominating in the area) as habitat and fall on the ground and are incorporated with time; or as a shell disposal area for the fishermen, still on site, as a result of shell fishing (information provided by local fishermen).

The sequence of Ag horizons or layers was identified in P1, P2, and P3 and the Agr sequence in P4 and P5, with material discontinuity (fluvial nature), evidenced by stratifications, with an irregular texture variation (**Table 2**) and in-depth organic C content, found in all pedons, indicating fluvial sediment storage [59]. In these soils, there are moderate a horizons and the Cr layer of P4 and P5 corresponds to a soft rocky mineral, derived from blue-greenish shales

Pedons formed under marine were shallower than those formed under fluvial influence (**Table 2**), which is related to a longer submersion time and the location in a marine estuary,

and clay are predominant.

144 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**3.1. Pedons formed under fluvial influence**

the aforementioned horizons (**Table 2**).

of the island group, also called "green rust" [62].

**3.2. Pedons formed under marine influence**

The results of chemical analyses of pedons under fluvial (P1–P5) and marine (P6 and P7) influence are shown in the **Tables 3** and **4**. Of the seven pedons, four had only an A horizon (P1–P3, and P6) and three had an A horizon and a C layer (P4, P5, and P7). All pedons are formed by a gley horizon, or a reductive environment, due to tidal movements that maintain the soil waterlogged most of the time.



In all pedons, percentage of sodium saturation (PST) values (**Table 4**) (47% in the 2 Agnj horizon of P4 at 69% in the Agn horizon of P1) exceeded the threshold values that classify a soil as sodic

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

**Horizons/layers Depth CE Ca Mg Al H + Al Na K SB T V PST P C.org.**

Agn 0–8 40 3.0 14.0 0.2 3.0 51.2 3.6 71.7 75 96 69 5.3 48.8 2Agn 8–20 38 3.8 15.6 0.2 4.8 52.3 3.3 74.8 80 94 66 5.5 49.8 3Agn 20–34 36 3.6 16.9 0.2 5.6 55.5 3.4 79.4 85 93 65 5.7 51.6 4Agn 34–55 42 4.5 15.5 0.2 7.1 49.0 4.0 73.1 80 91 61 4.9 50.2

Agn 0–20 35 2.1 7.6 0.1 5.4 14.9 1.2 25.9 31 83 48 5.2 50.6 2Agn 20–32 35 4.5 4.3 0.1 5.3 19.2 1.2 29.2 35 85 56 5.1 54.0 3Agn 32–61 33 3.2 6.7 0.1 4.6 16.4 1.2 27.5 32 86 51 5.2 51.0 4Agn 61–83 31 2.5 10.0 0.1 1.4 18.1 1.9 32.6 34 96 53 5.2 49.6 5Agn 83–102+ 22 3.7 9.6 0.0 1.8 16.0 2.0 31.3 33 95 48 5.4 53.4

Agn 0–5 36 2.7 8.4 0.0 1.9 22.4 1.4 34.8 37 95 61 5.1 50.7 2Agn 5–25 43 2.5 8.0 0.0 8.8 27.7 1.1 39.4 48 82 58 5.0 51.0 3Agn 25–49 44 3.3 10.8 0.0 7.1 35.2 1.6 50.8 58 88 61 4.9 53.0 4Agn 49–71+ 38 3.5 11.3 0.1 5.3 39.5 2.0 56.2 61 91 64 5.4 51.9

Agn 0–7 31 1.5 5.3 0.0 2.6 18.1 1.1 26.0 29 91 63 5.1 51.6 2Agnj 7–18 27 1.6 4.2 0.7 6.1 11.7 1.1 18.7 25 75 47 5.1 52.1 3Agnj 18–41 30 2.2 4.6 0.0 4.3 12.8 1.2 20.8 25 83 51 5.3 52.9 4Agnj 41–60 29 2.3 7.4 0.5 6.7 19.2 2.2 31.0 38 82 51 5.1 53.1 4Crgnj 60–70 29 7.8 4.6 3.3 12.3 51.2 1.1 64.7 77 84 66 5.1 50.1

Agn 0–15 28 2.9 14.1 0.1 3.6 56.5 3.4 76.9 81 96 70 5.2 53.1 2Agn 15–26 20 3.5 14.7 0.2 7.2 42.7 4.8 65.7 73 90 59 5.4 50.2 3Agn 26–43 38 5.1 13.0 0.3 11.1 59.7 4.8 82.7 94 88 64 5.3 52.4 4Agn 43–60 44 8.6 9.8 0.1 0.9 43.7 2.2 64.3 65 99 67 5.6 47.0 4Crgn 60–70+ 33 4.9 10.1 0.1 1.0 20.3 3.3 38.5 40 97 51 6.2 52.7

Agn 0–15 36 3.4 11.3 0.1 6.3 38.4 3.1 56.1 62 90 62 5.7 46.6

 **kg−1 % mg kg−1 g kg−1**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

147

**cm dS m−1** **cmolc**

**P1—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P2—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P3–Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P4—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P5—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P6—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

1 Sixty-day incubation.

2 It corresponds to pH value on site, humid sample.

3 It corresponds to the difference between pH level in the beginning (0) and in the end (60 days).

**Table 3.** Values for sulfur (S%), pHH2O, and pHincubation of mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

The thiomorphic nature of profiles or layers is determined by the ΔpH value after soil incubation, and soils with ΔpH values >0.5 are identified this way, observed for most of the layers, except for the horizons Agn and 4Agn of P5 and 2 Agn and 2 Crgn of P7. The results for the thiomorphic nature are according to the total S content, higher than the minimum content required (0.75%) to characterize the presence of sulfide materials [64], ranging from 3.3 (2Agnj of P6) to 4.0% (Agnj of P3) (**Table 3**), which is normal for mangrove soils [65, 66].

Organic C contents in pedons formed under fluvial influence (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5) ranged from 47.0 in the 4 Agn horizon in P2 to 53.4 g kg−1 of 4 Agn in P5, with higher nominal values than those of soils formed under tidal influence (45.7 in the 2Crgn layer of P7 at 51.7 g kg−1 in the 3 Agn of P6 and Agn horizons of P7) (**Table 4**). However, for both environments, pedons were classified as orthic, because the organic C content was below 80 g kg−1.

In all pedons, percentage of sodium saturation (PST) values (**Table 4**) (47% in the 2 Agnj horizon of P4 at 69% in the Agn horizon of P1) exceeded the threshold values that classify a soil as sodic


The thiomorphic nature of profiles or layers is determined by the ΔpH value after soil incubation, and soils with ΔpH values >0.5 are identified this way, observed for most of the layers, except for the horizons Agn and 4Agn of P5 and 2 Agn and 2 Crgn of P7. The results for the thiomorphic nature are according to the total S content, higher than the minimum content required (0.75%) to characterize the presence of sulfide materials [64], ranging from 3.3 (2Agnj

**Table 3.** Values for sulfur (S%), pHH2O, and pHincubation of mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia,

**(H2 O)**

3Agnj 18–41 3.9 5.8 6.9 3.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 4.7 4Agnj 41–60 3.9 4.9 7.0 3.0 2.4 2.2 2.4 4.6 4Crgnj 60–70 3.7 3.6 6.9 2.8 2.5 2.0 2.3 4.6

Agn 0–15 3.8 6.6 6.2 6.5 6.3 6.4 6.4 −0.2 2Agnj 15–26 3.8 5.5 6.3 3.4 2.9 2.7 2.7 3.6 3Agnj 26–43 3.4 5.4 6.7 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 4.3 4Agn 43–60 3.7 7.4 7.1 7.0 6.6 6.4 7.3 −0.2 4Crgn 60–70+ 3.7 7.6 7.8 7.5 6.4 7.3 7.4 0.4

Agnj 0–15 3.3 5.8 7.2 4.0 3.1 3.2 3.0 4.2 2Agnj 15–33 3.4 6.5 7.1 3.6 3.4 3.7 3.0 4.1 3Agnj 33–48 3.3 5.5 7.3 3.1 3.0 1.7 2.3 5.0 4Agn 48–60 3.3 5.3 7.2 — — — — —

Agnj 0–9 3.9 7.3 7.3 6.6 5.7 5.9 2.9 4.4 2Agn 9–17 3.8 7.2 7.4 6.7 6.4 7.0 7.1 0.3 2Crgn 17–28 3.6 7.0 7.1 6.6 6.6 7.0 7.0 0.1

**P5—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P6—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P7—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, very poorly drained**

1

2

3

Brazil.

Sixty-day incubation.

It corresponds to pH value on site, humid sample.

**pH incubation levels1**

**cm (%) 02 15 30 days 45 60 ΔpH<sup>3</sup>**

Organic C contents in pedons formed under fluvial influence (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5) ranged from 47.0 in the 4 Agn horizon in P2 to 53.4 g kg−1 of 4 Agn in P5, with higher nominal values than those of soils formed under tidal influence (45.7 in the 2Crgn layer of P7 at 51.7 g kg−1 in the 3 Agn of P6 and Agn horizons of P7) (**Table 4**). However, for both environments, pedons

of P6) to 4.0% (Agnj of P3) (**Table 3**), which is normal for mangrove soils [65, 66].

It corresponds to the difference between pH level in the beginning (0) and in the end (60 days).

**Profile Depth S pH** 

146 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

were classified as orthic, because the organic C content was below 80 g kg−1.


**3.4. Pedons formed under riverine influence**

(8.14), attributed to a higher concentration of Na<sup>+</sup>

accumulation in the profile (**Figure 2**, **Table 3**).

the others under riverine influence.

and Na+

Brazil.

The pH levels of pedons under riverine influence (P1–P5), assessed in the field, ranged from moderately acid (pH 6.1–6.5) in the 2A horizon of P1 and P3 to moderately alkaline (pH 7.1–8.1) in the 4A horizon of P2 (**Figure 2**). Studying the mangrove soils under riverine influence in the Marapanim river (Pará, Brazil), Amazon Coast, [21] found pH values similar to those obtained in this study. Just as it was observed for physical characteristics, the shallower pedon (P1) and the deepest pedon (P2) showed chemical characteristics different from

The pH level of P1 increased at a greater depth, showing a value within the alkaline range

(**Table 4**). The higher pH values of P2 were registered in the deepest horizons, probably as a result of Mg2+ accumulation (**Table 4**), something which may have happened because of closeness to rocks or leaching of the element in the higher layers. Mg2+ accumulation and the simultaneous increased pH values at a greater depth, in pedons under riverine influence, was not observed only for P4 (**Figure 2**, **Table 3**). The pH value in P3, P4, and P5 ranged from 6.2 to 7.5, and it tended to increase at a greater depth, something which may be explained by Mg2+

The Eh values of P1 (328–261 mV) and P2 (337–271 mV) were higher in the surface horizons and layers and they decreased at greater depths. According to [61–68], decreased Eh values at greater depths is usual in estuarine environments. Although this proposition is applicable to all of the pedons assessed, it was observed that, in P3 and P4, the horizons with the highest

**Figure 2.** Distribution of pH and Eh in depth in the mangrove soil profiles in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia,

, Mg2+ and K<sup>+</sup>

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

when compared to the others

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

149

**Table 4.** Chemical attributes of pedons in the mangrove in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

(PST ≥ 6), which results in clay dispersion and, probably, in soil organic matter dispersion. High Na+ levels in all pedons, associated with high pH levels, contribute to the halomorphism processes. Excessive salts in the layers or horizons whose EC values ranged from 20 dS m−1 (2 Agn of P5) to 57 dS m−1 (3 Agn of P6) led to the classification of pedons as salic, since these values are much higher than the threshold values to classify soils as salic (EC ≥ 7 dS m−1) [57] (**Table 4**). The salic nature hinders water absorption by terrestrial plants, but is less relevant for mangrove plants that are adapted to EC levels exceeding those of the classification.

Sorption complex of pedons is dominated by cations Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K<sup>+</sup> and, in almost all horizons and layers, the Mg2+ content was higher than Ca2+, which is common in estuarine environments, and may be attributed to pedogenetic processes, such as soluble salt addition, mainly by seawater intrusion and fluvial deposition in a drainage region of fertile soils, as the Vertisols in the region.

Most of the pedons had CEC values between 25 (2 Agnj and 3 Agnj of P4) and 111 cmolc kg−1 (3Agn of P6). Cation exchange capacity (T) values between 22.47 and 45.36 cmolc kg-1, in mangrove soils of the Iriri River in "Canal da Bertioga" (Santos, São Paulo, Brazil) [66]. These values are high due to a great contribution of organic matter and a predominance of the Na<sup>+</sup> , Mg2+, Ca2+, and K<sup>+</sup> .

Although being located in an environment with high deposition of organic and mineral compounds, the studied pedons showed low P availability, with contents from 4.9 (4 Agn of P1) to 7.1 mg kg−1 (Agn of P7), compared to the contents in Gleysols (19–35 mg kg−1) in "Bertioga Canal" [66]. The Al content in all pedons was close to zero and the acidity in the environment was due to H, as shown by an evaluation of the difference between potential acidity and exchangeable acidity.

Even the pedons under study presenting similar characteristics, pedons formed under riverine influence showed some different characteristics from those observed for pedons formed under marine influence, as follows.

#### **3.4. Pedons formed under riverine influence**

**Horizons/layers Depth CE Ca Mg Al H + Al Na K SB T V PST P C.org.**

2Agn 15–33 46 6.3 16.2 0.1 5.6 58.7 4.2 85.4 91 94 64 5.1 48.5 3Agn 33–48 41 5.4 19.6 0.6 10.9 70.4 4.5 99.9 111 90 64 5.4 51.7 4Agn 48–60 57 5.5 11.6 0.1 3.7 71.5 5.4 94.0 98 96 73 5.2 50.2

Agn 0–9 45 4.5 12.8 0.2 2.2 54.4 3.1 74.9 77 97 71 7.1 51.7 2Agn 9–17 48 5.5 10.7 0.2 1.9 58.7 3.0 77.7 80 98 74 5.3 48.7 2Crgn 17–28 42 7.5 15.7 0.2 2.1 67.2 2.8 93.2 95 98 71 5.7 45.7

**Table 4.** Chemical attributes of pedons in the mangrove in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

mangrove plants that are adapted to EC levels exceeding those of the classification.

Sorption complex of pedons is dominated by cations Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K<sup>+</sup>

(PST ≥ 6), which results in clay dispersion and, probably, in soil organic matter dispersion.

processes. Excessive salts in the layers or horizons whose EC values ranged from 20 dS m−1 (2 Agn of P5) to 57 dS m−1 (3 Agn of P6) led to the classification of pedons as salic, since these values are much higher than the threshold values to classify soils as salic (EC ≥ 7 dS m−1) [57] (**Table 4**). The salic nature hinders water absorption by terrestrial plants, but is less relevant for

horizons and layers, the Mg2+ content was higher than Ca2+, which is common in estuarine environments, and may be attributed to pedogenetic processes, such as soluble salt addition, mainly by seawater intrusion and fluvial deposition in a drainage region of fertile soils, as the

Most of the pedons had CEC values between 25 (2 Agnj and 3 Agnj of P4) and 111 cmolc kg−1 (3Agn of P6). Cation exchange capacity (T) values between 22.47 and 45.36 cmolc kg-1, in mangrove soils of the Iriri River in "Canal da Bertioga" (Santos, São Paulo, Brazil) [66]. These values are high due to a great contribution of organic matter and a predominance of the Na<sup>+</sup>

Although being located in an environment with high deposition of organic and mineral compounds, the studied pedons showed low P availability, with contents from 4.9 (4 Agn of P1) to 7.1 mg kg−1 (Agn of P7), compared to the contents in Gleysols (19–35 mg kg−1) in "Bertioga Canal" [66]. The Al content in all pedons was close to zero and the acidity in the environment was due to H, as shown by an evaluation of the difference between potential acidity and

Even the pedons under study presenting similar characteristics, pedons formed under riverine influence showed some different characteristics from those observed for pedons formed

levels in all pedons, associated with high pH levels, contribute to the halomorphism

 **kg−1 % mg kg−1 g kg−1**

and, in almost all

,

**cm dS m−1**

148 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

High Na+

Vertisols in the region.

Mg2+, Ca2+, and K<sup>+</sup>

exchangeable acidity.

.

under marine influence, as follows.

**cmolc**

**P7—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, very poorly drained**

The pH levels of pedons under riverine influence (P1–P5), assessed in the field, ranged from moderately acid (pH 6.1–6.5) in the 2A horizon of P1 and P3 to moderately alkaline (pH 7.1–8.1) in the 4A horizon of P2 (**Figure 2**). Studying the mangrove soils under riverine influence in the Marapanim river (Pará, Brazil), Amazon Coast, [21] found pH values similar to those obtained in this study. Just as it was observed for physical characteristics, the shallower pedon (P1) and the deepest pedon (P2) showed chemical characteristics different from the others under riverine influence.

The pH level of P1 increased at a greater depth, showing a value within the alkaline range (8.14), attributed to a higher concentration of Na<sup>+</sup> , Mg2+ and K<sup>+</sup> when compared to the others (**Table 4**). The higher pH values of P2 were registered in the deepest horizons, probably as a result of Mg2+ accumulation (**Table 4**), something which may have happened because of closeness to rocks or leaching of the element in the higher layers. Mg2+ accumulation and the simultaneous increased pH values at a greater depth, in pedons under riverine influence, was not observed only for P4 (**Figure 2**, **Table 3**). The pH value in P3, P4, and P5 ranged from 6.2 to 7.5, and it tended to increase at a greater depth, something which may be explained by Mg2+ and Na+ accumulation in the profile (**Figure 2**, **Table 3**).

The Eh values of P1 (328–261 mV) and P2 (337–271 mV) were higher in the surface horizons and layers and they decreased at greater depths. According to [61–68], decreased Eh values at greater depths is usual in estuarine environments. Although this proposition is applicable to all of the pedons assessed, it was observed that, in P3 and P4, the horizons with the highest

**Figure 2.** Distribution of pH and Eh in depth in the mangrove soil profiles in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

Eh values were concentrated in the subsurface layers (**Figure 2**). Water level fluctuation has led the Eh values to range from 66 to 74 mV. The Eh values in this study ranged from oxic (>300 mV) to suboxic (100–300 mV) (**Figure 2**), in the reduction range from Mn4+ to Mn2+, usually between 200 and 300 mV [69] and they do not reach typical values for anoxic environments (Eh < 100 mV, pH 7), as those obtained by other studies [61, 63, 68, 70]. It was observed by [71] substantial variation in the redox conditions for Rhizophora woods in the Cananeia Lagoon System, Brazil, triggering variation in the redox conditions. The suboxic values in this study may be explained by the collection of samples from the edge of mangroves, sites that, according to [72], favor a quicker drainage and, as a consequence, aeration.

were between 250 and 350 mV, those under marine influence varied: P6 (276–292 mV) and P7 (276–290 mV). These results may be explained by the fact that pedons under marine influence remain submersed for a longer time than those formed under riverine influence. There is no tendency to decrease Eh values at greater depths and the range of Eh values in P6 (13 mV) and P7 (14 mV) is lower than the range for Eh values in the pedons formed under

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

151

Soils may naturally show high concentrations of heavy metals derived from weathering conditions of the source material rich in these elements or due to anthropogenic influence, through the urbanization and industrialization processes. The environment where mangrove soils are formed, such as those assessed in this study with CEC values between 25 and 100 cmolc kg−1 (**Table 4**) had a great capacity to retain metals coming from tidal waters, fresh water, rainwater flow, and atmospheric and anthropogenic precipitation. The presence of metals in mangroves is a matter of concern because this environment is the cradle of several

The Brazilian environmental legislation does not have specific rules for heavy metal concentrations in coastal environments. In this study, in order to assess the normality level of heavy metal concentrations in pedons under riverine (P1–P5) and marine influence (P6 and P7) (**Table 5**), we used Resolution 420/2009, from the Brazilian National Environmental Council [75], which provides for soil quality criteria and values regarding the presence of chemical substances and it classifies the metal contents observed on the soil as preventive values (the threshold concentration of a certain substance on the soil, which is capable of support its main functions) and investigation values (concentration of a certain substance on the soil above the threshold for potential hazards to human health); and the values established by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [76], which classify the heavy metal content levels on the soil as background, preventive threshold (TEL) and hazard to the biota for marine

Lead is among the heavy metals with a greater effect on the aquatic environment, because it is, at the same time, toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative within the food chain [77]. Among the pedons under study, P1 had the highest contamination degree, with a Pb concentration at all layers above the prevention threshold established by [75] (**Table 5**). The 4 Abgn horizon of P3 also showed lead concentration levels above the prevention threshold. According to the [76] classification, all layers and horizons of pedons formed under riverine influence showed Pb concentration values between 1 and 3.5 times higher than the TEL value. The 4 Crgnj (P4) layer was an exception, since it showed a Pb concentration level below the background. In contrast, Pb concentration value in the 2 Abgn (P1) layer, 111.3 mg kg−1, was very close to the PEL value (112 mg Pb kg−1). The Pb concentration levels registered in P1 are a matter of concern, because the pedon is located at an area frequently used by the riparian population to

animal species used as human food (fish, crab, oyster, etc.).

riverine influence.

**3.6. Heavy metals**

sediments (PEL).

**3.7. Pedons formed under riverine influence**

collect shellfish, both for eating and selling.

The inverse and significant correlation between pH and Eh (r = −0.705, p < 0.001, n = 30), displayed in **Figure 3**, is mainly due to the presence of Fe oxides. The most common electron acceptors in saturated soils, whose reduction tends to buffer Eh for several weeks and, thanks to the proton consumption, they cause an increase in the pH level [73].

The Crgn horizon observed in P4, which indicates the presence of carbonate material (shells), showed a Ca concentration of 7.8 cmolc kg−1 (**Table <sup>4</sup>**), but one of the lowest pHH2O levels (3.6%) (**Table 3**), something which may be attributed to the sulfur concentration (3.7%). Sulfur compounds may contribute to decrease the pH levels in the environment, solubilizing some chemical elements [74].

#### **3.5. Pedons formed under marine influence**

Pedons under marine influence (P6 and P7) showed pH values around 7.0 along the whole profile (**Figure 2**), something which may be attributed to a higher Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentration (**Table 4**). Eh values, mainly on the surface of these soils, were lower than those observed for pedons formed under riverine influence. These results confirm the inverse relation between pH and Eh already pointed out.

Eh values of these pedons showed some characteristics different from those observed for the pedons under riverine influence: while the values for pedons under riverine influence

**Figure 3.** Correlation between Eh and pH in the field of the seven pedons from mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin, Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

were between 250 and 350 mV, those under marine influence varied: P6 (276–292 mV) and P7 (276–290 mV). These results may be explained by the fact that pedons under marine influence remain submersed for a longer time than those formed under riverine influence. There is no tendency to decrease Eh values at greater depths and the range of Eh values in P6 (13 mV) and P7 (14 mV) is lower than the range for Eh values in the pedons formed under riverine influence.

#### **3.6. Heavy metals**

Soils may naturally show high concentrations of heavy metals derived from weathering conditions of the source material rich in these elements or due to anthropogenic influence, through the urbanization and industrialization processes. The environment where mangrove soils are formed, such as those assessed in this study with CEC values between 25 and 100 cmolc kg−1 (**Table 4**) had a great capacity to retain metals coming from tidal waters, fresh water, rainwater flow, and atmospheric and anthropogenic precipitation. The presence of metals in mangroves is a matter of concern because this environment is the cradle of several animal species used as human food (fish, crab, oyster, etc.).

The Brazilian environmental legislation does not have specific rules for heavy metal concentrations in coastal environments. In this study, in order to assess the normality level of heavy metal concentrations in pedons under riverine (P1–P5) and marine influence (P6 and P7) (**Table 5**), we used Resolution 420/2009, from the Brazilian National Environmental Council [75], which provides for soil quality criteria and values regarding the presence of chemical substances and it classifies the metal contents observed on the soil as preventive values (the threshold concentration of a certain substance on the soil, which is capable of support its main functions) and investigation values (concentration of a certain substance on the soil above the threshold for potential hazards to human health); and the values established by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [76], which classify the heavy metal content levels on the soil as background, preventive threshold (TEL) and hazard to the biota for marine sediments (PEL).

#### **3.7. Pedons formed under riverine influence**

**Figure 3.** Correlation between Eh and pH in the field of the seven pedons from mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin,

Eh values were concentrated in the subsurface layers (**Figure 2**). Water level fluctuation has led the Eh values to range from 66 to 74 mV. The Eh values in this study ranged from oxic (>300 mV) to suboxic (100–300 mV) (**Figure 2**), in the reduction range from Mn4+ to Mn2+, usually between 200 and 300 mV [69] and they do not reach typical values for anoxic environments (Eh < 100 mV, pH 7), as those obtained by other studies [61, 63, 68, 70]. It was observed by [71] substantial variation in the redox conditions for Rhizophora woods in the Cananeia Lagoon System, Brazil, triggering variation in the redox conditions. The suboxic values in this study may be explained by the collection of samples from the edge of mangroves, sites that,

The inverse and significant correlation between pH and Eh (r = −0.705, p < 0.001, n = 30), displayed in **Figure 3**, is mainly due to the presence of Fe oxides. The most common electron acceptors in saturated soils, whose reduction tends to buffer Eh for several weeks and, thanks

The Crgn horizon observed in P4, which indicates the presence of carbonate material (shells), showed a Ca concentration of 7.8 cmolc kg−1 (**Table <sup>4</sup>**), but one of the lowest pHH2O levels (3.6%) (**Table 3**), something which may be attributed to the sulfur concentration (3.7%). Sulfur compounds may contribute to decrease the pH levels in the environment, solubilizing some

Pedons under marine influence (P6 and P7) showed pH values around 7.0 along the whole profile (**Figure 2**), something which may be attributed to a higher Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentration (**Table 4**). Eh values, mainly on the surface of these soils, were lower than those observed for pedons formed under riverine influence. These results confirm the inverse relation between

Eh values of these pedons showed some characteristics different from those observed for the pedons under riverine influence: while the values for pedons under riverine influence

according to [72], favor a quicker drainage and, as a consequence, aeration.

to the proton consumption, they cause an increase in the pH level [73].

Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil.

chemical elements [74].

150 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

pH and Eh already pointed out.

**3.5. Pedons formed under marine influence**

Lead is among the heavy metals with a greater effect on the aquatic environment, because it is, at the same time, toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative within the food chain [77]. Among the pedons under study, P1 had the highest contamination degree, with a Pb concentration at all layers above the prevention threshold established by [75] (**Table 5**). The 4 Abgn horizon of P3 also showed lead concentration levels above the prevention threshold. According to the [76] classification, all layers and horizons of pedons formed under riverine influence showed Pb concentration values between 1 and 3.5 times higher than the TEL value. The 4 Crgnj (P4) layer was an exception, since it showed a Pb concentration level below the background. In contrast, Pb concentration value in the 2 Abgn (P1) layer, 111.3 mg kg−1, was very close to the PEL value (112 mg Pb kg−1). The Pb concentration levels registered in P1 are a matter of concern, because the pedon is located at an area frequently used by the riparian population to collect shellfish, both for eating and selling.


Cadmium is a metal of great mobility within the systems and, therefore, it is hard to establish a distribution characteristic for this metal. Cd values in some horizons of pedons under riverine influence, P1 (2 Abgn), P2 (4 Abgn), P3 (4 Abgn) and P5 (3 Abgn), were equal to or higher than the prevention values established by CONAMA [75]. Cd concentrations in the two pedons under marine influence (P6 and P7) were below the prevention values (**Table 5**). The greater presence of Cd in pedons under riverine influence was also confirmed by the NOAA [76] methodology. Only the 5 Abgn (P2), Crgnj (P4), and Agn (P5) layers showed a Cd

**Table 5.** Average and standard deviation of heavy metal concentrations in pedons from the mangrove located in the

**Horizon/layer Pb Cd Zn Mn Fe**

Agn 9.0 ± 4.3 0.4 ± 0.0 68.2 ± 20.2 229.3 ± 86.5 3.4 ± 0.0 2Abgn 11.9 ± 5.0 0.2 ± 0.1 50.7 ± 2.6 271.3 ± 11.0 2.7 ± 0.1 2Crgn 15.3 ± 0.0 0.3 ± 0.1 54.8 ± 2.4 284.3 ± 7.6 2.9 ± 0.1

Prevention 72.0 1.3 300 — —

Background 4–17.0 0.1–0.3 7–38 400 0.99–1.8 TEL<sup>1</sup> 30.24 0.6 124.0 — — PEL<sup>2</sup> 112.0 4.2 271.0 — —

**P7—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, very poorly drained**

**CONAMA (2013)**

**NOAA (1999)**

TEL: It may affect the biological community.

PEL: It causes some effect on the biological community.

Subaé river basin, Bahia, Brazil and reference values for metals.

1

2

**mg kg−1 dag kg−1**

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

153

The other layers or horizons showed Cd concentration values above the TEL limits and the Abgn layer (P2) showed a Cd concentration level that may cause adverse effects to the biota, i.e. a value above PEL (**Table 5**). The highest Cd concentration levels in pedons under riverine influence may be associated with external waste disposal, such as contamination by waste disposed during lead mining, in the municipality of Santo Amaro, or, according to [78], in

Zn concentration levels in the pedons do not pose a potential risk to the biota, with values below the prevention values established by CONAMA [69] and the TEL values established by the NOAA [76], and the concentration values in all of the P4 layers, the pedon least affected

As they are significant elements in many source materials, it is difficult to differentiate Mn and Fe concentrations having an anthropogenic origin from the natural ones. Mn concentrations in pedons under riverine influence ranged from 39.5 (2 Abgnj of P4) to 240.1 mg kg−1

concentration equal to or lower than the values accepted for background [76].

urban and industrial activities at the Godavari Estuary, India.

by heavy metals, were lower than the background values (**Table 5**).

(4 Abgn of P5), values that are below the background established by [76].


2 PEL: It causes some effect on the biological community.

**Horizon/layer Pb Cd Zn Mn Fe**

Agn 85.1 ± 5.7 0.9 ± 0.1 73.4 ± 1.0 128.7 ± 5.0 3.6 ± 0.2 2Abgn 111.3 ± 2.1 1.3 ± 0.1 92.4 ± 0.7 141.2 ± 2.5 5.2 ± 0.0 3Abgn 77.9 ± 2.2 1.2 ± 0.1 95.1 ± 3.5 188.4 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 0.5 4Abgn 82.9 ± 3.1 1.2 ± 0.0 86.4 ± 1.0 235.6 ± 7.5 4.5 ± 0.5

Agn 58.8 ± 1.8 0.6 ± 0.0 55.2 ± 1.3 90.8 ± 2.0 1.7 ± 0.3 2Abgn 45.9 ± 8.1 0.4 ± 0.1 54.5 ± 2.2 75.7 ± 1.5 1.6 ± 0.2 3Abgn 70.0 ± 8.0 0.8 ± 0.1 55.6 ± 4.7 77.8 ± 1.2 1.9 ± 0.3 4Abgn 55.6 ± 5.5 4.8 ± 7.2 51.4 ± 2.6 99.6 ± 3.9 2.4 ± 0.6 5Abgn 45.0 ± 0.8 0.3 ± 0.0 50.4 ± 3.9 42.8 ± 2.1 2.8 ± 0.1

Agn 36.5 ± 3.4 0.7 ± 0.1 40.4 ± 0.9 82.6 ± 28.6 1.6 ± 0.1 2Abgn 47.4 ± 2.4 0.6 ± 0.1 43.3 ± 1.1 70.5 ± 1.7 2.1 ± 0.0 3Abgn 53.6 ± 2.4 1.2 ± 0.1 57.8 ± 0.9 98.8 ± 1.3 2.6 ± 0.1 4Abgn 72.5 ± 3.8 1.5 ± 0.2 64.5 ± 1.1 138.2 ± 5.4 2.9 ± 0.3

Agn 32.0 ± 5.2 0.4 ± 0.2 33.7 ± 1.6 64.0 ± 2.9 1.2 ± 0.1 2Abgnj 35.0 ± 1.9 0.4 ± 0.1 19.5 ± 6.4 39.5 ± 0.2 0.7 ± 0.3 3Abgnj 26.2 ± 2.4 0.4 ± 0.0 23.3 ± 1.5 58.3 ± 1.8 1.0 ± 0.1 4Abgnj 26.6 ± 4.4 0.4 ± 0.0 35.3 ± 1.8 76.1 ± 2.4 1.7 ± 0.0 4Crgnj 14.0 ± 3.6 0.2 ± 0.0 30.9 ± 1.0 98.8 ± 3.8 1.7 ± 0.1

Agn 54.4 ± 0.6 0.3 ± 0.1 73.1 ± 1.4 241.9 ± 0.2 4.0 ± 0.1 2Abgn 65.5 ± 9.8 0.9 ± 0.2 72.0 ± 3.3 120.3 ± 1.1 3.5 ± 0.0 3Abgn 63.8 ± 7.3 1.4 ± 0.0 73.9 ± 1.7 173.4 ± 2.6 4.2 ± 0.0 4Abgn 45.3 ± 5.4 0.7 ± 0.0 48.2 ± 1.2 240.1 ± 1.8 3.4 ± 0.1 4Crgn 49.5 ± 6.9 1.0 ± 0.1 65.6 ± 0.7 205.8 ± 3.1 4.6 ± 0.1

Agn 43.7 ± 5.8 0.6 ± 0.1 52.3 ± 1.8 141.4 ± 9.1 2.8 ± 0.1 2Abgn 29.5 ± 1.3 0.4 ± 0.0 62.4 ± 0.7 252.3 ± 4.9 4.5 ± 0.4 3Abgn 6.2 ± 0.6 0.0 ± 0.0 62.2 ± 3.9 280.4 ± 11.1 3.8 ± 0.5 4Abgn 14.7 ± 4.6 0.0 ± 0.0 59.2 ± 0.1 268.7 ± 1.0 3.9 ± 0.0

**P1—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

152 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**P2—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P3—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P4—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P5—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**P6—Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol, potentially toxic, very poorly drained**

**mg kg−1 dag kg−1**

**Table 5.** Average and standard deviation of heavy metal concentrations in pedons from the mangrove located in the Subaé river basin, Bahia, Brazil and reference values for metals.

Cadmium is a metal of great mobility within the systems and, therefore, it is hard to establish a distribution characteristic for this metal. Cd values in some horizons of pedons under riverine influence, P1 (2 Abgn), P2 (4 Abgn), P3 (4 Abgn) and P5 (3 Abgn), were equal to or higher than the prevention values established by CONAMA [75]. Cd concentrations in the two pedons under marine influence (P6 and P7) were below the prevention values (**Table 5**). The greater presence of Cd in pedons under riverine influence was also confirmed by the NOAA [76] methodology. Only the 5 Abgn (P2), Crgnj (P4), and Agn (P5) layers showed a Cd concentration equal to or lower than the values accepted for background [76].

The other layers or horizons showed Cd concentration values above the TEL limits and the Abgn layer (P2) showed a Cd concentration level that may cause adverse effects to the biota, i.e. a value above PEL (**Table 5**). The highest Cd concentration levels in pedons under riverine influence may be associated with external waste disposal, such as contamination by waste disposed during lead mining, in the municipality of Santo Amaro, or, according to [78], in urban and industrial activities at the Godavari Estuary, India.

Zn concentration levels in the pedons do not pose a potential risk to the biota, with values below the prevention values established by CONAMA [69] and the TEL values established by the NOAA [76], and the concentration values in all of the P4 layers, the pedon least affected by heavy metals, were lower than the background values (**Table 5**).

As they are significant elements in many source materials, it is difficult to differentiate Mn and Fe concentrations having an anthropogenic origin from the natural ones. Mn concentrations in pedons under riverine influence ranged from 39.5 (2 Abgnj of P4) to 240.1 mg kg−1 (4 Abgn of P5), values that are below the background established by [76].

Fe concentrations ranged from 0.7 (2 Abgnj of P4) to 5.2 dag kg−1 (2 Abgn of P1). In all pedons under study, either of riverine or marine origin, Fe concentration values were above the background threshold values established by NOAA [76], except for the Agn and 2 Abgn (P2) and Agn (P3) layers and all of the P4 layers, which were below the background concentration (**Table 5**).

depth, alternation of layers texture and C-org contents, presence of contaminants (heavy met-

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

155

According to Embrapa [57], Gleysols are formed, mainly, due to constant or periodic excessive water, whether they are stratified or not, something which may, many times, lead people to classify these soils as intermediate for Fluvic Neosols. Nevertheless, for the thiomorphic Gleysols there is no definition as intermediate for this class (Fluvic Neosols), at the fourth category level, but, since this is a striking feature of mangrove soils, it was chosen to classify them at the fifth category, in order to suggest the riverine nature, rather than using the texture clustering.

Another characteristic that stands out in soils in the region and has a direct influence on its occupation, use, and management is the presence of heavy metal contaminants, which may occur due to natural factors and processes (source material) or through anthropic processes (introduced into the system by harmful actions). All pedons had heavy metal values higher than those established by the environmental authorities [75, 76], except for P7 (**Table 5**). It is believed that, for this last pedon, the longer distance from the contamination point when

In the SiBCS, there is no alternative clearly expressed for including heavy metals in the classification, it may be included as a differential characteristic that affects soil use and management for several purposes, also in the fifth category level, based on a chemical attribute that reflects environmental conditions. In the system WRB [59], the prefix Toxic may be used as a formative element for second level units, in some classes, in order to indicate the presence, in any layer within up to 50 cm of the soil surface, of toxic concentrations of organic or inorganic

Based on the classification systems of FAO and the Soil Taxonomy, it was chosen to include the term potentially toxic in the sixth category level, related to the SiBCS, for the soils classes under study having heavy metal concentration above the reference values established by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [76]. The pedons under riverine and marine influence were classified as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol (poten-

1. Mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin showed different morphological, physical, and

**2.** Mangrove soils in the Subaé river basin showed holomorphic, hydromorphic, and sulfatereducing conditions, showing some clayeying, as indicated by the morphological, physi-

**3.** The highest Pb and Cd concentrations were identified in the pedons under riverine influence, probably due to closeness to the Plumbum Mining factory and the lowest concentra-

**4.** All pedons in the soils under study had concentrations of, at least, one heavy metal (Mn, Zn, Pb, Fe, and Cd) above the minimum value warning (TEL), except for pedon P7.

tially toxic, very poorly drained), except for P7, due to the low metal concentration.

chemical characteristics when they were under riverine and marine influence.

tions were found in pedon P7, due to greater distance from the factory.

als). It was possible to distinguish only from the fifth category level.

compared to the others may have favored its lower concentration.

substances that are not the ions Al, Fe, Na, Ca, and Mg.

**4. Final remarks**

cal, and chemical characteristics.

#### **3.8. Pedons formed under marine influence**

Generally, pedons formed under marine influence had heavy metal content levels lower than those in pedons under riverine influence. None of the pedons formed under marine influence showed a Pb concentration value close to the prevention values established by CONAMA [75]. According to NOAA [76], Pb concentrations in the 3 Abgn and 4 Abgn (P6) layers and in the 2 Abgn and Crgn horizons were lower than the background values and only the Agn (P6) layer showed a value higher than the TEL value. Recent study in tropical mangroves showed that mangrove forest act as a biofilter towards heavy metals [79]. Mangrove species compositions change from riverine to marine mangroves due to change in salinity condition and geomorphology. Thus, higher level of species diversity of mangroves is crucial to maintain the health and productivity of coastal ecosystem [79].

Cd concentrations were lower than the threshold value established as background, although in the Agn and 2 Abgn (Pedon 6) and Agn (Pedon 7) layers were higher than the background value (**Table 5**).

Mn concentrations ranged from 141.4 in the Agn horizon of P6 to 284.3 mg kg−1 in the 2 Crgn layer of P7, with an increase in the subsurface (**Table 5**). These values were below the background established by NOAA [76]. Mn values in the soils having a marine origin were higher than those obtained in the pedons formed under riverine influence (P2–P4), but similar to P1 and P5 (**Table 5**).

### **3.9. Soil classification**

The morphological, physical, and chemical characteristics determined in the seven pedons, regardless of the riverine (P1–P5) or marine (P6 and P7) influence have enabled us to classify the soils, according to the SiBCS [57], as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol. If significant areas having pedons similar to those studied herein are mapped, it may be suggested to the SiBCS the Salic nature as the third category level of the theomorphic Gleysols, due to CE values higher than 7 dS m−1 at 25°C (**Table 4**).

Based on the characteristics shown, soils were classified according to the Soil Taxonomy [9] as Entisols (Typic Sufalquents), and pedons P5, under riverine influence, and P7, under marine influence, are classified as Haplic Sufalquents, since they show, in some horizon, at a depth between 20 and 50 cm below the surface, less than 80 g kg−1 of clay in the fine soil portion, and the others (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P6) are classified as Typic Sufalquents. According to the system World Reference Base (WRB) [71], soils were not classified as Fluvisols Salic Gleyic (Thionic, Sodic), except for pedon P7, which did not show a salic horizon, therefore, it was classified as Fluvisols Gleyic (Thionic, Sodic).

Soils in all of the pedons, either under riverine or marine influence, showed an identical classification, up to the fourth category level regardless irregular characteristics distribution of depth, alternation of layers texture and C-org contents, presence of contaminants (heavy metals). It was possible to distinguish only from the fifth category level.

According to Embrapa [57], Gleysols are formed, mainly, due to constant or periodic excessive water, whether they are stratified or not, something which may, many times, lead people to classify these soils as intermediate for Fluvic Neosols. Nevertheless, for the thiomorphic Gleysols there is no definition as intermediate for this class (Fluvic Neosols), at the fourth category level, but, since this is a striking feature of mangrove soils, it was chosen to classify them at the fifth category, in order to suggest the riverine nature, rather than using the texture clustering.

Another characteristic that stands out in soils in the region and has a direct influence on its occupation, use, and management is the presence of heavy metal contaminants, which may occur due to natural factors and processes (source material) or through anthropic processes (introduced into the system by harmful actions). All pedons had heavy metal values higher than those established by the environmental authorities [75, 76], except for P7 (**Table 5**). It is believed that, for this last pedon, the longer distance from the contamination point when compared to the others may have favored its lower concentration.

In the SiBCS, there is no alternative clearly expressed for including heavy metals in the classification, it may be included as a differential characteristic that affects soil use and management for several purposes, also in the fifth category level, based on a chemical attribute that reflects environmental conditions. In the system WRB [59], the prefix Toxic may be used as a formative element for second level units, in some classes, in order to indicate the presence, in any layer within up to 50 cm of the soil surface, of toxic concentrations of organic or inorganic substances that are not the ions Al, Fe, Na, Ca, and Mg.

Based on the classification systems of FAO and the Soil Taxonomy, it was chosen to include the term potentially toxic in the sixth category level, related to the SiBCS, for the soils classes under study having heavy metal concentration above the reference values established by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [76]. The pedons under riverine and marine influence were classified as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol (potentially toxic, very poorly drained), except for P7, due to the low metal concentration.

### **4. Final remarks**

Fe concentrations ranged from 0.7 (2 Abgnj of P4) to 5.2 dag kg−1 (2 Abgn of P1). In all pedons under study, either of riverine or marine origin, Fe concentration values were above the background threshold values established by NOAA [76], except for the Agn and 2 Abgn (P2) and Agn (P3) layers and all of the P4 layers, which were below the background concentration (**Table 5**).

Generally, pedons formed under marine influence had heavy metal content levels lower than those in pedons under riverine influence. None of the pedons formed under marine influence showed a Pb concentration value close to the prevention values established by CONAMA [75]. According to NOAA [76], Pb concentrations in the 3 Abgn and 4 Abgn (P6) layers and in the 2 Abgn and Crgn horizons were lower than the background values and only the Agn (P6) layer showed a value higher than the TEL value. Recent study in tropical mangroves showed that mangrove forest act as a biofilter towards heavy metals [79]. Mangrove species compositions change from riverine to marine mangroves due to change in salinity condition and geomorphology. Thus, higher level of species diversity of mangroves is crucial to maintain

Cd concentrations were lower than the threshold value established as background, although in the Agn and 2 Abgn (Pedon 6) and Agn (Pedon 7) layers were higher than the background

Mn concentrations ranged from 141.4 in the Agn horizon of P6 to 284.3 mg kg−1 in the 2 Crgn layer of P7, with an increase in the subsurface (**Table 5**). These values were below the background established by NOAA [76]. Mn values in the soils having a marine origin were higher than those obtained in the pedons formed under riverine influence (P2–P4), but similar to P1

The morphological, physical, and chemical characteristics determined in the seven pedons, regardless of the riverine (P1–P5) or marine (P6 and P7) influence have enabled us to classify the soils, according to the SiBCS [57], as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol. If significant areas having pedons similar to those studied herein are mapped, it may be suggested to the SiBCS the Salic nature as the third category level of the theomorphic Gleysols,

Based on the characteristics shown, soils were classified according to the Soil Taxonomy [9] as Entisols (Typic Sufalquents), and pedons P5, under riverine influence, and P7, under marine influence, are classified as Haplic Sufalquents, since they show, in some horizon, at a depth between 20 and 50 cm below the surface, less than 80 g kg−1 of clay in the fine soil portion, and the others (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P6) are classified as Typic Sufalquents. According to the system World Reference Base (WRB) [71], soils were not classified as Fluvisols Salic Gleyic (Thionic, Sodic), except for pedon P7, which did not show a salic horizon, therefore, it was classified as

Soils in all of the pedons, either under riverine or marine influence, showed an identical classification, up to the fourth category level regardless irregular characteristics distribution of

**3.8. Pedons formed under marine influence**

154 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

the health and productivity of coastal ecosystem [79].

due to CE values higher than 7 dS m−1 at 25°C (**Table 4**).

value (**Table 5**).

and P5 (**Table 5**).

**3.9. Soil classification**

Fluvisols Gleyic (Thionic, Sodic).


**5.** Mangrove soils, regardless of being under riverine or marine influence, were classified as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol (potentially toxic, very poorly drained), due to the low metal concentration.

[5] Schaeffer-Novelli Y. Manguezais Brasileiros. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo,

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

157

[6] Massad F. Solos Marinhos da Baixada Santista: características e Propriedades geotécni-

[7] Nittrouer CA, Mullarney JC, Allison MA, Ogston AS. Introduction to the special issue on sedimentary processes building a tropical delta yesterday, today, and tomorrow: The

[8] Suguio K, Martin L, Bittencourt ACSP, Dominguez JML, Flexor JM, AEG A. Flutuações do nível do mar durante o Quaternário Superior ao longo do litoral brasileiro e suas implicações na sedimentação costeira. Revista Brasileira de Geociencias. 1985;**15**(4):273-286.

[9] Stanley DJ, Warne AG. Worldwide initiation of Holocene marine deltas by deceleration

[10] Narayana AC, Prakash V, Gautam PK. Holocene environmental changes as recorded in sediments of a paleodelta, southwest coast of Índia. Quaternary International. 2017;**443**:

[11] Bomfim MR, Santos JAG, Costa OV, Otero XL, Vilas Boas GS, Capelão VS, Santos ES, Nacif PGS. Genesis, characterization, and classification of mangrove soils in the Subaé. 2015;

[12] Vidal-Torrado P, Ferreira TO. Solos de Restingas e áreas úmidas costeiras. In: Curi N, Ker JC, Novais RF, Vidal-Torrado P, Schaefer CEGR, editors. Pedologia: Solos dos bio-

[13] Woodroffe CD, Rogers K, McKee KL, Lovelock CE, Mendelssohn IA, Saintilan N. Mangrove Sedimentation and Response to Relative Sea-Level Rise. Annual Review of

[14] Woodroffe C. Mangrove sediments and geomorphology. In: Robertson AI, Alongi DM, editors. Costal and Estuarine Studies: Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. American Geo-

[15] Saenger P. Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture and Conservation. Dordrecht, Netherlands:

[16] MacKenzie RA, Fulk PB,Klump JV, Wckerly K, Purbospito J, Murdiyarso D, Donato DC, Nam VN. Sedimentation and belowground carbon accumulation rates in mangrove forests that differ in diversity and land use: a tale of two mangroves. Wetlands Ecol

[17] Schaeffer-Novelli Y, Cintrón-Molero G, Soares MLG, De-Rosa T. Brazilian mangroves. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management. 2000;**3**:561-570. DOI: 10.1016/S1463-4988

Marine Science. 2016;**8**(1):243-266. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-122414-034025

of sea-level rise. Science. 1994;**265**:228-231. DOI: 10.1126/science.265.5169.228

Mekong system. Oceanography. 2017;**30**(3):10-21. DOI: 10.5670/oceanog.2017.310

Instituto Oceanográfico; 1991. 42 p

cas. Oficina de Textos; 2009. p. 28

DOI: 10.11606/issn.2317-8078.v0i15p01-186

115-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.04.016

**39**:1247-1260. DOI: 10.1590/01000683rbcs20140555

mas brasileiros. Viçosa. SBCS; 2017. pp. 493-543

physical Union: Queensland; 1992. pp. 7-41

Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2002. p. 360

Manage. 2016;**24**:245-261

(00)00052-X

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors thank the Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) (Protocol 441389/2017-1), and the Secretary of Environment of the State of Bahia and State Fund for Environmental Resources for funding.

### **Author details**

Marcela Rebouças Bomfim<sup>1</sup> \*, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos<sup>1</sup> , Oldair Vinhas Costa<sup>1</sup> , Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao2 , Alyne Araújo da Silva<sup>2</sup> , Claudineia de Souza Souza2 and Maria da Conceição de Almeida<sup>3</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: reboucas.marcela@gmail.com

1 Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil

2 Soil and Ecosystem Quality, Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil

3 Soil Science, Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil

### **References**


[5] Schaeffer-Novelli Y. Manguezais Brasileiros. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto Oceanográfico; 1991. 42 p

**5.** Mangrove soils, regardless of being under riverine or marine influence, were classified as Gleysol thiomorphic orthic (salic) sodic luvissol (potentially toxic, very poorly drained),

The authors thank the Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) (Protocol 441389/2017-1), and the Secretary of Environment of the State of Bahia and State

\*, Jorge Antônio Gonzaga Santos<sup>1</sup>

2 Soil and Ecosystem Quality, Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das

3 Soil Science, Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil

[1] Lee SY, Primavera JH, Dahdouh-Guebas F, McKee K, Bosire JO, Cannicci S, Diele K, Fromard F, Koedam N, Marchand C, Mendelssohn I, Mukherjee N, Record S. Ecological role and services of tropical mangrove ecosystems: A reassessment. Global Ecology and

[2] Duke NC, Meynecke JO, Dittmann S, Ellison AM, Anger K, Berger U, Cannicci S, Diele K, Ewel KC, Field CD, Koedam N, Lee SY, Marchand C, Nordhaus I, Smith TJ III, Dahdouh-

[3] Vidal-Torrado P, Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Souza-Junior V, Ferreira FP, Andrade GRP, Macias F. Pedogenetic processes in mangrove soils. In: Otero XL, Macias F, editors. Biogeochemistry and Pedogenetic Process in Saltmarsh and Mangrove Systems. New York:

[4] Soil Survey Staff. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service. 8th ed. Washington: U.S. Gov. Print Office; 1998.

, Alyne Araújo da Silva<sup>2</sup>

, Oldair Vinhas Costa<sup>1</sup>

, Claudineia de Souza Souza2

,

and

due to the low metal concentration.

Fund for Environmental Resources for funding.

\*Address all correspondence to: reboucas.marcela@gmail.com

Biogeography. 2014;**23**:726-743. DOI: 10.1111/geb.12155

Nova Science Publishers; 2010. p. 259

Guebas F. A world without mangroves? Science. 2007;**317**:41-42

1 Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil

**Acknowledgements**

156 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Author details**

Almas, BA, Brazil

**References**

326p

Marcela Rebouças Bomfim<sup>1</sup>

Joseane Nascimento da Conceiçao2

Maria da Conceição de Almeida<sup>3</sup>


[18] Souza-Júnior VS, Vidal-Torrado P, Tessler MG, Pessenda LCR, Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Macías F. Evolução quaternária, distribuição de partículas nos solos e ambientes de sedimentação em manguezais do Estado de São Paulo. R. Bras. Ci. Solo. 2007;**31**:753-769. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-06832007000400016

north-western coast of Sri Lanka. American Journal of Science. 2013;**1**:7-15. DOI:

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

159

[32] Bernini E, Silva MAB, Carmo TMS, Cuzzuol GRF. Composição química do sedimento e de folhas das espécies do manguezal do estuário do Rio São Mateus, Espírito Santo, Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Botânica. 2006;**29**:686-699. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-84042006000400018

[33] Bernini E, Rezende CE. Concentração de nutrientes em folhas e sedimentos em um manguezal do norte do estado do Rio de Janeiro. Revista Gestão Costeira Integrada.

[34] Madi APLM, Boeger MRT, Reissmann CB, Martins KG. Soil-plant nutrient interactions in two mangrove areas at southern Brazil. Acta Biologica Colomb. 2016;**21**(1):39-50. DOI:

[35] Cardona P, Botero L. Soil characteristics and vegetation structure in a heavily deteriorated mangrove forest in the Caribbean coast of Colombia. Biotropica. 1998;**30**(1):24-34.

[36] Reef R, Feller IC, Lovelock CE.Nutrition of mangroves. Tree Physiology. 2010;**30**:148-1160.

[37] Vidal-Torrado P, Otero XL, Ferreira T, Souza-Júnior V, Bícego M, Garcia-González MT, Macías F. Suelos de manglar: características génesis e impactos antrópicos. Edafología.

[38] Chapman MG, Tolhurst TJ. Relationships between benthic macrofauna and biogeochemical properties of sediments at different spatial scales and among different habitats in mangrove forests. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 2007;**343**:96-109

[39] Nagelkerken ISJM, Blaber SJM, Bouillon S, Green P, Haywood M, Kirton LG, Somerfield PJ. The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: A review. Aquatic

[40] Duke N, Ball M, Ellison J. Factors influencing biodiversity and distributional gradients in mangroves. Global Ecology & Biogeography Letters. 1998;**7**:27-47. DOI: 10.1111/j.1466-8238.

[41] Lewis M, Pryor R, Wilking L. Fate and effects of anthropogenic chemicals in mangrove ecosystems: A review. Environmental Pollution. 2011;**159**(10):2328-2346. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[43] Richards DR, Friess DA. Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 2000-2012. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2016;**113**(2):344-349. River Basin, Bahia, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo. 2015;**39**(5):1247-1260. DOI:

[44] Yim MV, Tam NFY. Effects of wastewater-borne heavy metals on mangrove plants and soil microbial activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 1999;**39**(1):179-186. DOI: 10.1016/

[42] Brazil. Federal Law No. 12,651, of May 25, 2012 (Brazilian Forest Code)

10.12691/marine-1-1-2

10.15446/abc.v21n1.42894

DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpq048

Botany. 2008;**89**(2):155-185

2005;**12**:199-244

1998.00269.x

envpol.2011.04.027

10.1590/01000683rbcs20140555

S0025-326X(99)00067-3

DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.1998.tb00366.x

2010;**2**:1-10


north-western coast of Sri Lanka. American Journal of Science. 2013;**1**:7-15. DOI: 10.12691/marine-1-1-2

[32] Bernini E, Silva MAB, Carmo TMS, Cuzzuol GRF. Composição química do sedimento e de folhas das espécies do manguezal do estuário do Rio São Mateus, Espírito Santo, Brasil. Revista Brasileira de Botânica. 2006;**29**:686-699. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-84042006000400018

[18] Souza-Júnior VS, Vidal-Torrado P, Tessler MG, Pessenda LCR, Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Macías F. Evolução quaternária, distribuição de partículas nos solos e ambientes de sedimentação em manguezais do Estado de São Paulo. R. Bras. Ci. Solo. 2007;**31**:753-769. DOI:

[19] Buol SW, Holefd, McCracken RJ, Southard RJ. Soil Genesis and Classification. Iowa;

[20] Sharma S, Yasuoka J, Nakamura T, Watanabe A, Nadaoka K. The role of hydroperiod, soil moisture and distance from the river mouth on soil organic matter in Fukido mangrove forest. In: Proc. Int. Conf. Adv. Appl. Sci. Environ. Eng. 2014. pp. 44-48. DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2303.2962

[21] Barrêdo JF, Costa ML, Vilhena MPSP, Santos JT. Mineralogia e geoquímica de sedimentos de manguezais da costa amazônica: o exemplo do estuário do rio Marapanim (Pará). Revista Brasileira de Geociências, São Paulo. 2008;**38**:26-37. Available from: http://www. ppegeo.igc.usp.br/index.php/rbg/article/viewFile/7564/6991 [Accessed: 2017-09-10]

[22] Silva MJ, Bezerra PG, Garcia KS. Avaliação geoquímica da concentração de Fe, Cr, Pb, Zn, Cu e Mn no sedimento estuarino do Rio Jacuípe, Bahia. Cadernos de Geociências.

[23] Hossain MD, Nuruddin AA. Soil and mangrove: A review. Journal of Environmental

[24] Mitsch WJ, Gosselink JGC. Mangrove Wetlands. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold;

[25] Sherman RE, Fahey TJ, Howarth RW. Soil-plant interactions in a neotropical mangrove forest; iron, phosphorus and sulfur dynamics. Oecologia. 1998;**115**:553-563. DOI: 10.1007/

[26] Krauss KW, Karen L, McKee CE, Lovelock DR, Cahoon, Saintilan N, Reef R, Chen L. How mangrove forests adjust to rising sea level. New Phytologist. 2014;**202**:19-34 [27] Lunstrum A, Chen L. Soil carbon stocks and accumulation in young mangrove forests. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2014;**75**:223-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.04.008 [28] Chen R, Twilley RR. A gap dynamic model of mangrove forest development along gradients of soil salinity and nutrient resources. Journal of Ecology. 1998;**86**(1):37-51. DOI:

[29] Duarte CM, Geertz-Hansen O, Thampanya U, Terrados J, Fortes MD, Kamp-Nielsen L, Boromthanarath S. Relationship between sediment conditions and mangrove *Rhizophora apiculata* seedling growth and nutrient status. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 1998:

[30] Harahap N, Lestariadi RA, Soeprijanto A. The effect of soil quality on the survival rate of mangrove vegetation. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2015;**10**(7):154-156.

[31] Perera KAR, Amarasinghe MD, Somaratna S. Vegetation structure and species distribution of mangroves along a soil salinity gradient in a micro tidal estuary on the

Science and Technology. 2016;**9**:198-207. DOI: 10.3923/jest.2016.198.207

10.1590/S0100-06832007000400016

158 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

2011, 2011;**8**(2):107-112

1993. pp. 293-328

s004420050553

277-283

10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00233.x

DOI: 10.3923/jeasci.2015.154.156

1997. 527 p. DOI: 10.1002/9780470960622.ch7


[45] Oribhabor BJ. Impact of human activities on biodiversity in Nigerian aquatic ecosystems. Science International. 2016;**4**(1):12-20. DOI: 10.17311/sciintl.2016.12.20

[58] United States Environmental Protection Agency - USEPA. Method 3050B. Revision 2 December 1996; [acesso em 10 abr 2014]. Disponível em: <http://www.epa.gov/osw/haz-

Morphology, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Mangrove Soil under Riverine and Marine…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79142

161

[59] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). World Reference Base for Soil Resources – WBR. 2a ed. Roma; 2006 (World Soil Resources Reports, 103) [60] Citrón G, Schaeffer-Novelli Y.Introduccion a la Ecologia del Manglar. Montevideo: Oficina Regional de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Unesco para América Latina y el Caribe; 1983 [61] Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Vidal-Torrado P, Macías F. Are mangrove forest substrates sediments or soils? A case study in southeastern Brazil. Catena. 2007a;**70**:79-91. DOI:

[62] Van Breemen N. Effects of seasonal redox processes involving iron on chemistry of periodically reduced soils. In: Stucki JW, Goodman BA, Schwertmann U, editors. Iron in

[63] Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Vidal-Torrado P, Macías F. Redox processes in mangrove soils under Rhizophora mangle in relation to different environmental conditions. Soil Science

[64] Oliveira JB, Jacomine PKT, Camargo MN. Classes Gerais de Solos Do Brasil. Jaboticabal,

[65] Ferreira TO. Processos pedogenéticos e biogeoquímica de Fe e S Em Solos de Manguezais

[66] Prada-Gamero RM, Vidal-Torrado P, Ferreira TO. Mineralogia e Físico-Química dos Solos de Mangue do Rio Iriri no Canal de Bertioga (Santos, SP). Revista Brasileira de

[67] Souza VS Jr, Vidal-Torrado P, Tessler MG, Pessenda CR, Ferreira TO, Otero XL, Macías F. Evolução quaternária, distribuição de partículas nos solos e ambientes de sedimentação em manguezais do Estado de São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo.

[68] Otero XL, Ferreira TO, Huerta-Días MA, Partiti CSM, Souza JV, Vidal-Torrado P, Macías F. Geochemistry of iron and manganese in soils and sediments of a mangrove system,

[69] Sousa RO, Vahl LC, Otero XL. Química de solos alagados. In: Mello VF, Alleoni LRF, editors. Química e Mineralogia Do Solo. Parte II - Aplicações. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade

[70] Otero XL, Macías F. Biogeochemistry and Pedogenetic Process in Saltmarsh and Man-

[71] United States Department of Agriculture - USDA. Natural Resources Conservation

Service. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 7.ed. Washington: Soil Survey Staff; 2010

island of Pai Matos (Cananeia—SP, Brazil). Geoderma. 2009;**148**:318-335

grove Systems. New York: New Science Publishers; 2010. p. 259

Soils and Clay Minerals. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company; 1988

Society of America Journal. 2007b;**71**:484-491. DOI: 10.2136/sssaj2006.0078

[Tese]. Piracicaba, SP: Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz; 2006

Ciência do Solo. 2004;**28**(2):233-244. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-06832004000200002

FUNEP: Guia auxiliar para seu reconhecimento; 1992

Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2009. pp. 485-528

ard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/3050b.pdf>

10.1016/j.catena.2006.07.006

2007;**31**:753-769


[58] United States Environmental Protection Agency - USEPA. Method 3050B. Revision 2 December 1996; [acesso em 10 abr 2014]. Disponível em: <http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/3050b.pdf>

[45] Oribhabor BJ. Impact of human activities on biodiversity in Nigerian aquatic ecosystems. Science International. 2016;**4**(1):12-20. DOI: 10.17311/sciintl.2016.12.20

[46] Wang Y et al. Effects of low molecular-weight organic acids and dehydrogenase activity in rhizosphere sediments of mangrove plants on phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Chemosphere. 2014;**99**:152-159. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.054

[47] Bayen S. Occurrence, bioavailability and toxic effects of trace metals and organic contaminants in mangrove ecosystems: A review. Environment International. 2012;**48**:84-101.

[48] NOAA. Oil Spills in Mangroves. Planning & Response Considerations. Seattle, Washington: US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration; 2014.

[49] Garcia KS, Oliveira OMC, Queiroz AFS, Argôlo JL. Geoquímica de sedimentos de manguezal em são Francisco do Conde e Madre de Deus—BA. Geochimica Brasiliensis.

[50] Santos JB, Queiroz AFS, Celino JJ. Estatística multivariada de metais em sedimentos superficiais de manguezais na porção Norte da Baía de Todos os Santos, Bahia. Cadernos

[51] Instituto do Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hídricos do Estado da Bahia—Inema. Comitês de Bacias [acesso em 14 mai 2014]. Disponível em: http://www.inema.ba.gov.br/gestao-2/

[52] Anjos JASA. Avaliação da eficiência de Uma Zona alagadiça (*wetland*) no Controle da poluição Por Metais Pesados: O Caso da Plumbum Em Santo Amaro da Purificação – BA

[53] Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais—CPRM. Serviço Geológico Do Brasil. Materiais de Construção Civil na Região Metropolitana de Salvador. In: Informe de Recursos Minerais (Programa de Geologia do Brasil) Série Rochas e Minerais Industriais,

[54] Brasil. Ministério das Minas e Energia. Secretaria Geral. Projeto RADAMBRASIL Folha SD. 24 Salvador: geologia, geomorfologia, pedologia, vegetação e uso potencial da terra.

[55] Santos RD, Lemos RC, Santos HG, Ker JC, Anjos LHC. Manual de descrição e Coleta de

[56] Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária - Embrapa. Manual de métodos de análises

[57] Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária - Embrapa. Sistema Brasileiro de

de Solo. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Solos; 2011

ed. Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo: Viçosa, MG; 2005

ed. rev. ampl. ed. Rio de Janeiro, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa

comites-de-bacias/comites/cbh-reconcavo-norte-inhambupe

[Tese]. São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo; 2003

MME/SG/Projeto RADAMBRASIL. Rio de Janeiro; 1981

DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2012.07.008

p. 96

2007;**21**:167-179

160 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

de Geociências. 2010;**7**:80-87

n° 02 [CD-ROM]; Salvador; 2012

Solo no Campo. 5<sup>ᵃ</sup>

de Solos; 2013

Classificação de Solos. 3ᵃ


[72] Price J, Ewing K, Woo MK, Kersaw KA. Vegetation patterns in James Bay coastal marshes. II. Effects of hydrology on salinity and vegetation. Canadian Journal of Botany. 1988; **66**:2586-2594. DOI: 10.1139/b88-350

**Section 6**

**Mangrove Bioprospect**


## **Mangrove Bioprospect**

[72] Price J, Ewing K, Woo MK, Kersaw KA. Vegetation patterns in James Bay coastal marshes. II. Effects of hydrology on salinity and vegetation. Canadian Journal of Botany. 1988;

[73] Curi N, Kämpf N. Caracterização do solo. In: Ker JC, Curi N, Schaefer CEGR, Vidal-Torrado PV, editores. Pedologia: Fundamentos. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de

[74] Araújo BRN. Diagnóstico Geoambiental de Zonas de Manguezal Do estuário Do Rio Itanhém, município de Alcobaça – Região Extremo Sul Do Estado da Bahia [Tese].

[75] Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente—Conama. Resolução n° 460, de 30 de dezembro de 2013. Dispõe sobre critérios e valores orientadores de qualidade do solo quanto à

[76] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration—NOAA. Screening Quick Reference Tables, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Seattle; 1999. Available from:

[77] Marins RV, Freire GSS, Maia LP, Lima JPPR, Lacerda LD. Impacts of land-based activities on the Ceará coast, NE Brazil. In: Lacerda LD, Kremer HH, Kjerfve B, Salomons W, Marshall-Crossland JI, Crossland JC, editors. South American Basins: LOICZ Global Change Assessment and Synthesis of River Catchment—Coastal Sea Interaction and

[78] Ray AK, Tripathy SC, Patra S, Sarma VV. Assessment of Godovari estuarine mangrove ecosystem through trace metal studies. Environment International. 2006;**32**:219-223.

[79] Kangkuso A, Sharma S, Jamili, Septiana A, Raya R, Sahidin I, Nadaoka K. Heavy metal bioaccumulation in mangrove ecosystem at the coral triangle ecoregion, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Marine Bulletin Pollution. 2017;**125**:472-480. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpo

presença de substâncias químicas e dá outras providências. Brasília, DF; 2013

https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/9327 [Accessed: 2018-03-15]

Human Dimensions. Texel: Loicz R & Studies; 2002. pp. 92-98

**66**:2586-2594. DOI: 10.1139/b88-350

162 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

Ciência do Solo; 2012. p.147-170

DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2005.08.014

lbul.2017.07.065

Salvador: Universidade Federal da Bahia; 2000

**Chapter 8**

**Provisional chapter**

**Chemistry and Biodiversity of** *Rhizophora***-Derived**

**Chemistry and Biodiversity of** *Rhizophora***-Derived** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76573

*Rhizophora* are salt-tolerant mangrove flora located in tropical and subtropical intertidal coastal regions. This review summarizes frequently occurring fungal endophytes in *Rhizophora*. In total, 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. Among those discussed here, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Penicillium*, and *Mucor* are the most abundant fungal genera, and they are widely studied. In previous studies, 195 metabolites were encountered in *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi, and their structures are reported within a biogenetic context. Bioassays showed antitumor, antimicrobial, as well as anti-H1N1 activities to be the most notable bioactivities of

**Keywords:** *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi, biodiversity, secondary metabolites,

Endophytic fungi, a polyphyletic group of highly diverse, primarily ascomycetous fungi that spend all or at least for a part of their life cycle inter- or intracellularly colonizing healthy tissues of plants without causing visible disease symptoms [1]. They are found in almost all vascular plants and grass plants [2]. It is worth noting that of the nearly 300,000 plant species that exist on Earth, any given plant is colonized by several to few hundreds of endophytic fungal species. Only a few of these plants have ever been completely studied relative to their endophytic biology [3]. Until recently, extensive work has been conducted on traditionally investigated terrestrial endophytic fungi with biological significance, and these studies mostly concentrated on the tropical and rainforest regions of the world. However, systematic

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Endophytic Fungi**

**Endophytic Fungi**

Jing Zhou and Jing Xu

Jing Zhou and Jing Xu

**Abstract**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

the secondary metabolites discussed.

biological activities

**1. Introduction**

#### **Chemistry and Biodiversity of** *Rhizophora***-Derived Endophytic Fungi Chemistry and Biodiversity of** *Rhizophora***-Derived Endophytic Fungi**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76573

Jing Zhou and Jing Xu Jing Zhou and Jing Xu

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

#### **Abstract**

*Rhizophora* are salt-tolerant mangrove flora located in tropical and subtropical intertidal coastal regions. This review summarizes frequently occurring fungal endophytes in *Rhizophora*. In total, 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. Among those discussed here, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Penicillium*, and *Mucor* are the most abundant fungal genera, and they are widely studied. In previous studies, 195 metabolites were encountered in *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi, and their structures are reported within a biogenetic context. Bioassays showed antitumor, antimicrobial, as well as anti-H1N1 activities to be the most notable bioactivities of the secondary metabolites discussed.

**Keywords:** *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi, biodiversity, secondary metabolites, biological activities

### **1. Introduction**

Endophytic fungi, a polyphyletic group of highly diverse, primarily ascomycetous fungi that spend all or at least for a part of their life cycle inter- or intracellularly colonizing healthy tissues of plants without causing visible disease symptoms [1]. They are found in almost all vascular plants and grass plants [2]. It is worth noting that of the nearly 300,000 plant species that exist on Earth, any given plant is colonized by several to few hundreds of endophytic fungal species. Only a few of these plants have ever been completely studied relative to their endophytic biology [3]. Until recently, extensive work has been conducted on traditionally investigated terrestrial endophytic fungi with biological significance, and these studies mostly concentrated on the tropical and rainforest regions of the world. However, systematic

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and comparative approaches to identifying endophytic fungi and their specific location in the plants they colonize, especially in ecological niches such as mangrove endosymbionts growing in high salinity, high temperature, extreme tides, oxygen pressure, high humidity, and light and air limitations, have received considerable attention in recent decades [4, 5]. Hence, it is now generally accepted that the highly complex mangrove ecosystems could act as an effective selector for metabolic pathway evolution via the generation of structurally unprecedented and biologically interesting metabolites of pharmaceutical importance. Such metabolites are believed to be involved in ecological adaptability, defense, communication, and predation [6]. In this review, we summarize the biodiversity of *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi. Additionally, the metabolites encountered in *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi and their structures are reported within a biogenetic context. Special emphasis is placed on the prospect of discovering unique functional metabolites.

### **2. Endophytic fungi from** *Rhizophora*

Mangroves are composed of a large group of salt-tolerant plant communities growing in tropical and subtropical intertidal estuarine zones, which are distributed approximately in the area between 30° N and 30° S latitude [7]. Asia and Australia have the greatest diversity and distribution of mangrove species. Among the 18 million hectares of mangrove forests, more than 40% are found along the Asian coasts, including the South China Sea Coast [10]. The most established mangroves can be found in Bangladesh, Brazil, Indonesia, India, and Thailand [8, 9]. According to the statistical data of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystem, there are 84 mangrove species globally, belonging to 16 families and 24 genera. Among them, 70 species are true mangroves, pertaining to 16 genera and 11 families. Another 14 species are considered semimangroves, belonging to 8 genera and 5 families [10]. China has 26 species, and 24 of them are distributed in Hainan [11, 12].

*Rhizophora* is one of the most conspicuous genera of the most widespread mangrove family, the Rhizophoraceae. The genus is relatively old among cosmopolitan mangrove genera, and it has notable discontinued species distributions [13]. In total, eight species comprise the *Rhizophora*, including *R. stylosa*, *R. apiculata*, *R. mucronata*, *R. mangle*, *R. harrisonii*, *R. racemosa*, *R. annamalayana*, and *R. samoensis* (**Table 1**). *R. stylosa*, *R. mucronata,* and *R. apiculata* are mainly distributed in islands and coastal areas bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, while *R. mangle*, *R. annamalayana*, *R. samoensis*, *R. harrisonii,* and *R. racemosa* are mainly distributed from the eastern Pacific through the American islands to the Atlantic Ocean (**Figure 1**).

endophytic *Pestalotiopsis* sp. is isolated and capable of producing lignin-degrading enzymes. This species secretes over 400 salt-adapted lignocellulolytic enzymes, which enhance the salt

Hainan plant flora [12]; Xing [14]; Villamayor [15]; Dangan [16]; Morton [17]; Arfi [18]; Chen [11]; Tyagi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

167

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

Hainan plant flora [12]; Xing [14]; Selvaraj [21]; Villamayor [15]; Dangan [16]; Rossiana [22]; Clough [23]; Piapukiew [24]; Klaiklay, [25]; Rukachaisirikul [26];

Hainan plant flora [12]; Trinh [28]; Osorio [29]; Villamayor [15]; Dangan [16]; Tarman [30]; Suryanarayanan [31]; Rani [32]; Kandasamy [33]; Rukachaisirikul [26]; Tan [27]; Tariq [34]

Boehm [35]; Ferreira [36]; Barreto [37]; Ball [38]; Afzal [39]; Wanderley [40]; Dourado [41]; Godoy [42];

Hemphill [43]; Twilley [44]; Breteler [45]; Cerónsouza

Ukoima [48]; Xavier [49]; Afzal [39]; Osorio [29]

[19]; Kohlmeyer [20]

Tan [27]

Kohlmeyer [20]

[46]; Cornejo [47]; Afzal [39]

Tyagi [19]; Duke [51]

To date, the species of mangrove endophytic fungi identified from a large and diverse ecological group are mostly members of the Ascomycota phylum, with a limited occurrence of basidiomycetes [53, 54]. Since 1955, when Cribb first described endophytic fungi isolated from mangrove roots, several studies on the fungi residing in mangroves along the coastlines of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans have been conducted [55]. Hyde [56] listed approximately 120 fungal species that colonize 29 mangrove plants globally, including 87 ascomycetes, 31 mitosporic fungi, and 2 basidiomycetes. Schmit and Shearer [57, 58] reported 625 mangrove-associated fungi, including 279 ascomycetes, 277 mitosporic fungi, 29 basidiomycetes, 3 chytridiomycetes, 2 myxomycetes, 14 oomycetes, 9 thraustochytrids, and 12 zygomycetes. According to the frequency of their appearance, *Alternaria*, *Aspergillus*, *Cladosporium*, *Colletotrichum*, *Fusarium*, *Paecilomyces*, *Penicillium*, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Phoma*, *Phomopsis*, *Phyllosticta*, and *Trichoderma* have been recognized as the predominant culturable mangrove endophytic

adaptation of mangrove hosts [18].

**Plants species Distribution Ref.** *R. stylosa* China (Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi);

Archipelago)

*R. apiculata* China (Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi);

*R. mucronata* China (Taiwan); Vietnam; South Africa;

*R. mangle* Brazil; Venezuela; Dominican Republic;

*R. harrisonii* Nigeria (Port Harcourt); Ecuador;

*R. racemosa* Nigeria; Ecuador; French Guiana;

*R. samoensis* Fiji (Viti Levu); America; Southwest

**Table 1.** The distribution of *Rhizophora* in the world.

Samoa; Marshall Islands

Japan; Singapore; Pakistan

Gua de Ropp; Mexico; America (Florida, Hawaii); Senegal; Gabon; French Guiana; Australia

America; West Africa; Equatorial Guinea; Senegal; Gabon

Gambia; Senegal; Gabon; Togo; America (Hawaii); Mexico

*R. annamalayana* India Elavarasi [50]

Pacific Islands (Caledonia, Hebrides);

Philippines; New Caledonia; Fiji (Viti Levu); Australia; Japan (Ryukyu

India; Indonesia; Philippines; Vietnam; Thailand; Singapore; Malaysia

Philippines; Indonesia; India; Thailand;

fungi [59].

Fungi colonized in mangrove forests, which comprise the second largest ecological group of the marine fungi, have specially adapted their own morphological structures and physiological mechanisms to promote the survival of host plants in harsh environmental conditions through long-term endophyte-host interactions [52]. Most mangrove endophytic fungi are facultative halophiles and euryhaline in nature. Since they do not require added salt for growth, they are able to grow at high salt concentrations and show a balanced symbiotic continuum of mutualism with host mangroves [5]. For instance, the halotolerant *Rhizophora stylosa*


**Table 1.** The distribution of *Rhizophora* in the world.

and comparative approaches to identifying endophytic fungi and their specific location in the plants they colonize, especially in ecological niches such as mangrove endosymbionts growing in high salinity, high temperature, extreme tides, oxygen pressure, high humidity, and light and air limitations, have received considerable attention in recent decades [4, 5]. Hence, it is now generally accepted that the highly complex mangrove ecosystems could act as an effective selector for metabolic pathway evolution via the generation of structurally unprecedented and biologically interesting metabolites of pharmaceutical importance. Such metabolites are believed to be involved in ecological adaptability, defense, communication, and predation [6]. In this review, we summarize the biodiversity of *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi. Additionally, the metabolites encountered in *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi and their structures are reported within a biogenetic context. Special emphasis is placed on the

Mangroves are composed of a large group of salt-tolerant plant communities growing in tropical and subtropical intertidal estuarine zones, which are distributed approximately in the area between 30° N and 30° S latitude [7]. Asia and Australia have the greatest diversity and distribution of mangrove species. Among the 18 million hectares of mangrove forests, more than 40% are found along the Asian coasts, including the South China Sea Coast [10]. The most established mangroves can be found in Bangladesh, Brazil, Indonesia, India, and Thailand [8, 9]. According to the statistical data of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystem, there are 84 mangrove species globally, belonging to 16 families and 24 genera. Among them, 70 species are true mangroves, pertaining to 16 genera and 11 families. Another 14 species are considered semimangroves, belonging to 8 genera and 5 families [10]. China

*Rhizophora* is one of the most conspicuous genera of the most widespread mangrove family, the Rhizophoraceae. The genus is relatively old among cosmopolitan mangrove genera, and it has notable discontinued species distributions [13]. In total, eight species comprise the *Rhizophora*, including *R. stylosa*, *R. apiculata*, *R. mucronata*, *R. mangle*, *R. harrisonii*, *R. racemosa*, *R. annamalayana*, and *R. samoensis* (**Table 1**). *R. stylosa*, *R. mucronata,* and *R. apiculata* are mainly distributed in islands and coastal areas bordering the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, while *R. mangle*, *R. annamalayana*, *R. samoensis*, *R. harrisonii,* and *R. racemosa* are mainly distributed from the eastern Pacific through the American islands to the

Fungi colonized in mangrove forests, which comprise the second largest ecological group of the marine fungi, have specially adapted their own morphological structures and physiological mechanisms to promote the survival of host plants in harsh environmental conditions through long-term endophyte-host interactions [52]. Most mangrove endophytic fungi are facultative halophiles and euryhaline in nature. Since they do not require added salt for growth, they are able to grow at high salt concentrations and show a balanced symbiotic continuum of mutualism with host mangroves [5]. For instance, the halotolerant *Rhizophora stylosa*

prospect of discovering unique functional metabolites.

has 26 species, and 24 of them are distributed in Hainan [11, 12].

**2. Endophytic fungi from** *Rhizophora*

166 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

Atlantic Ocean (**Figure 1**).

endophytic *Pestalotiopsis* sp. is isolated and capable of producing lignin-degrading enzymes. This species secretes over 400 salt-adapted lignocellulolytic enzymes, which enhance the salt adaptation of mangrove hosts [18].

To date, the species of mangrove endophytic fungi identified from a large and diverse ecological group are mostly members of the Ascomycota phylum, with a limited occurrence of basidiomycetes [53, 54]. Since 1955, when Cribb first described endophytic fungi isolated from mangrove roots, several studies on the fungi residing in mangroves along the coastlines of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans have been conducted [55]. Hyde [56] listed approximately 120 fungal species that colonize 29 mangrove plants globally, including 87 ascomycetes, 31 mitosporic fungi, and 2 basidiomycetes. Schmit and Shearer [57, 58] reported 625 mangrove-associated fungi, including 279 ascomycetes, 277 mitosporic fungi, 29 basidiomycetes, 3 chytridiomycetes, 2 myxomycetes, 14 oomycetes, 9 thraustochytrids, and 12 zygomycetes. According to the frequency of their appearance, *Alternaria*, *Aspergillus*, *Cladosporium*, *Colletotrichum*, *Fusarium*, *Paecilomyces*, *Penicillium*, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Phoma*, *Phomopsis*, *Phyllosticta*, and *Trichoderma* have been recognized as the predominant culturable mangrove endophytic fungi [59].

**Plants species Isolated endophytic fungi Sampling** 

*Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Bionectria, Colletotrichum, Epicoccum, Nigrospora, Penicillium, Pestalotiopsis, Phoma, Phomopsis, Phialophora,* 

*Chaetomium, Corynespora, Fusarium, Geniculosporium, Glomerella, Guignardia, Melanconium, Sphaceloma,* 

*Penicillium* Wen Chang Peng [61]

*Alternaria, Diaporthe, Mucor* Hainan Gao [62];Zang [63];Sun [64]

*Acremonium, Flavodon, Phomopsis, Pestalotiopsis* Thailand Klaiklay [25];Klaiklay

*Aspergillus* Indonesia Tarman [30] *Phomopsis* Shiono [70] *Diaporthe*, *Neofusicoccum* South Africa Osorio [29]

*R. stylosa Aureobasidium*, *Aspergillus*, *Cladosporium, Diaporthe*, *Fusarium*, *Guignardia, Pestalotiopsis*

*R. apiculata Aspergillus, Aureobasidium*, *Cladosporium*, *Diaporthe*,

*Sporormiella, Xylariaceous*

*Sporormiella, Trichoderma*

*Trichoderma, Xylaria, Valsa*

*Fusarium*, *Massarina*, *Penicillium, Pestalotiopsis,* 

*Acremonium, Alternaria, Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera, Fusarium, Nodulisporium, Pestalotiopsis, Phialophora, Phoma, Phomopsis, Phyllosticta, Pithomyces, Glomerella, Sporothrix,* 

*Acremonium, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Chaetomium, Penicillium, Pestalotiopsis, Phialophora, Phoma, Phyllosticta, Pseudeurotium, Sporormiella, Thielavia*

*R. mucronata Pestalotiopsis* Dong Zhai

*Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botryotrichum, Cladosporium, Chaetomium, Glomerella, Nigrospora, Pestalotiopsis, Phialophora, Phomopsis, Phyllosticta,* 

*Ascotricha, Aspergillus, Cirrenalia, Cladosporium, Dicyma, Fusariella, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Phoma, Phomopsis, Trichocladium, Zalerion, Zygosporium*

*Botryosphaeria, Colletotrichum, Coprinellus, Cytospora, Diaporthe, Endothia, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Gibberella, Glomerella, Guignardia, Hypocrea, Leptosphaeria, Neofusicoccum, Penicillium, Phomopsis, Pichia,* 

*R. mangle Glomerella*, *Guignardia, Nodulisporium*, *Phyllosticta* Brazil Wanderley [40]

*Leucostoma* Beau [72]

*Cytospora* Wier [74]

*Talaromyces, Trichoderma*

*Pestalotiopsis, Phoma*

*Phomopsis*

**location**

Dong Zhai Gang

Gang

**Ref.**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

169

Hyde [60]

Liu [59]

Xing [14];

India Kumaresan [68]

[65, 66];Buatong [67];Rukachaisirikul, [26]

Suryanarayanan [31]

Xu [69]

India Suryanarayanan [31]

Ananda [71]

Sebastianes [73]

China Xing [14]

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

**Figure 1.** The distribution of *Rhizophora* in the world.

As a relatively underappreciated reservoir of bioresources, endophytic fungi from mangroves have been considered potential pharmaceutical and agricultural resources. Recent studies have investigated the biodiversity and distribution of mangrove endophytic fungi in the South China Sea. The taxonomic identities and diversity of endophytic fungal communities isolated from five species of the genus *Sonneratia* (*S. caseolaris*, *S. hainanensis*, *S. ovata*, *S. paracaseolaris*, and *S. apetala*) and four species of Rhizophoraceae (*Ceriops tagal*, *R. apiculata*, *R. stylosa*, and *Bruguiera sexangula* var. *rhynchopetala*) have been addressed [14].

Identification of biologically interesting metabolites from these endophytic fungi is an important initial step in understanding the role of endophytes to host mangrove plants. According


As a relatively underappreciated reservoir of bioresources, endophytic fungi from mangroves have been considered potential pharmaceutical and agricultural resources. Recent studies have investigated the biodiversity and distribution of mangrove endophytic fungi in the South China Sea. The taxonomic identities and diversity of endophytic fungal communities isolated from five species of the genus *Sonneratia* (*S. caseolaris*, *S. hainanensis*, *S. ovata*, *S. paracaseolaris*, and *S. apetala*) and four species of Rhizophoraceae (*Ceriops tagal*, *R. apiculata*, *R. stylosa*, and

Identification of biologically interesting metabolites from these endophytic fungi is an important initial step in understanding the role of endophytes to host mangrove plants. According

*Bruguiera sexangula* var. *rhynchopetala*) have been addressed [14].

**Figure 1.** The distribution of *Rhizophora* in the world.

168 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function


At a concentration of 8 nmol equisetin/mg protein, the inhibition rate can reach 50% [78]. New cerebroside lipids, chrysogesides A–E (**3–8**), and new pyridone ketones, chrysogedones A and B (**9, 10**), were isolated from the fermentation extract of *Penicillium chrysogenum* PXP-55, isolated from *R. stylosa*. Compound (**6**) exhibited inhibitory activity against *Enterobacter aerogenes* with MIC value of 1.72 μM [61]. The fungus species *Pestalotiopsis* JCM2A4, isolated from the Chinese mangrove plant *Rhizophora mucronata*, is one of the most abundant resources for screening natural products with different biological activities [79]. New N-substituted amide derivatives, pestalotiopamides A–E (**12–16**), and a new succinimide, pestalotiopsoid A (**11**), were isolated from the fermented crude extracts of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4, which was collected from *R. mucronata* [69, 80, 81]. A culture of the fungus *Aspergillus nidulans* MA-143, isolated from *R. stylosa* leaves, yielded six new compounds, and all the compounds contained the structural unit 4-phenyl-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2(1H)-one, aniduquinolones A–C (**17–19**), 6-deoxyaflaquinolone E (**20**), isoaflaquinolone E (**21**), 14-hydroxyaflaquinolone F (**22**), and aflaquinolone A (**23**). The bioactivity results showed that compounds **17–23** had no inhibitory activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402, breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231, leukemia myeloid cell HL-60, or chronic myeloid leukemia cell K652. Additionally, these compounds had no antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* or *Escherichia coli*. Compounds **17**, **19**, and **23** exhibited lethal activity against *Artemia salina*, with LD50 values of 7.1, 4.5, and 5.5 μM, respectively [82]. About 6 new indole diterpenoid alkaloid derivatives (**24–29**) and 5 known similar metabolites, including 21-isopentenylpaxilline (**30**), paxilline (**31**), ehydroxypaxilline (**32**), emindole (**33**), and paspaline (**34**), were identified from a culture of *Penicillium camemberti* OUCMDZ-1492, isolated from the *R. apiculata*. Among them, compounds **24**, **26–28**, and **30–33** all showed strong H1N1 influenza virus inhibitory activity, with IC50 values ranging from 6 to 80 μM [83]. A new paspaline (**34**) and three known analogs, penijanthine A (**35**), paspalinine (**36**), and penitrem (**37**), were isolated from *Alternaria tenuissima* EN-192 from *R. stylosa* stems. Compounds **34–37** had slight antimicrobial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Bacillus subtilis*, and *Vibrio anguillarum* [64]. The cultivable *Phomopsis sp*. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* leaves can produce phenylethanol compounds, including phomonitroester (**38**). Compound **38** was initially isolated from *Phomopsis sp*. PSU-D15, which was from another plant of *Garcinia dulcis* [84]. The bioassay test showed that compound **38** had a weak inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells MCF-7 and KB85. The four new quinazolone alkaloid derivatives, aniquinazolines A–D (**39–42**) which were isolated from *Aspergillus nidulans* MA-143 in *R. stylosa*, showed strong lethal activity in shrimp, with LD50 values of 1.27, 2.11, 4.95, and 3.42 μM, respectively. Meanwhile, they had no inhibitory activity against hepatoma cell BEL-7402, breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231, leukemia myeloid cell HL-60, and chronic myeloid leukemia cell K562. Moreover, no antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Escherichia coli* was observed [82]. Two new indole alkaloids, penioxamide A (**43**) and 18-hydroxydecaturin B (**44**), and a known compound decaturin B (**45**) were isolated from the fermented rice extract of *R. stylosa* endophytic fungi *Penicillium oxalicum* EN-201 [85]. Mucor irregularis QEN-189 was isolated from *R. stylosa*, from which 6 indole diterpenoid alkaloid derivatives and 14 analogs were separated, namely rhizovarins A–F (**46– 50, 53**), secopentrem D (**51**), PC-M4 (**52**), penijianthine A (**54**), penitrem A–F (**55–60**), paxilline (**61**), 27-O-acetylpaxillin (**62**), 13-deoxy-27-O-acetylpaxillin (**63**), 10-deoxy-13-deoxypaxilline

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

171

**Table 2.** The endophytic fungi isolated from *Rhizophora*.

to the previous studies, the identification and phylogenetic diversity of mangrove endophytic fungi was largely associated with mangroves located in China, Thailand, Indonesia, Brazil, and India. In total, 26 genera of mangrove endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. stylosa*; 27 genera were isolated from *R. apiculata*; 26 genera were obtained from *R. mucronata*; 23 genera were isolated from *R. mangle*; 1 genus was isolated from *R. harrisonii* and *R. annamalayana* (namely *Pestalotiopsis* and *Fusarium*); and 4 genera of endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. racemosa*. Until now, no studies have been conducted on *R. samoensis*. In comparison with the previous reports, the frequently occurring fungi entophytes in *Rhizophora*, including 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. The fungi of Basidiomycota are rarely found in *Rhizophora*. The dominant endophytic fungi of the *Rhizophora* genus are mainly distributed in *Aspergillus*, *Cladosporium*, *Chaetomium*, *Fusarium*, *Lasiodiplodia*, *Penicillium*, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Phomopsis*, *Phoma*, *Phyllosticta,* and *Trichoderma* (**Table 2**).

### **3. The secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi of** *Rhizophora*

There is a wide range of endophytic fungi in mangroves, and their growing environment is unique. Thus, in the formation of special fungal communities, they will certainly metabolize compounds with rich structures, unlike that of terrestrial fungi. Many of these metabolites provide a rich model structure for the screening of new drugs, which have become increasingly valuable in drug-lead research [5]. A total of 195 metabolites were discovered from *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi reported so far are included. The secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi of mangrove are classified as alkaloids, terpenes, coumarins, chromones, quinones, anthraquinones, peptides, phenolic acids, lactones, and other compounds.

#### **3.1. Alkaloids**

*Fusarium equisetin* AGR12 from *R. stylosa* produced two cyclic acetyl phytotoxin derivatives, equisetin (**1**) and *epi-equisetin* (**2**) [75, 76]. Both equisetin (**1**) and *epi-equisetin* (**2**) exhibit modest antibacterial activity, and equisetin (**1**) had selective antimicrobial activity against some Gram-positive bacteria [77]. The metabolite equisetin was first purified from maize grit medium cultures of *F. equiseti* strain NRRL 5337, and equisetin can inhibit the ATPase activity of mitochondria in rat hepatocytes induced by 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) in a concentration-dependent manner. At a concentration of 8 nmol equisetin/mg protein, the inhibition rate can reach 50% [78]. New cerebroside lipids, chrysogesides A–E (**3–8**), and new pyridone ketones, chrysogedones A and B (**9, 10**), were isolated from the fermentation extract of *Penicillium chrysogenum* PXP-55, isolated from *R. stylosa*. Compound (**6**) exhibited inhibitory activity against *Enterobacter aerogenes* with MIC value of 1.72 μM [61]. The fungus species *Pestalotiopsis* JCM2A4, isolated from the Chinese mangrove plant *Rhizophora mucronata*, is one of the most abundant resources for screening natural products with different biological activities [79]. New N-substituted amide derivatives, pestalotiopamides A–E (**12–16**), and a new succinimide, pestalotiopsoid A (**11**), were isolated from the fermented crude extracts of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4, which was collected from *R. mucronata* [69, 80, 81]. A culture of the fungus *Aspergillus nidulans* MA-143, isolated from *R. stylosa* leaves, yielded six new compounds, and all the compounds contained the structural unit 4-phenyl-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2(1H)-one, aniduquinolones A–C (**17–19**), 6-deoxyaflaquinolone E (**20**), isoaflaquinolone E (**21**), 14-hydroxyaflaquinolone F (**22**), and aflaquinolone A (**23**). The bioactivity results showed that compounds **17–23** had no inhibitory activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402, breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231, leukemia myeloid cell HL-60, or chronic myeloid leukemia cell K652. Additionally, these compounds had no antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* or *Escherichia coli*. Compounds **17**, **19**, and **23** exhibited lethal activity against *Artemia salina*, with LD50 values of 7.1, 4.5, and 5.5 μM, respectively [82]. About 6 new indole diterpenoid alkaloid derivatives (**24–29**) and 5 known similar metabolites, including 21-isopentenylpaxilline (**30**), paxilline (**31**), ehydroxypaxilline (**32**), emindole (**33**), and paspaline (**34**), were identified from a culture of *Penicillium camemberti* OUCMDZ-1492, isolated from the *R. apiculata*. Among them, compounds **24**, **26–28**, and **30–33** all showed strong H1N1 influenza virus inhibitory activity, with IC50 values ranging from 6 to 80 μM [83]. A new paspaline (**34**) and three known analogs, penijanthine A (**35**), paspalinine (**36**), and penitrem (**37**), were isolated from *Alternaria tenuissima* EN-192 from *R. stylosa* stems. Compounds **34–37** had slight antimicrobial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Bacillus subtilis*, and *Vibrio anguillarum* [64]. The cultivable *Phomopsis sp*. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* leaves can produce phenylethanol compounds, including phomonitroester (**38**). Compound **38** was initially isolated from *Phomopsis sp*. PSU-D15, which was from another plant of *Garcinia dulcis* [84]. The bioassay test showed that compound **38** had a weak inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells MCF-7 and KB85. The four new quinazolone alkaloid derivatives, aniquinazolines A–D (**39–42**) which were isolated from *Aspergillus nidulans* MA-143 in *R. stylosa*, showed strong lethal activity in shrimp, with LD50 values of 1.27, 2.11, 4.95, and 3.42 μM, respectively. Meanwhile, they had no inhibitory activity against hepatoma cell BEL-7402, breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231, leukemia myeloid cell HL-60, and chronic myeloid leukemia cell K562. Moreover, no antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Escherichia coli* was observed [82]. Two new indole alkaloids, penioxamide A (**43**) and 18-hydroxydecaturin B (**44**), and a known compound decaturin B (**45**) were isolated from the fermented rice extract of *R. stylosa* endophytic fungi *Penicillium oxalicum* EN-201 [85]. Mucor irregularis QEN-189 was isolated from *R. stylosa*, from which 6 indole diterpenoid alkaloid derivatives and 14 analogs were separated, namely rhizovarins A–F (**46– 50, 53**), secopentrem D (**51**), PC-M4 (**52**), penijianthine A (**54**), penitrem A–F (**55–60**), paxilline (**61**), 27-O-acetylpaxillin (**62**), 13-deoxy-27-O-acetylpaxillin (**63**), 10-deoxy-13-deoxypaxilline

to the previous studies, the identification and phylogenetic diversity of mangrove endophytic fungi was largely associated with mangroves located in China, Thailand, Indonesia, Brazil, and India. In total, 26 genera of mangrove endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. stylosa*; 27 genera were isolated from *R. apiculata*; 26 genera were obtained from *R. mucronata*; 23 genera were isolated from *R. mangle*; 1 genus was isolated from *R. harrisonii* and *R. annamalayana* (namely *Pestalotiopsis* and *Fusarium*); and 4 genera of endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. racemosa*. Until now, no studies have been conducted on *R. samoensis*. In comparison with the previous reports, the frequently occurring fungi entophytes in *Rhizophora*, including 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. The fungi of Basidiomycota are rarely found in *Rhizophora*. The dominant endophytic fungi of the *Rhizophora* genus are mainly distributed in *Aspergillus*, *Cladosporium*, *Chaetomium*, *Fusarium*, *Lasiodiplodia*, *Penicillium*, *Pestalotiopsis*, *Phomopsis*, *Phoma*, *Phyllosticta,* and *Trichoderma* (**Table 2**).

**location**

**Ref.**

**Plants species Isolated endophytic fungi Sampling** 

**Table 2.** The endophytic fungi isolated from *Rhizophora*.

170 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

*R. harrisonii Pestalotiopsis* Nigeria Hemphill [43] *R. racemosa Aspergillus, Lasiodiplodia, Paecilomyces, Penicillium* Nigeria Ukoima [48] *R. annamalayana Fusarium* Vellar estuary Elavarasi [50]

**3. The secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi of** *Rhizophora*

quinones, anthraquinones, peptides, phenolic acids, lactones, and other compounds.

*Fusarium equisetin* AGR12 from *R. stylosa* produced two cyclic acetyl phytotoxin derivatives, equisetin (**1**) and *epi-equisetin* (**2**) [75, 76]. Both equisetin (**1**) and *epi-equisetin* (**2**) exhibit modest antibacterial activity, and equisetin (**1**) had selective antimicrobial activity against some Gram-positive bacteria [77]. The metabolite equisetin was first purified from maize grit medium cultures of *F. equiseti* strain NRRL 5337, and equisetin can inhibit the ATPase activity of mitochondria in rat hepatocytes induced by 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) in a concentration-dependent manner.

**3.1. Alkaloids**

*R. samoensis*

There is a wide range of endophytic fungi in mangroves, and their growing environment is unique. Thus, in the formation of special fungal communities, they will certainly metabolize compounds with rich structures, unlike that of terrestrial fungi. Many of these metabolites provide a rich model structure for the screening of new drugs, which have become increasingly valuable in drug-lead research [5]. A total of 195 metabolites were discovered from *Rhizophora*-derived endophytic fungi reported so far are included. The secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi of mangrove are classified as alkaloids, terpenes, coumarins, chromones, (64), and 10β-hydroxy-13-desoxypaxilline (**65**). As for antitumor activity, compounds **46**, **47**, **50**, **55**, **57**, **60**, and **65** had inhibitory activity against lung cancer cell A549, and the IC50 values were 11.5, 6.3, 9.2, 8.4, 8.0, 8.2, and 4.6 μM, respectively. They also had inhibitory activity against leukemia cells of HL-60, with IC50 values of 9.6, 5.0, 7.0, 4.7, 3.3, and 2.6 μM, respectively [62]. The *Hypocrea virens* of *R. apiculata* is capable of producing isoquinoline alkaloids, 2-methylimidazo[1,5-b]isoquinoline-1,3,5(2H)-trione (**66**) [86] (**Figure 2**).

resistant to *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Enterococcus faecalis*, *Streptococcus pyogenes*, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, and *Klebsiella pneumoniae*, with the MIC values ranging from 125 to

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

173

A strain of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. was isolated from the leaves of *R. mucronata*, which is an important resource of coumarin compounds. Pestalasins A–E (**85–89**) and one known compound, 3-dydroxymethyl-6,8-dimethoxycoumarin (**90**), were separated from fermentation extracts, and this was the first time that coumarin had been found in the mangrove microbes [69]. A more in-depth study of the chemical constituents of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. led to the discovery of a new isocoumarin derivative, pestalotiopisorin A (**91**) [80]. Seven new structural analogs, acremonones B–H (**92–98**), were isolated from *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70, which was from *R. apiculata* [26]. *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* was isolated from the leaves of *R. harrisonii*, and four new polyketide derivatives were separated from endophytic fungi, including pestapyrones

Three rare chlorinated chromone derivatives, pestalochromones A–C (**104–106**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69 in *R. apiculata* [25]. Further studies on the chemical composition of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. from *R. mucronata* led to the discovery of a series of rare lipophilic chromone derivatives, pestalotiopsones A–F (**107–112**), and the known compound, 5-carbomethoxymethyl-heptyl-7-hydroxychromone (**113**). The bioactivity test showed that compound **111** had weak cytotoxic activity against mouse lymphoma cell L5178Y, with an EC50 value of 29.4 μM [69]. Four new chromone derivatives, phomopsichins A–D (**114–117**), along with a known compound, phomoxanthone A (**118**), were isolated from the fermentation

from *R. stylosa*. The bioassay results showed that compounds

A–C (**99–101**), (R)-periplanetin D (**103**), and similanpyrone B (**102**) [43] (**Figure 4**).

250 μM [87] (**Figure 3**).

**3.3. Coumarins**

**3.4. Chromones**

products of *Phomopsis* sp. 33#

**Figure 3.** The structures of terpenoids in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 4.** The structures of coumarins in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

#### **3.2. Terpenoids**

A new sesquiterpene, diaporol A (**67**), with a tricyclic lactone structure; eight new sesquiterpenes, diaporols B–I (**68–75**); drimane; 3*β*-hydroxyconfertifolin (**76**); and diplodiatoxin (77) were isolated from *Diaporthe* sp. of *R. stylosa*. The bioactivity test showed that compounds **67–77** had no cytotoxicity on human gastric cancer cell SGC-7901, breast cancer cell MCF-7, lung cancer cell A549, and hepatocellular carcinoma cell line QGY-7701 at a concentration of 20 μM [63]. Flavodon flavus PSU-MA201 was isolated from *R. apiculata*, from which a known perhydroazulene compound, tremulenolide A (**78**), was separated, and the bioassay test showed that compound **78** exhibited modest antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* ATCC25923 and *Cryptococcus neoformans* ATCC90113 with MIC values of 128 μg/ mL [65, 66]. A known altiloxin B (**79**) with drimane was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata* [87]. Two known mycotoxins, 8-deoxytrichothecin (**80**) and trichodermol (**81**), were isolated from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 of *R. apiculata* [26]. As a plant-derived anticancer drug with a unique mechanism, taxol (**82**) was isolated from *Taxus brevifolia* bark and wood for the first time by American chemists Wani and Wall in 1963 [88, 89]. Subsequently, it has been found that endophytic fungi *Taxomyces* [90], *Pestalotiopsis* [91], *Alternaria* [92], and *Fusarium* [93] could also produce taxol and its analogs. Taxol (**82**) was also isolated from endophytic fungus *Fusarium oxysporum* in *R. annamalayana* [50]. Two new compounds, pestalotiopens A and B (**83, 84**), were separated from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4 from leaves of *R. mucronata*, and the bioactivity assay revealed that compound **83** was slightly

**Figure 2.** The structures of alkaloids in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

resistant to *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Escherichia coli*, *Enterococcus faecalis*, *Streptococcus pyogenes*, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, and *Klebsiella pneumoniae*, with the MIC values ranging from 125 to 250 μM [87] (**Figure 3**).

#### **3.3. Coumarins**

(64), and 10β-hydroxy-13-desoxypaxilline (**65**). As for antitumor activity, compounds **46**, **47**, **50**, **55**, **57**, **60**, and **65** had inhibitory activity against lung cancer cell A549, and the IC50 values were 11.5, 6.3, 9.2, 8.4, 8.0, 8.2, and 4.6 μM, respectively. They also had inhibitory activity against leukemia cells of HL-60, with IC50 values of 9.6, 5.0, 7.0, 4.7, 3.3, and 2.6 μM, respectively [62]. The *Hypocrea virens* of *R. apiculata* is capable of producing isoquinoline alkaloids,

A new sesquiterpene, diaporol A (**67**), with a tricyclic lactone structure; eight new sesquiterpenes, diaporols B–I (**68–75**); drimane; 3*β*-hydroxyconfertifolin (**76**); and diplodiatoxin (77) were isolated from *Diaporthe* sp. of *R. stylosa*. The bioactivity test showed that compounds **67–77** had no cytotoxicity on human gastric cancer cell SGC-7901, breast cancer cell MCF-7, lung cancer cell A549, and hepatocellular carcinoma cell line QGY-7701 at a concentration of 20 μM [63]. Flavodon flavus PSU-MA201 was isolated from *R. apiculata*, from which a known perhydroazulene compound, tremulenolide A (**78**), was separated, and the bioassay test showed that compound **78** exhibited modest antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* ATCC25923 and *Cryptococcus neoformans* ATCC90113 with MIC values of 128 μg/ mL [65, 66]. A known altiloxin B (**79**) with drimane was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata* [87]. Two known mycotoxins, 8-deoxytrichothecin (**80**) and trichodermol (**81**), were isolated from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 of *R. apiculata* [26]. As a plant-derived anticancer drug with a unique mechanism, taxol (**82**) was isolated from *Taxus brevifolia* bark and wood for the first time by American chemists Wani and Wall in 1963 [88, 89]. Subsequently, it has been found that endophytic fungi *Taxomyces* [90], *Pestalotiopsis* [91], *Alternaria* [92], and *Fusarium* [93] could also produce taxol and its analogs. Taxol (**82**) was also isolated from endophytic fungus *Fusarium oxysporum* in *R. annamalayana* [50]. Two new compounds, pestalotiopens A and B (**83, 84**), were separated from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4 from leaves of *R. mucronata*, and the bioactivity assay revealed that compound **83** was slightly

2-methylimidazo[1,5-b]isoquinoline-1,3,5(2H)-trione (**66**) [86] (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 2.** The structures of alkaloids in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**3.2. Terpenoids**

172 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

A strain of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. was isolated from the leaves of *R. mucronata*, which is an important resource of coumarin compounds. Pestalasins A–E (**85–89**) and one known compound, 3-dydroxymethyl-6,8-dimethoxycoumarin (**90**), were separated from fermentation extracts, and this was the first time that coumarin had been found in the mangrove microbes [69]. A more in-depth study of the chemical constituents of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. led to the discovery of a new isocoumarin derivative, pestalotiopisorin A (**91**) [80]. Seven new structural analogs, acremonones B–H (**92–98**), were isolated from *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70, which was from *R. apiculata* [26]. *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* was isolated from the leaves of *R. harrisonii*, and four new polyketide derivatives were separated from endophytic fungi, including pestapyrones A–C (**99–101**), (R)-periplanetin D (**103**), and similanpyrone B (**102**) [43] (**Figure 4**).

#### **3.4. Chromones**

Three rare chlorinated chromone derivatives, pestalochromones A–C (**104–106**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69 in *R. apiculata* [25]. Further studies on the chemical composition of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. from *R. mucronata* led to the discovery of a series of rare lipophilic chromone derivatives, pestalotiopsones A–F (**107–112**), and the known compound, 5-carbomethoxymethyl-heptyl-7-hydroxychromone (**113**). The bioactivity test showed that compound **111** had weak cytotoxic activity against mouse lymphoma cell L5178Y, with an EC50 value of 29.4 μM [69]. Four new chromone derivatives, phomopsichins A–D (**114–117**), along with a known compound, phomoxanthone A (**118**), were isolated from the fermentation products of *Phomopsis* sp. 33# from *R. stylosa*. The bioassay results showed that compounds

**Figure 3.** The structures of terpenoids in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 4.** The structures of coumarins in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**114–118** had weak inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase (AchE), α-glucanase, DPPH radical and hydroxyl radical, as well as weak inhibitory activity against 18 kinds of plant pathogenic bacteria [94]. A new polyketone derivative, pestalpolyol I (**119**), was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* in *R. harrisonii*. The bioactivity test showed that compound **119** had strong inhibitory activity against tumor cells L5178Y, with an IC50 value of 4.1 μM. Compound **119** also showed inhibitory activity against leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cells SMMC-7721, lung cancer cells A-549, breast cancer cells MCF-7, and human colon cancer cells SW480, with IC50 values of 10.4, 11.3, 2.3, 13.7 and 12.4 μM, respectively [43] (**Figure 5**).

*Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 from *R. apiculata* [26]. Activity tests showed that compounds **135** and **136** had weak antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus epidermidis* and *Enterococcus* 

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

175

In this category, four new diphenyl ether compounds, pestalotethers A–D (**141, 143–145**), and three known compounds, pestheic acid (**142**), chloroisosulochrin (**139**), and isosulochrin (**140**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69 of *R. apiculata* [25]. A new compound, norpestaphthalide A (**146**), and three known compounds, (R, S)-5,7-dihydroxy-3-(1-hydroxyethyl) phthalide (**148**) and pestaphthalides A and B (**147, 149**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* in the leaves of *R. harrisonii*. These compounds had no inhibitory effect on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cells SMMC-7721, lung cancer cells A-549, breast cancer cells

Five new compounds, including cytosporones J–N (**152–156**), together with known metabolites, dothiorelones A (**150**) and cytosporones C (**151**), were isolated from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. from *R. mucronata*. Biological tests showed that compound **150** was cytotoxic to human oral epidermoid carcinoma KB cells, lymphoma cells Raji, and human osteosarcoma cells Mg-63. Compounds **151–156** had no significant antitumor activity [69]. In the further study of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata*, eight new pyrone compounds, pestalotiopyrones A–H

MCF-7, and human colon cancer cells SW480 [43] (**Figure 8**).

**Figure 7.** The structures of peptides in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 8.** The structures of phenolics in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 6.** The structures of anthraquinones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

*durans* [95] (**Figure 7**).

**3.7. Phenolics**

**3.8. Lactones**

#### **3.5. Anthraquinones**

One new tetrahydroanthraquinone derivative, (2R, 3S)-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2,3,8 trihydroxy-6-methoxy-3-methyl-9,10-anthracenedione (**120**) and five known anthraquinones derivatives (**121–125**) were isolated from the endophytic fungi *Phomopsis* sp. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* leaves. Compound **120** had the structure of ethyl tetrahydroanthraquinone, which was weakly cytotoxic to human breast cancer cell MCF-7 and had antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* ATCC25923 and methicillin-resistant *S. aureus* SK1 [25]. Three known tricyclic alternarene derivatives (**126–128**) were isolated from the endophytic fungus *Alternaria tenuissima* EN-192 from *R. stylosa* branches, and the antimicrobial activity, tested by filter paper diffusion method, showed that compound **126** had moderate antibacterial activity against *Vibrio anguillarum* [64]. One new xanthone, pestaloxanthone (**129**), was isolated with two known analogs, isosulochrin dehydrate (**130**) and chloroisosulochrin dehydrate (**131**), from endophytic fungi *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PUS- MA69 from *R. apiculata* branches [25]. A known tetrahydrogenated xanthanone dimer, phomoxanthone A (**132**), and a new compound with similar structure, 12-O-deacetyl-phomoxanthone A (**133**), were isolated from a rice fermentation culture extract of the fungus *Phomopsis* sp. IM 41-1 from *R. mucronata*. Two compounds (**132, 133**) had weak antibacterial activity against *Botrytis cinerea*, *Sclerotinia aureus*, *Diaporthe medusaea*, and *Staphylococcus aureus*, while acetylation of the compound had no significant effect on the antimicrobial activity [70]. A known compound, pestaxanthone (**134**), was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* from the leaves of the genus *R. harrisonii* [43] (**Figure 6**).

#### **3.6. Peptides**

Four known compounds, two ring-phthalocyanines, guangomides A and B (**135, 136**), and two diketopiperazine derivatives, Sch 54794 and Sch 54796 (**137, 138**), were isolated from the

**Figure 5.** The structures of chromones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 6.** The structures of anthraquinones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

*Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 from *R. apiculata* [26]. Activity tests showed that compounds **135** and **136** had weak antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus epidermidis* and *Enterococcus durans* [95] (**Figure 7**).

#### **3.7. Phenolics**

**114–118** had weak inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase (AchE), α-glucanase, DPPH radical and hydroxyl radical, as well as weak inhibitory activity against 18 kinds of plant pathogenic bacteria [94]. A new polyketone derivative, pestalpolyol I (**119**), was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* in *R. harrisonii*. The bioactivity test showed that compound **119** had strong inhibitory activity against tumor cells L5178Y, with an IC50 value of 4.1 μM. Compound **119** also showed inhibitory activity against leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cells SMMC-7721, lung cancer cells A-549, breast cancer cells MCF-7, and human colon cancer cells SW480, with IC50 values of 10.4, 11.3, 2.3, 13.7 and 12.4 μM, respectively [43] (**Figure 5**).

One new tetrahydroanthraquinone derivative, (2R, 3S)-7-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2,3,8 trihydroxy-6-methoxy-3-methyl-9,10-anthracenedione (**120**) and five known anthraquinones derivatives (**121–125**) were isolated from the endophytic fungi *Phomopsis* sp. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* leaves. Compound **120** had the structure of ethyl tetrahydroanthraquinone, which was weakly cytotoxic to human breast cancer cell MCF-7 and had antibacterial activity against *Staphylococcus aureus* ATCC25923 and methicillin-resistant *S. aureus* SK1 [25]. Three known tricyclic alternarene derivatives (**126–128**) were isolated from the endophytic fungus *Alternaria tenuissima* EN-192 from *R. stylosa* branches, and the antimicrobial activity, tested by filter paper diffusion method, showed that compound **126** had moderate antibacterial activity against *Vibrio anguillarum* [64]. One new xanthone, pestaloxanthone (**129**), was isolated with two known analogs, isosulochrin dehydrate (**130**) and chloroisosulochrin dehydrate (**131**), from endophytic fungi *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PUS- MA69 from *R. apiculata* branches [25]. A known tetrahydrogenated xanthanone dimer, phomoxanthone A (**132**), and a new compound with similar structure, 12-O-deacetyl-phomoxanthone A (**133**), were isolated from a rice fermentation culture extract of the fungus *Phomopsis* sp. IM 41-1 from *R. mucronata*. Two compounds (**132, 133**) had weak antibacterial activity against *Botrytis cinerea*, *Sclerotinia aureus*, *Diaporthe medusaea*, and *Staphylococcus aureus*, while acetylation of the compound had no significant effect on the antimicrobial activity [70]. A known compound, pestaxanthone (**134**), was isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* from the leaves of the genus *R. harrisonii* [43] (**Figure 6**).

Four known compounds, two ring-phthalocyanines, guangomides A and B (**135, 136**), and two diketopiperazine derivatives, Sch 54794 and Sch 54796 (**137, 138**), were isolated from the

**Figure 5.** The structures of chromones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**3.5. Anthraquinones**

174 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**3.6. Peptides**

In this category, four new diphenyl ether compounds, pestalotethers A–D (**141, 143–145**), and three known compounds, pestheic acid (**142**), chloroisosulochrin (**139**), and isosulochrin (**140**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69 of *R. apiculata* [25]. A new compound, norpestaphthalide A (**146**), and three known compounds, (R, S)-5,7-dihydroxy-3-(1-hydroxyethyl) phthalide (**148**) and pestaphthalides A and B (**147, 149**), were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* in the leaves of *R. harrisonii*. These compounds had no inhibitory effect on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cells SMMC-7721, lung cancer cells A-549, breast cancer cells MCF-7, and human colon cancer cells SW480 [43] (**Figure 8**).

#### **3.8. Lactones**

Five new compounds, including cytosporones J–N (**152–156**), together with known metabolites, dothiorelones A (**150**) and cytosporones C (**151**), were isolated from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. from *R. mucronata*. Biological tests showed that compound **150** was cytotoxic to human oral epidermoid carcinoma KB cells, lymphoma cells Raji, and human osteosarcoma cells Mg-63. Compounds **151–156** had no significant antitumor activity [69]. In the further study of *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata*, eight new pyrone compounds, pestalotiopyrones A–H

**Figure 7.** The structures of peptides in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 8.** The structures of phenolics in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

(**157–164**); two new compounds, pestalotiollides A and B (**166, 167**); and one known compound, nigrosporapyrone D (**165**), were found in large amounts of fermentation products in the rice culture medium [80]. Three new α-pyrone pestalotiopyrones A–C (**168–170**); two new seiricuprolide macrolides, pestalotioprolides A (**171**) and B (**173**); and two known compounds, seiricuprolide (**174**) and 2′-hydroxy-3′,4′-didehydropenicillide (**172**), were isolated from two endophytic fungi *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA92 and *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA119 of *R. apiculata* and *R. mucronata* [96]. Among these, compounds **168-170** were repetitive names of pestalotiopyrones A–C [80]. Thus far, the carbon skeleton of phenyleol lactones has been rarely found among natural products [97]. One new butenolactone, pestalolide (**175**), and one known phytotoxin, seiridin (**176**), were found in the fermentation product of endophytic fungi *pestalotiopyrones* sp. PSU-MA69, which was from *R. apiculata*. The bioactivity analysis showed that compound 175 had weak antimicrobial activity against *Candida albicans* and *Cryptococcus neoformans*, with MIC values of 653.06 μM [25]. A new phthalic acid derivative, acremonide (**177**), and one new depsidone, acremonone A (**179**), together with two known substances, (+)-brefelin A (**180**) and 5,7-dimethoxy-3,4-dimethyl-3-hydroxyphthalide (**178**), were separated from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70, which was isolated from *R. apiculata* [26]. Brefelin A (BFA) is a fungal metabolite that was originally used as an antiviral agent and is now primarily used to study protein transport. It can specifically and reversibly inhibit the Golgi membrane protein protease, prohibiting the linkage of guanine nucleotides to ADP ribosylation factor and, therefore, preventing the transport of proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi. BFA is also used to inhibit the secretion of cytokine and other proteins as well as enhance the immunostaining of secretory proteins. BFA can activate the neural sheath phosphoric acid cycle, inducing the apoptosis of some tumor cells [98], and it has a weak antibacterial activity against *Candida albicans* NCPF3153 [26]. Three known substances, macrolides pestalotiollides A and B (**181, 182**) and 2-*epi*-herbarumin II (**183**), were isolated from the fermentation extract of *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* from *R. harrisonii*. Bioactivity tests showed that compounds **181–183** had no antitumor effect on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cell SMMC-7721, lung cancer cell line A-549, breast cancer cell MCF-7, or human colon cancer cell SW480 [43]. In order to effectively control the biosynthesis of *Leucostoma persoonii* from *R. mangle* and stimulate the production of cytosporone compounds, a known antibacterial trihydroxy lactone compound, cytosporone E (**184**), was induced by epigenetic modification [72]. Compound **184** showed a strong anti-infective activity against *Plasmodium falciparum* with an IC50 value of 13 μM. Additionally, compound **184** showed strong inhibitory activity against human lung cancer cell A549, with an IC50 value of 437 μM, and a strong inhibitory effect on methicillin-resistant *S. aureus*, with an MIC value of 72 μM [97] (**Figure 9**).

sp. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* [25]. (S)-penipratynolene (**193**), DNA-damaging active anofinic acid (**194**), and *p*-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester (**195**) were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp.

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

177

In this review, we summarize the distribution of frequently occurring fungal endophytes in *Rhizophora*: 26 genera of mangrove endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. stylosa*; 27 genera were isolated from *R. apiculata*; 26 genera were obtained from *R. mucronata*; 23 genera were isolated from *R. mangle*; 1 genus was isolated from *R. harrisonii* and *R. annamalayana* (namely *Pestalotiopsis* and *Fusarium*); and 4 genera of endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. racemosa*. Until now, no studies have been conducted on *R. samoensis*. In total, the frequently occurring fungi entophytes in *Rhizophora*, including 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. Although the biological potential of endophytic fungi from the abovementioned *Rhizophora* species has not been thoroughly investigated, the core group of fungi can be recognized from different geographic locations. The distribution and molecular phylogeny of the fungi are discussed as well as new findings regarding the chemistry and bioactivity of natural products found in *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi. The *Pestalotiopsis*, *Penicillium,* and *Mucor* genera of endophytic fungi were identified as the most promising fungal groups in terms of chemical diversity. In particular, the *Pestalotiopsis* genus constituted 42.56% of the compounds reported, as shown in **Figure 11**. *R. apiculata* (34.36%) was observed to be the most investigated host plant, followed by *R. stylosa* (33.85%) and *R. mucronata* (23.59%). The chemical identification of metabolites

of *R. racemosa* endophytic fungi has not yet been reported (**Figure 11**).

PSU-MA69 of *R. apiculata* [25] (**Figure 10**).

**Figure 9.** The structures of lactones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 10.** The structures of others in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**4. Conclusion**

#### **3.9. Others**

A new difuranylmethane-derived furan fatty acid, flavodonfuran (**185**), was isolated from the endophytic fungus *Flavodon flavus* PSU-MA201 from *R. apiculata* [65, 66]. Xu isolated a new enoic acid compound, pestalotiopin A (**187**), and two known compounds, 2-anhydromevalonic acid (**186**) and *p*-hydroxybenzaldehyde (**188**), from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata* [80]. Rukachaisirikul and coworkers isolated two known compounds, 4-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3-hexanediol (**189**) and (2R,3R)-4-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3-pentanediol (**190**), from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 of *R. apiculata* [26]. One known phenylethanol propionate (**191**) and a known butanamide compound, butanamide (**192**), were isolated from the endophytic fungus *Phomopsis*

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573 177

**Figure 9.** The structures of lactones in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

**Figure 10.** The structures of others in *Rhizophora-*derived endophytic fungi.

sp. PSU-MA214 from *R. apiculata* [25]. (S)-penipratynolene (**193**), DNA-damaging active anofinic acid (**194**), and *p*-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester (**195**) were isolated from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69 of *R. apiculata* [25] (**Figure 10**).

#### **4. Conclusion**

(**157–164**); two new compounds, pestalotiollides A and B (**166, 167**); and one known compound, nigrosporapyrone D (**165**), were found in large amounts of fermentation products in the rice culture medium [80]. Three new α-pyrone pestalotiopyrones A–C (**168–170**); two new seiricuprolide macrolides, pestalotioprolides A (**171**) and B (**173**); and two known compounds, seiricuprolide (**174**) and 2′-hydroxy-3′,4′-didehydropenicillide (**172**), were isolated from two endophytic fungi *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA92 and *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA119 of *R. apiculata* and *R. mucronata* [96]. Among these, compounds **168-170** were repetitive names of pestalotiopyrones A–C [80]. Thus far, the carbon skeleton of phenyleol lactones has been rarely found among natural products [97]. One new butenolactone, pestalolide (**175**), and one known phytotoxin, seiridin (**176**), were found in the fermentation product of endophytic fungi *pestalotiopyrones* sp. PSU-MA69, which was from *R. apiculata*. The bioactivity analysis showed that compound 175 had weak antimicrobial activity against *Candida albicans* and *Cryptococcus neoformans*, with MIC values of 653.06 μM [25]. A new phthalic acid derivative, acremonide (**177**), and one new depsidone, acremonone A (**179**), together with two known substances, (+)-brefelin A (**180**) and 5,7-dimethoxy-3,4-dimethyl-3-hydroxyphthalide (**178**), were separated from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70, which was isolated from *R. apiculata* [26]. Brefelin A (BFA) is a fungal metabolite that was originally used as an antiviral agent and is now primarily used to study protein transport. It can specifically and reversibly inhibit the Golgi membrane protein protease, prohibiting the linkage of guanine nucleotides to ADP ribosylation factor and, therefore, preventing the transport of proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi. BFA is also used to inhibit the secretion of cytokine and other proteins as well as enhance the immunostaining of secretory proteins. BFA can activate the neural sheath phosphoric acid cycle, inducing the apoptosis of some tumor cells [98], and it has a weak antibacterial activity against *Candida albicans* NCPF3153 [26]. Three known substances, macrolides pestalotiollides A and B (**181, 182**) and 2-*epi*-herbarumin II (**183**), were isolated from the fermentation extract of *Pestalotiopsis clavispora* from *R. harrisonii*. Bioactivity tests showed that compounds **181–183** had no antitumor effect on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, hepatoma cell SMMC-7721, lung cancer cell line A-549, breast cancer cell MCF-7, or human colon cancer cell SW480 [43]. In order to effectively control the biosynthesis of *Leucostoma persoonii* from *R. mangle* and stimulate the production of cytosporone compounds, a known antibacterial trihydroxy lactone compound, cytosporone E (**184**), was induced by epigenetic modification [72]. Compound **184** showed a strong anti-infective activity against *Plasmodium falciparum* with an IC50 value of 13 μM. Additionally, compound **184** showed strong inhibitory activity against human lung cancer cell A549, with an IC50 value of 437 μM, and a strong inhibitory effect on methicillin-resistant *S. aureus*, with an MIC value of 72 μM [97] (**Figure 9**).

A new difuranylmethane-derived furan fatty acid, flavodonfuran (**185**), was isolated from the endophytic fungus *Flavodon flavus* PSU-MA201 from *R. apiculata* [65, 66]. Xu isolated a new enoic acid compound, pestalotiopin A (**187**), and two known compounds, 2-anhydromevalonic acid (**186**) and *p*-hydroxybenzaldehyde (**188**), from the *Pestalotiopsis* sp. of *R. mucronata* [80]. Rukachaisirikul and coworkers isolated two known compounds, 4-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3-hexanediol (**189**) and (2R,3R)-4-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3-pentanediol (**190**), from the *Acremonium* sp. PSU-MA70 of *R. apiculata* [26]. One known phenylethanol propionate (**191**) and a known butanamide compound, butanamide (**192**), were isolated from the endophytic fungus *Phomopsis*

**3.9. Others**

176 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

In this review, we summarize the distribution of frequently occurring fungal endophytes in *Rhizophora*: 26 genera of mangrove endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. stylosa*; 27 genera were isolated from *R. apiculata*; 26 genera were obtained from *R. mucronata*; 23 genera were isolated from *R. mangle*; 1 genus was isolated from *R. harrisonii* and *R. annamalayana* (namely *Pestalotiopsis* and *Fusarium*); and 4 genera of endophytic fungi were isolated from *R. racemosa*. Until now, no studies have been conducted on *R. samoensis*. In total, the frequently occurring fungi entophytes in *Rhizophora*, including 41 families and 64 genera belonging to 23 taxonomic orders of Ascomycota have been reported. Although the biological potential of endophytic fungi from the abovementioned *Rhizophora* species has not been thoroughly investigated, the core group of fungi can be recognized from different geographic locations. The distribution and molecular phylogeny of the fungi are discussed as well as new findings regarding the chemistry and bioactivity of natural products found in *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi. The *Pestalotiopsis*, *Penicillium,* and *Mucor* genera of endophytic fungi were identified as the most promising fungal groups in terms of chemical diversity. In particular, the *Pestalotiopsis* genus constituted 42.56% of the compounds reported, as shown in **Figure 11**. *R. apiculata* (34.36%) was observed to be the most investigated host plant, followed by *R. stylosa* (33.85%) and *R. mucronata* (23.59%). The chemical identification of metabolites of *R. racemosa* endophytic fungi has not yet been reported (**Figure 11**).

**References**

MMBR.67.4.491-502.2003

DOI: 10.1007/s13225-010-0034-4

s11104-013-1912-9

00019052-200502000-00004

1471-2148-14-83

s11284-010-0795-y

151209

[1] Debbab A, Aly AH, Proksch P. Mangrove derived fungal endophytes—A chemical and biological perception. Fungal Diversity. 2013;**61**:1-27. DOI: 10.1007/s13225-013-0243-8 [2] Hyde KD, Soytong K. The fungal endophyte dilemma. Fungal Diversity. 2008;**33**:163-173 [3] Strobel G, Daisy B. Bioprospecting for microbial endophytes and their natural products. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2003;**67**:491-502. DOI: 10.1128/

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

179

[4] Xu J. Biomolecules produced by mangrove-associated microbes. Current Medicinal Che-

[5] Xu J. Bioactive natural products derived from mangrove-associated microbes. RSC

[6] Aly AH, Debbab A, Kjer J, et al. Fungal endophytes from higher plants: A prolific source of phytochemicals and other bioactive natural products. Fungal Diversity. 2010;**41**:1-16.

[7] Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, et al. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecology and Biogeography.

[8] Wang Y, Zhu H, Tam NFY. Polyphenols, tannins and antioxidant activities of eight true mangrove plant species in South China. Plant and Soil. 2014;**374**:549-563. DOI: 10.1007/

[9] Ye F, Li XW, Guo YW. Recent progress on the mangrove plants: Chemistry and bioactivity. Current Organic Chemistry. 2016;**20**:1923-1942. DOI: 10.2174/1385272820666160421

[10] Wu J, Xiao Q, Xu J a. Natural products from true mangrove flora: Source, chemistry and bioactivities. Natural Product Reports. 2008;**25**:955-981. DOI: 10.1039/b807365a

[11] Chen L, Wang W, Zhang Y, et al. Recent progresses in mangrove conservation, restoration and research in China. Journal of Plant Ecology. 2009;**2**:45-54. DOI: 10.1097/

[12] Yang XB. Hainan Plant Flora. 1st ed. Vol. IV. Beijing: Science Press; 2015. pp. 262-271

[13] Lo EY, Duke NC, Sun M. Phylogeographic pattern of *Rhizophora* (Rhizophoraceae) reveals the importance of both vicariance and long-distance oceanic dispersal to modern mangrove distribution. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2014;**14**:83-98. DOI: 10.1186/

[14] Xing X, Guo S. Fungal endophyte communities in four Rhizophoraceae mangrove species on the south coast of China. Ecological Research. 2011;**26**:403-409. DOI: 10.1007/

mistry. 2011;**18**:5224-5266. DOI: 10.2174/092986711798184307

Advances. 2015;**5**:841-892. DOI: 10.1039/c4ra11756e

2011;**20**:154-159. DOI: 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x

**Figure 11.** Comparison of metabolite distributions by mangrove endophytic fungal and host *Rhizophora* species.

Some secondary metabolites with unusual structures were identified in *Rhizophora endophytic* fungi. Novel hybrid sesquiterpene-cyclopaldic acid metabolites with unusual carbon skeletons, pestalotiopens A and B (**83, 84**), were obtained from the endophytic fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4 isolated from the leaves of the Chinese mangrove, *R. mucronata*. Bioassays revealed that antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-H1N1 activities are the most notable bioactivities of the secondary metabolites from *Rhizophora endophytic* fungi. Some compounds had significant bioactivities, as exemplified by pestalpolyol 1 (**119**), a novel polyketone derivative isolated from *P. clavispora*. Compound **119** has a strong inhibitory effect on mouse lymphoma cell line L5178Y with an IC50 value of 4.10 μM. The indole diterpene alkaloids, rhizovrin A, B, and F (**46, 47, 50**), isolated from endophytic fungi *Mucor irregularis* QEN-189, have strong inhibitory effects on lung cancer cells A549, with IC50 values of 11.5, 6.3, and 9.2 μM, respectively, as well as inhibitory effects on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, with IC50 values of 9.6, 5.0, and 7.0 μM, respectively. These findings suggest that *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi offering numerous useful products with medicinal and pathogenic significance have yet to be established.

### **Acknowledgements**

This study was funded by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81660584), Key Research Program of Hainan Province (ZDYF2017099), and the Innovative Research Team Grant of the Natural Science Foundation of Hainan University (hdkytg201705) and is gratefully acknowledged.

### **Author details**

Jing Zhou and Jing Xu\*

\*Address all correspondence to: happyjing3@163.com

Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, College of Material and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, PR China

### **References**

Some secondary metabolites with unusual structures were identified in *Rhizophora endophytic* fungi. Novel hybrid sesquiterpene-cyclopaldic acid metabolites with unusual carbon skeletons, pestalotiopens A and B (**83, 84**), were obtained from the endophytic fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. JCM2A4 isolated from the leaves of the Chinese mangrove, *R. mucronata*. Bioassays revealed that antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-H1N1 activities are the most notable bioactivities of the secondary metabolites from *Rhizophora endophytic* fungi. Some compounds had significant bioactivities, as exemplified by pestalpolyol 1 (**119**), a novel polyketone derivative isolated from *P. clavispora*. Compound **119** has a strong inhibitory effect on mouse lymphoma cell line L5178Y with an IC50 value of 4.10 μM. The indole diterpene alkaloids, rhizovrin A, B, and F (**46, 47, 50**), isolated from endophytic fungi *Mucor irregularis* QEN-189, have strong inhibitory effects on lung cancer cells A549, with IC50 values of 11.5, 6.3, and 9.2 μM, respectively, as well as inhibitory effects on leukemia myeloid cells HL-60, with IC50 values of 9.6, 5.0, and 7.0 μM, respectively. These findings suggest that *Rhizophora* endophytic fungi offering numerous use-

**Figure 11.** Comparison of metabolite distributions by mangrove endophytic fungal and host *Rhizophora* species.

ful products with medicinal and pathogenic significance have yet to be established.

This study was funded by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81660584), Key Research Program of Hainan Province (ZDYF2017099), and the Innovative Research Team Grant of the Natural Science Foundation of Hainan University

Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources of Ministry of Education, College of

Material and Chemical Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou, PR China

**Acknowledgements**

178 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Author details**

Jing Zhou and Jing Xu\*

(hdkytg201705) and is gratefully acknowledged.

\*Address all correspondence to: happyjing3@163.com


[15] Villamayor BMR, Rollon RN, Samson MS, et al. Impact of Haiyan, on Philippine mangroves: Implications to the fate of the widespread monospecific *Rhizophora*, plantations against strong typhoons. Ocean and Coastal Management. 2016;**132**:1-14. DOI: 10.1016/j. ocecoaman.2016.07.011

[27] Tan TK, Pek CL. Tropical mangrove leaf litter fungi in Singapore with an emphasis on *Halophytophthora*. Mycological Research. 1997;**101**:165-168. DOI: 10.1017/s095375

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

181

[28] Trinh BT, Staerk D, Jäger AK. Screening for potential α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory constituents from selected Vietnamese plants used to treat type 2 diabetes.

[29] Osorio JA, Wingfield MJ, Roux J. A review of factors associated with decline and death of mangroves, with particular reference to fungal pathogens. South African Journal of

[30] Tarman K, Safitri D, Setyaningsih I. Endophytic fungi isolated from *Rhizophora mucronata* and their antibacterial activity. Squalen: Bulletin of Marine & Fisheries Postharvest and

[31] Suryanarayanan TS, Kumaresan V, Johnson JA. Foliar fungal endophytes from two species of the mangrove Rhizophora. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 1988;**44**:1003-1006.

[32] Rani V, Sreelekshmi S, Preethy CM, et al. Phenology and litterfall dynamics structuring ecosystem productivity in a tropical mangrove stand on South West coast of India.

[33] Kandasamy S, Kandasamy K. Antioxidant activity of the mangrove endophytic fungus (*Trichoderma* sp.). Journal of Coastal Life Medicine. 2014;**2**:559-563. DOI: 10.12980/

[34] Tariq M, Dawar S, Mehdi FS. Occurrence of fungi on mangrove plants. Pakistan Journal

[35] Boehm FR, Sandrini-Neto L, Moens T, et al. Sewage input reduces the consumption of *Rhizophora mangle* propagules by crabs in a subtropical mangrove system. Marine Environmental Research. 2016, 2016;**122**:23-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.09.003 [36] Ferreira AC, Lacerda LD. Degradation and conservation of Brazilian mangroves, status and perspectives. Ocean and Coastal Management. 2016;**125**:38-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[37] Barreto MB, Mónaco SL, Díaz R, et al. Soil organic carbon of mangrove forests (*Rhizophora*, and *Avicennia*) of the Venezuelan Caribbean coast. Organic Geochemistry. 2016;**100**:

[38] Ball MC. Patterns of secondary succession in a mangrove forest of Southern Florida.

[39] Afzal-Rafii Z, Dodd RS, Fauvel MT. A case of natural selection in Atlantic-East-Pacific,

[40] Wanderley CIP, Maia LC, Cavalcanti MA. Diversity of leaf endophytic fungi in mangrove plants of Northeast Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2012;**43**:1165-1173.

*Rhizophora*. Hydrobiologia. 1999;**413**:1-9. DOI: 10.1023/A:1003882508994

Presses Universitaires de France. DOI: 10.1590/S1517-838220120003000044

Regional Studies in Marine Science. 2016;**5**:1-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.rsma.2016.02.008

Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;**186**:189-195. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.060

Botany. 2016;**103**:295-301. DOI: 10.1016/j.sajb.2014.08.010

6296002250

Biotechnology. 2014;**8**:69-76

DOI: 10.1139/cjm-44-10-1003

JCLM.2.2014JCLM-2014-0001

of Botany. 2006;**38**:1293-1299

ocecoaman.2016.03.011

51-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2016.08.002

Oecologia. 1980;**44**:226-235. DOI: 10.1007/BF00572684


[27] Tan TK, Pek CL. Tropical mangrove leaf litter fungi in Singapore with an emphasis on *Halophytophthora*. Mycological Research. 1997;**101**:165-168. DOI: 10.1017/s095375 6296002250

[15] Villamayor BMR, Rollon RN, Samson MS, et al. Impact of Haiyan, on Philippine mangroves: Implications to the fate of the widespread monospecific *Rhizophora*, plantations against strong typhoons. Ocean and Coastal Management. 2016;**132**:1-14. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[16] Dangan-Galon F, Dolorosa RG, Sespeñe JS, et al. Diversity and structural complexity of mangrove forest along Puerto Princesa Bay, Palawan Island, Philippines. Journal of

[17] Morton B. Hong Kong's mangrove biodiversity and its conservation within the context of a southern Chinese megalopolis. A review and a proposal for Lai Chi Wo to be designated as a World Heritage Site. Regional Studies in Marine Science. 2016;**8**:382-399. DOI:

[18] Arfi Y, Buée M, Marchand C, et al. Multiple markers pyrosequencing reveals highly diverse and host-specific fungal communities on the mangrove trees *Avicennia marina* and *Rhizophora stylosa*. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2011;**79**:433-444. DOI: 10.1111/

[19] Tyagi AP. Precipitation effect on flowering and propagule setting in mangroves of the family Rhizophoraceae. Australian Journal of Botany. 2004;**52**:789-798. DOI: 10.1071/

[20] Kohlmeyer J. Marine fungi of Queensland, Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research.

[21] Selvaraj G, Kaliamurthi S, Thirugnasambandan R. Effect of glycosin alkaloid from *Rhizophora apiculata*, in non-insulin dependent diabetic rats and its mechanism of action: In vivo, and in silico, studies. Phytomedicine International Journal of Phytotherapy and

[22] Rossiana N, Miranti M, Rahmawati R. Antibacterial activities of endophytic fungi from mangrove plants *Rhizophora apiculata* L. and *Bruguiera gymnorrhiza* (L.) Lamk. on *Salmonella typhi*. Towards the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in A Changing Environment: From Basic to Applied Research: Proceeding of the International Conference on Biological

[23] Clough B, Dang TT, Phuong DX, et al. Canopy leaf area index and litter fall in stands of the mangrove *Rhizophora apiculata* of different age in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.

[24] Piapukiew J, Whalley AJS, Sihanonth P. Endophytic fungi from mangrove plant species of Thailand: Their antimicrobial and anticancer potentials. Botanica Marina. 2010;**53**:

[25] Klaiklay S, Rukachaisirikul V, Phongpaichit S. Anthraquinone derivatives from the mangrove-derived fungus *Phomopsis* sp. PSU-MA214. Phytochemistry Letters. 2012;**5**:738-742

[26] Rukachaisirikul V, Rodglin A, Sukpondma Y, et al. Phthalide and isocoumarin derivatives produced by an *Acremonium* sp. isolated from a mangrove *Rhizophora apiculata*.

Phytopharmacology. 2016;**23**:632-640. DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2016.03.004

Aquatic Botany. 2000;**66**:311-320. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-3770(99)00081-9

Journal of Natural Products. 2012;**75**:853-858. DOI: 10.1021/np200885e

Marine and Island Cultures. 2016;**5**:118-125. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14885.70887

ocecoaman.2016.07.011

180 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

org/10.1016/j.rsma.2016.05.001

j.1574-6941.2011.01236.x

1991;**42**:91-99. DOI: 10.1071/MF9910091

Science, Vol. 020040; 2016. pp. 1-6

555-564. DOI: 10.1515/bot.2010.074

BT02077


[41] Dourado MN, Ferreira A, Araújo WL, et al. The diversity of endophytic methylotrophic bacteria in an oil-contaminated and an oil-free mangrove ecosystem and their tolerance to heavy metals. Biotechnology Research International. 2012;**2012**:1-8. DOI: 10.1155/2012/759865

[55] Cribb AB, Cribb JW. Marine Fungi from Queensland. Vol. 3. Brisbane: Department of

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

183

[56] Hyde KD. A comparison of the intertidal mycota of five mangrove tree species. Asian

[57] Schmit JP, Shearer CAA. A checklist of mangrove-associated fungi, their geographical distribution and known host plants. Mycotaxon—Ithaca, NY. 2003;**85**(1):423-477

[58] Schmit JP, Shearer CA. Geographic and host distribution of lignicolous mangrove micro-

[59] Liu AR, Wu XP, Xu T. Research advances in endophytic fungi of mangrove. Chinese

[61] Peng X, Wang Y, Sun K, et al. Cerebrosides and 2-pyridone alkaloids from the halotolerant fungus *Penicillium chrysogenum* grown in a hypersaline medium. Journal of Natural

[62] Gao SS, Li XM, Williams K, et al. Rhizovarins A–F, indole-diterpenes from the mangrovederived endophytic fungus *Mucor irregularis* QEN-189. Journal of Natural Products.

[63] Zang LY, Wei W, Guo Y, et al. Sesquiterpenoids from the mangrove-derived endophytic fungus *Diaporthe* sp. Journal of Natural Products. 2012;**75**:1744-1749. DOI: 10.1021/

[64] Sun H, Gao SS, Li XM, et al. Chemical constituents of marine mangrove-derived endophytic fungus *Alternaria tenuissima* EN-192. Chinese Journal of Oceanology and

[65] Klaiklay S, Rukachaisirikul V, Tadpetch K, et al. Chlorinated chromone and diphenyl ether derivatives from the mangrove-derived fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. PSU-MA69.

[66] Klaiklay S, Rukachaisirikul V, Phongpaichit S, et al. Flavodonfuran: A new difuranylmethane derivative from the mangrove endophytic fungus *Flavodon flavus* PSU-MA201. Natural Product Research. 2013;**27**:1722-1726. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2012.750315 [67] Buatong J, Phongpaichit S, Rukachaisirikul V, et al. Antimicrobial activity of crude extracts from mangrove fungal endophytes. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[68] Kumaresan V, Suryanarayanan TS. Endophyte assemblages in young, mature and senescent leaves of *Rhizophora apiculata*: Evidence for the role of endophytes in mangrove litter

[69] Xu J, Kjer J, Sendker J, et al. Cytosporones, coumarins, and an alkaloid from the endophytic fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. isolated from the Chinese mangrove plant *Rhizophora mucronata*. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 2009;**17**:7362-7367. DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.

fungi. Botanica Marina. 2004;**47**:496-500. DOI: 10.1515/BOT.2004.065

[60] Hyde KD, Jones EBG. Marine mangrove fungi. Marine Ecology. 1988;**9**:15-33

Botany, University of Queensland Press; 1955. pp. 97-105

Marine Biology. 1990;**7**:93-107

np3004112

2009.08.031

Limnology. 2013;**31**:464-470

Journal of Applied Ecology. 2007;**13**:366-378

Products. 2011;**74**:1298-1302. DOI: 10.1021/np1008976

2016;**79**:2066-2074. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00403

Tetrahedron. 2012;**68**:2299-2305. DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2012.01.041

2011;**27**:3005-3008. DOI: 10.1007/s11274-011-0765-8

degradation. Fungal Diversity. 2002;**9**:81-91


[55] Cribb AB, Cribb JW. Marine Fungi from Queensland. Vol. 3. Brisbane: Department of Botany, University of Queensland Press; 1955. pp. 97-105

[41] Dourado MN, Ferreira A, Araújo WL, et al. The diversity of endophytic methylotrophic bacteria in an oil-contaminated and an oil-free mangrove ecosystem and their tolerance to heavy metals. Biotechnology Research International. 2012;**2012**:1-8. DOI:

[42] Godoy MD, De LLD. Mangroves response to climate change: A review of recent findings on mangrove extension and distribution. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências.

[43] Hemphill CFP, Daletos G, Liu Z, et al. Polyketides from the mangrove-derived fungal endophyte *Pestalotiopsis clavispora*. Tetrahedron Letters. 2016;**57**:2078-2083. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[44] Twilley RR, Pozo M, Garcia VH, et al. Litter dynamics in riverine mangrove forests in the Guayas River estuary, Ecuador. Oecologia. 1997;**111**:109-122. DOI: 10.1007/s0044

[45] Breteler FJ. The Atlantic species of *Rhizophora*. Acta Botanica Neerlandica. 1969;**18**:434-441.

[46] Cerónsouza I, Riveraocasio E, Medina E, et al. Hybridization and introgression in New World red mangroves, *Rhizophora* (Rhizophoraceae). American Journal of Botany.

[47] Cornejo X.Lectotypification and a new status for *Rhizophora* × *harrisonii* (Rhizophoraceae), a natural hybrid between *R. mangle* and *R. racemosa*. Harvard Papers in Botany. 2013;

[48] Ukoima HN, Ikata M. Mycoparasitism on some fungal isolates of *Rhizophora racemosa*

[49] Xavier C, Carmen B. *Rhizophora racemosa* G. Mey (Rhizophoraceae) en Ecuador y Perú, y el color de los óvulos: un nuevocaracter en Rhizophora. Brenesia. 2006;**65**:11-17. DOI:

[50] Elavarasi A, Rathna GS, Kalaiselvam M. Taxol producing mangrove endophytic fungi *Fusarium oxysporum*, from *Rhizophora annamalayana*. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Bio-

[51] Duke NC. Overlap of eastern and western mangroves in the South-Western Pacific: Hybridization of all three *Rhizophora* (Rhizophoraceae) combinations in New Caledonia. Blumea Journal of Plant Taxonomy and Plant Geography. 2010;**55**:171-188. DOI: 10.3767/

[52] Hyde K, Jones E, Leano E, et al. Role of marine fungi in marine ecosystems. Biodiversity

[53] Sarma VV, Hyde KD. A review on frequently occurring fungi in mangroves. Fungal

[54] Baltazar. A checklist of xylophilous basidiomycetes (Basidiomycota) in mangroves.

2015;**87**:651-667. DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201520150055

2010;**97**:945-957. Source: PubMed. DOI: 10.3732/ajb.0900172

Linn. American Journal of Scientific Research. 2013;**84**:139-144

DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.1969.tb00607.x

**18**:37-38. DOI: 10.3100/025.018.0106

10.3100/025.018.0106

000651910X527293

Diversity. 2011;**8**:1-34

Mycotaxon. 2009;**107**:221-224

medicine. 2012;**2**:S1081-S1085

and Conservation. 1998;**7**:1147-1161

10.1155/2012/759865

182 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

tetlet.2016.03.101

20050214


[70] Shiono Y, Sasaki T, Shibuya F, et al. Isolation of a phomoxanthone A derivative, a new metabolite of tetrahydroxanthone, from a *Phomopsis* sp. isolated from the mangrove, *Rhizhopora mucronata*. Natural Product Communications. 2013;**8**:1735-1737

[83] Fan Y, Yi W, Liu P, et al. Indole-diterpenoids with anti-H1N1 activity from the aciduric fungus *Penicillium camemberti* OUCMDZ-1492. Journal of Natural Products. 2013;**76**:

Chemistry and Biodiversity of *Rhizophora*-Derived Endophytic Fungi

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76573

185

[84] Rukachaisirikul V, Sommart U, Phongpaichit S, et al. Metabolites from the endophytic fungus *Phomopsis* sp. PSU-D15. Phytochemistry. 2008;**69**:783-787. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[85] Zhang P, Li X, Wang BG. Secondary metabolites from the marine algal-derived endophytic fungi: Chemical diversity and biological activity. Planta Medica. 2016;**82**:832-842.

[86] Liu T, Li ZL, Wang Y, et al. A new alkaloid from the marine-derived fungus *Hypocrea virens*. Natural Product Research. 2011;**25**:1596-1599. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2010.490916

[87] Hemberger Y, Xu J, Wray V, et al. Pestalotiopens A and B: Stereochemically challenging flexible sesquiterpene-cyclopaldic acid hybrids from *Pestalotiopsis* sp. Chemistry - A

[88] Wani MC, Taylor HL, Wall ME, et al. Plant antitumor agents. VI. The isolation and structure of taxol, a novel antileukemic and antitumor agent from *Taxus brevifolia*. Journal of

[89] Harrison JW, Scrowston RM, Lythgoe B. Taxine. Part IV. The constiuents of taxine-I.Journal

[90] Stierle A, Strobel G, Stierle D, et al. The search for a taxol-producing microorganism among the endophytic fungi of the Pacific Yew, *Taxus brevifolia*. Journal of Natural

[91] Strobel G, Yang X, Sears J, et al. Taxol from *Pestalotiopsis microspora*, an endophytic fungus of *Taxus wallachiana*. Microbiology. 1996;**142**:435-440. DOI: 10.1099/13500872-142-2-435

[92] Chen J, Qiu X, Wang R, et al. Inhibition of human gastric carcinoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo by cladosporol isolated from the paclitaxel-producing strain *Alternaria alternata* var. *monosporus*. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2009;**32**:2072-2074. DOI:

[93] Xu F, Tao W, Cheng L, et al. Strain improvement and optimization of the media of taxolproducing fungus *Fusarium maire*. Biochemical Engineering Journal. 2006;**31**:67-73. DOI:

[94] Huang M, Li J, Liu L, et al. Phomopsichin A–D; four new chromone derivatives from mangrove endophytic fungus *Phomopsis* sp. 33#. Marine Drugs. 2016;**14**:215-220. DOI:

[95] Amagata T, Morinaka BI, Amagata A, et al. A chemical study of cyclic depsipeptides produced by a sponge-derived fungus. Journal of Natural Products. 2006;**9**:1560-1565

10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19991008)83:2<283::AID-IJC22>3.0.CO;2-6

1328-1336. DOI: 10.1021/np400304q

European Journal. 2013;**19**:15556-15564

the Chemical Society. 1971;**93**:2325-2327

of the Chemical Society. 1996;**95**:641-655

10.1016/j.bej.2006.05.024

10.3390/md14110215

Products. 1995;**58**:1315. DOI: 10.1021/np50123a002

phytochem.2007.09.006

DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-103496


[83] Fan Y, Yi W, Liu P, et al. Indole-diterpenoids with anti-H1N1 activity from the aciduric fungus *Penicillium camemberti* OUCMDZ-1492. Journal of Natural Products. 2013;**76**: 1328-1336. DOI: 10.1021/np400304q

[70] Shiono Y, Sasaki T, Shibuya F, et al. Isolation of a phomoxanthone A derivative, a new metabolite of tetrahydroxanthone, from a *Phomopsis* sp. isolated from the mangrove,

[71] Ananda K, Sridhar KR. Diversity of endophytic fungi in the roots of mangrove species on the west coast of India. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 2002;**48**:871-878. Source:

[72] Beau J, Mahid N, Burda WN, et al. Epigenetic tailoring for the production of anti-infective cytosporones from the marine fungus *Leucostoma persoonii*. Marine Drugs. 2012;**10**:

[73] Sebastianes FLDS, Romão-Dumaresq AS, Lacava PT, et al. Species diversity of culturable endophytic fungi from Brazilian mangrove forests. Current Genetics. 2013;**59**:153-166.

[74] Wier AM, Tattar TA, Klekowski EJ. Disease of red mangrove (*Rhizophora mangle*) in Southwest Puerto Rico caused by *Cytospora rhizophorae*. Biotropica. 2000;**32**:299-306.

[75] Wheeler MH, Stipanovic RD, Puckhaber LS. Phytotoxicity of equisetin and epi-equisetin isolated from *Fusarium equiseti* and *F. pallidoroseum*. Mycological Research. 1999;**103**:

[76] Wang J, Lu W, Min C, et al. The endophytic fungus AGR12 in the stem of *Rhizophora stylosa* Griff and its antibacterial metabolites. Chinese Journal of Antibiotics. 2011;**36**:102-106

[77] Burmeister HR, Bennett GA, Vesonder RF, et al. Antibiotic produced by *Fusarium equiseti* NRRL 5537. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1974;**5**:634-639. DOI: 10.1128/

[78] König T, Kapus A, Sarkadi B. Effects of equisetin on rat liver mitochondria: Evidence for inhibition of substrate anion carriers of the inner membrane. Journal of Bioenergetics

[79] Xu J, Ebada SS, Proksch P. Pestalotiopsis, a highly creative genus: Chemistry and bioactivity of secondary metabolites. Fungal Diversity. 2010;**44**:15-31. DOI: 10.1007/s13225-

[80] Xu J, Kjer J, Sendker J, et al. Chromones from the endophytic fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. isolated from the Chinese mangrove plant *Rhizophora mucronata*. Tetrahedron Letters.

[81] Xu J, Lin Q, Wang B, et al. Pestalotiopamide E, a new amide from the endophytic fungus *Pestalotiopsis* sp. Journal of Asian Natural Products Research. 2011;**13**:373-376. DOI:

[82] An CY, Li XM, Li CS, et al. Aniquinazolines A–D, four new quinazolinone alkaloids from marine-derived endophytic fungus *Aspergillus nidulans*. Marine Drugs. 2013;**11**:

and Biomembranes. 1993;**25**:537-545. DOI: 10.1007/BF01108410

*Rhizhopora mucronata*. Natural Product Communications. 2013;**8**:1735-1737

PubMed. DOI: 10.1139/w02-080

184 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

762-774. DOI: 10.3390/md10040762

DOI: 10.1007/s00294-013-0396-8

AAC.5.6.634

010-0055-z

DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2000.tb00473.x

967-973. DOI: 10.1017/S0953756298008119

2011;**52**:21-25. DOI: 10.1021/np800748u

2682-2694. DOI: 10.3390/md11072682

10.1080/10286020.2011.554829


[96] Rukachaisirikul V, Rodglin A, Phongpaichit S, et al. α-Pyrone and seiricuprolide derivatives from the mangrove-derived fungi *Pestalotiopsis* spp. PSU-MA92 and PSU-MA119. Phytochemistry Letters. 2012;**5**:13-17

**Section 7**

**Mangrove Conservation and Management**


**Mangrove Conservation and Management**

[96] Rukachaisirikul V, Rodglin A, Phongpaichit S, et al. α-Pyrone and seiricuprolide derivatives from the mangrove-derived fungi *Pestalotiopsis* spp. PSU-MA92 and PSU-MA119.

[97] Brady SF, Wagenaar MM, Singh MP, et al. The cytosporones, new octaketide antibiotics isolated from an endophytic fungus. Organic Letters. 2000;**32**:4043-4046. DOI: 10.1021/

[98] Helms JB, Rothman JE. Inhibition by brefeldin A of a Golgi membrane enzyme that catalyses exchange of guanine nucleotide bound to ARF. Nature. 1992;**360**:352-354. DOI:

Phytochemistry Letters. 2012;**5**:13-17

ol006680s

10.1038/360352a0

186 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Chapter 9**

**Provisional chapter**

**Analysis of the Conservation of Central American**

**Analysis of the Conservation of Central American** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78947

Our study of mangrove swamps revealed a total of 120 species, of which 13 are characteristics of mangrove swamps, and 38 of flooded areas with low salt. All the others are invasive species which have taken advantage of the degradation of these natural ecosystems. The scenario is not very different in Laguna de Tres Palos in Mexico. The frequent fires in the low-growing semi-deciduous rainforest (dry forest) have caused intense erosion, with the consequence that the site has silted up. As a result, the first vegetation band of *Rhizophora mangle* is extremely rare. Instead, *Laguncularia racemosa* and *Conocarpus erectus* are dominant, along with a band of *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* with a high occurrence of *Phragmites australis* (Cav.) Trin., which acts as an indicator of sediment silting. It is extremely frequent for several reasons: as it is the decrease of the salinity of the water, the scarce depth due to the accumulation of sediments and the contamination by the entrance of residual waters of the nearby populations. When the depth and salinity of the water are suitable, the dominant species are *Rhizophora mangle*, *Laguncularia racemosa*,

Mangrove communities are located in tropical and subtropical areas on different continents between parallel 30° N and 30° S [1]. They are also located in Central America in all the

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method**

**Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method**

Ana Cano-Ortiz, Carmelo Maria Musarella,

Ana Cano-Ortiz, Carmelo Maria Musarella,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Sara Del Rio, Ricardo Quinto Canas and

Sara Del Rio, Ricardo Quinto Canas and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

and *Avicennia germinans*.

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** mangrove, conservation, phytosociological method

Eusebio Cano

Eusebio Cano

**Abstract**

José Carlos Piñar Fuentes, Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes,

José Carlos Piñar Fuentes, Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes,

#### **Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78947

Ana Cano-Ortiz, Carmelo Maria Musarella, José Carlos Piñar Fuentes, Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes, Sara Del Rio, Ricardo Quinto Canas and Eusebio Cano Ana Cano-Ortiz, Carmelo Maria Musarella, José Carlos Piñar Fuentes, Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes, Sara Del Rio, Ricardo Quinto Canas and Eusebio Cano

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

#### **Abstract**

Our study of mangrove swamps revealed a total of 120 species, of which 13 are characteristics of mangrove swamps, and 38 of flooded areas with low salt. All the others are invasive species which have taken advantage of the degradation of these natural ecosystems. The scenario is not very different in Laguna de Tres Palos in Mexico. The frequent fires in the low-growing semi-deciduous rainforest (dry forest) have caused intense erosion, with the consequence that the site has silted up. As a result, the first vegetation band of *Rhizophora mangle* is extremely rare. Instead, *Laguncularia racemosa* and *Conocarpus erectus* are dominant, along with a band of *Phragmito-Magnocaricetea* with a high occurrence of *Phragmites australis* (Cav.) Trin., which acts as an indicator of sediment silting. It is extremely frequent for several reasons: as it is the decrease of the salinity of the water, the scarce depth due to the accumulation of sediments and the contamination by the entrance of residual waters of the nearby populations. When the depth and salinity of the water are suitable, the dominant species are *Rhizophora mangle*, *Laguncularia racemosa*, and *Avicennia germinans*.

**Keywords:** mangrove, conservation, phytosociological method

### **1. Introduction**

Mangrove communities are located in tropical and subtropical areas on different continents between parallel 30° N and 30° S [1]. They are also located in Central America in all the

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

territories of the Caribbean, Atlantic areas of Brazil and on the Pacific Ocean Coast; Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, California, Florida. Mangrove ecosystems are important because they serve as a refuge for a high diversity of animal species. However, there are various threats that can damage these ecosystems, and deforestation, sediment clogging, and pollution can cause loss of animal species of high ecological value.

Recently, Mendes and Tsai [2] carried out a study of mangrove swamp sediments in a transect from the outermost to the innermost areas of the mangrove swamp. Specifically, they sampled three points containing the species *Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia shaueriana,* and *Rhizophora mangle* and analysed a range of physical and chemical parameters as well as microbial activity. This research highlights the need to preserve mangrove areas against deforestation. Research into the deforestation of forests in protected areas [3] of Latin America reveals that this phenomenon increased from 0.04% to 0.10% between 2004 and 2009, with a significant increase in the number of hectares affected. This is due to the

**Figure 1.** Caribbean mangrove forests (Dominican Republic) with an intense introgression of the invasive species *Eichhornia crassipes.*

density and proximity to the habitat of the rural population and to the decrease in funding for protected areas; however, it is somewhat offset by protection measures in these threatened areas. We recently pointed to the need to establish conservation measures for Central American mangrove swamps [4], as they are facing a number of different threats. One of these is particularly the high rate of sediment deposit caused by the deforestation of surrounding areas which is silting up areas of mangrove; this is the case of several mangrove swamps in Mexico (Laguna de Tres Palos, Acapulco, Mexico). The result is the substitution of the habitat of *Rhizophora mangle* with that of *Laguncularia racemosa*, whose habitat is in turn substituted by *Conocarpus erectus* due to the reduction in the depth of the lake basin, an increased inflow of fresh water and a decrease in salinity. This horizontal dynamic is

**Figure 3.** Pacific mangrove forests (Mexico). Mangrove swamps threatened by the silting up of the lake basin as a result

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

191

of the deforestation of the surrounding area. There is currently a severe invasion of *Phragmites australis*.

**Figure 4.** Mangrove of the Laguna de Tres Palos, Mexico.

**Figure 2.** Caribbean mangrove forests (Dominican Republic) showing the severe impact of cutting which leads to GHGs emissions.

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947 191

**Figure 3.** Pacific mangrove forests (Mexico). Mangrove swamps threatened by the silting up of the lake basin as a result of the deforestation of the surrounding area. There is currently a severe invasion of *Phragmites australis*.

**Figure 4.** Mangrove of the Laguna de Tres Palos, Mexico.

territories of the Caribbean, Atlantic areas of Brazil and on the Pacific Ocean Coast; Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, California, Florida. Mangrove ecosystems are important because they serve as a refuge for a high diversity of animal species. However, there are various threats that can damage these ecosystems, and deforestation, sediment clogging, and pollution can cause loss of animal species of high

Recently, Mendes and Tsai [2] carried out a study of mangrove swamp sediments in a transect from the outermost to the innermost areas of the mangrove swamp. Specifically, they sampled three points containing the species *Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia shaueriana,* and *Rhizophora mangle* and analysed a range of physical and chemical parameters as well as microbial activity. This research highlights the need to preserve mangrove areas against deforestation. Research into the deforestation of forests in protected areas [3] of Latin America reveals that this phenomenon increased from 0.04% to 0.10% between 2004 and 2009, with a significant increase in the number of hectares affected. This is due to the

**Figure 1.** Caribbean mangrove forests (Dominican Republic) with an intense introgression of the invasive species

**Figure 2.** Caribbean mangrove forests (Dominican Republic) showing the severe impact of cutting which leads to GHGs

ecological value.

190 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

*Eichhornia crassipes.*

emissions.

density and proximity to the habitat of the rural population and to the decrease in funding for protected areas; however, it is somewhat offset by protection measures in these threatened areas. We recently pointed to the need to establish conservation measures for Central American mangrove swamps [4], as they are facing a number of different threats. One of these is particularly the high rate of sediment deposit caused by the deforestation of surrounding areas which is silting up areas of mangrove; this is the case of several mangrove swamps in Mexico (Laguna de Tres Palos, Acapulco, Mexico). The result is the substitution of the habitat of *Rhizophora mangle* with that of *Laguncularia racemosa*, whose habitat is in turn substituted by *Conocarpus erectus* due to the reduction in the depth of the lake basin, an increased inflow of fresh water and a decrease in salinity. This horizontal dynamic is accompanied by the proliferation of *Phragmites australis* communities, as a species whose optimal development occurs in sites with shallow standing water with low salinity, quite the opposite of the requirements for mangroves. Mangrove communities should therefore be regarded as fragile owing to the fact that they demand a particular depth of water and salinity. Another danger threatening the mangrove habitat is deforestation by the rural population for use as firewood, charcoal, kindling, and as an energy source. This could be reduced if the per capita income of the population were higher, thereby affording them access to other energy sources. In view of these considerations on the situation of these habitats, our aim is to determine their degree of diversity and state of conservation (**Figures 1**–**4**). Therefore, we collected phytosociological data, which is essential to understand species diversity and community pattern in Central America. We have also discussed how results from this study can help in conserving mangroves in Central America.

**Asociaciones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16** *Avicennia germinans* (L.) L*. \*\** II IV V II IV II V V III V *Laguncularia racemosa* (L.) Gaertn*.\*\** V V V II V III IV I V

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

193

*Conocarpus erectus* L*.\*\** II II III V III V III V I V II *Batis maritima* L*.\*\** II I III I V III II

*Rhyzophora mangle* L*.\*\** V IV III II I III V V

*Dalbergia ecastaphyllum* (L.) Taub.\* II I V V

*Rhabdadenia biflora* (Jacq.) Muell.Arg*.\*\** II II I II III I *Coccoloba uvifera* (L.) L*.\** II I I I V

*Conocarpus erectus* L. var*. sericea* (Forst.) Borhidi I I

*Crataeva tapia* L.\* I II

*Pavonia paludicola* Nicols*.\*\** II I I V

*Acrostichum aureum* L*.\** II I II I *Annona glabra* L. *\** II I III I I *Bucida buceras* L.\* II II I

*Borriria arborescens* (L.) DC.\* I I I

*Ipomoea tiliacea* (Willd.) Choisy\* I I I *Lonchocarpus palmeri* (Rose) *M. Souza*\* III

*Lycium tweedianum* Griseb.\* II I I *Machaerium lunatum* (L.f.) Ducke\* II II I *Mimosa pigra* L.\* I *Morinda citrifolia* L.\* II I

*Ludwigia octavalvis* (Jacq.) Raven\* I II

*Bacopa monnieri* (L.) Pennell\* I

*Cydista aequinoctialis* (L.) Miers\* I *Cyperus alternifolius* L.\* I *Cyperus odorata* Vahl\* II I *Dalbergia berterii* (DC.) Urb.\* II *Echinochloa polystachya* (Kunth) Hitchc.*\** I *Eichlornia crassipes* (Mart.) Solm\*\* I *Eleocharis interstincta* (Vahl) R. & S.\* I *Eleocharis mutata* (L.) Roem. & Schult.\* I *Heterostachys ritteriana* (Moq.) Urg.-Sternb.\*\* I *Hippomane mancinella* L. \* II

### **2. Material and methods**

We study the diversity and state of conservation of mangrove forests based on the analysis of 16 plant communities distributed throughout Central America (Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic) (**Figure 5**) using floristic inventories compiled by several authors [4–6]; this analysis uses over 70 field samplings grouped by ecological, physiognomic and floristic affinity in 16 plant communities. For each sampling, data were taken of the plot size in m2, (40 x 20) coordinates, coverage in percentage, average height of the dominant species and all the species present. Each plant community presents a particular floristic composition; therefore, in the statistical treatment, we will only take into account the flora of each plant association, since

**Figure 5.** Mangrove areas studied in Central America [4].

accompanied by the proliferation of *Phragmites australis* communities, as a species whose optimal development occurs in sites with shallow standing water with low salinity, quite the opposite of the requirements for mangroves. Mangrove communities should therefore be regarded as fragile owing to the fact that they demand a particular depth of water and salinity. Another danger threatening the mangrove habitat is deforestation by the rural population for use as firewood, charcoal, kindling, and as an energy source. This could be reduced if the per capita income of the population were higher, thereby affording them access to other energy sources. In view of these considerations on the situation of these habitats, our aim is to determine their degree of diversity and state of conservation (**Figures 1**–**4**). Therefore, we collected phytosociological data, which is essential to understand species diversity and community pattern in Central America. We have also discussed how results from this study

We study the diversity and state of conservation of mangrove forests based on the analysis of 16 plant communities distributed throughout Central America (Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic) (**Figure 5**) using floristic inventories compiled by several authors [4–6]; this analysis uses over 70 field samplings grouped by ecological, physiognomic and floristic affinity in 16 plant communities. For each sampling, data were taken of the plot size in m2, (40 x 20) coordinates, coverage in percentage, average height of the dominant species and all the species present. Each plant community presents a particular floristic composition; therefore, in the statistical treatment, we will only take into account the flora of each plant association, since

can help in conserving mangroves in Central America.

**2. Material and methods**

192 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Figure 5.** Mangrove areas studied in Central America [4].



**Asociaciones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16**

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

195

*Cannavalia maritima* (Aub.) Thons I r II r *Morinda royc* L. r r *Caesalpinia bonduc* (L.) Roxb. r V r

*Cordia sebesteana* L. r r

*Ipomoea alba* L. I V II

*Dalbergia brownei (*Jacq.) Urb. III V *Muntingia calabura* L. I *Panicum purpurascens* Raddi r *Chamaecrista diphylla* (L.) Greene r *Cyperus tenuis* Sw. r *Spilanthes urens* Jacq. r

*Acacia macracantha* H. & B. ex Willd I *Aristolochia trilobata* L I I *Bursera simaruba* (L.) Sarg. I I

*Capparis flexuosa* (L.) L. I I II I I

*Calophyllum calaba* L. I

*Cassytha filiformis* L. I *Cecropia schreberiana* Miq. I *Chrysobalanus icaco* L. I

*Clusia rosea* Jacq. I

*Erithalis fruticosa* L. I *Ficus velutina* H. & B. ex Willd. I

*Ipomoea pes-caprae* (L.) R. Br. I

*Costus speciosus* (J.Konig) Sm.

*Cissus verticillata* (L.) Nicols. I I II *Citharexylum fruticosum* L. I

*Corchorus hirsutus* L. I

*Crescentia cujete* L. I I

*Guapira discolour* (Spreng.) Little I

*Harrisia nashii* Britt. & Rose I *Hippocratea volubilis* L. I I

*Ipomoea violacea* L I

*Guazuma ulmifolia* Lam. I r


**Asociaciones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16**

I

*Sesuvium portulacastrum* (L.) L.\*\* II I II I III

II

*Nephrolepis multiflora* (Roxb) Jarrett ex

194 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

*Pithecellobium lanceolatum* (Willd.)

*Rhynchospora corymbosa* (L.) Britton\*\*

*Polygonum acuminatum* H.B.K.\* I

*Pterocarpus officinalis* Jacq.\* II I

*Roystonea hispaniolana* L. H. Bailey\* II I *Sabal causiarum* (Cook.) Becc.\* II *Salicornia bigelobii* Torr.\*\* I I

*Sthalia monosperma* (Tul.) Urb.\* II III

*Typha domingensis* Pers.\* II III I I I *Bucida palustris* Borhidi III *Tabebuia angustata* Britt. III *Roystonea regia* (HBK) Cook I *Sabal parviflora* Becc. I *Sarcostemma clausum* L. II I *Cissus trifoliata* L. I *Hohenbergia penduliflora* (A. Rich.) Mez. II *Tillandsia fasciculata* Sw. II *Tillandsia usneoides* L. II *Tillandsia valenzuelana* A. Rich. II *Baccharis halimifolia* L. II *Iva cheiranthifolia* L. I *Distichlis spicata* (L.) Greene I *Fimbristylis spathacea* Roth I *Salicornia perennis* Mill. I *Suriana maritima* L. II

*Rachicallis americana* (Jacq.) Ktze.\*\* I

*Paspalum geminatum* L.\* I

*Phragmites australis* (Cav) Trin.\* I II *Phyllanthus elsiae* Urban\*\* I

*Pterocarpus acapulcensis* Rose\* II

Morton *\**

Benth.\*\*


each association presents its own characteristic species and companions; we add a synthetic index to each species from r, +, I to V, to represent the presence/absence of species in the community. These indices are transformed into Van der Maarel indices [7] for statistical treatment, with the following equivalences: The value r means that the species is very rare, and that it only appears very sporadically, we assign it the same value as +; r, + = 2; value 2 indicates the species is rare and only found in certain isolated inventories in the plant community; I = 3, indicating the species is present in under 40% of the total samplings for the community; II = 4, in 40–55%; III = 5, in 55–70%; IV = 6, in 70–80%; and V = 7, in 90–100% of the total samplings carried out for a particular community (**Table 1**). We then run a series of statistical analyses on the Excel table with the 16 plant communities: cluster (Jaccard's distance) to determine the similarity between communities, diversity (Shannon) for A, B, C and ordination by DCA. We used the statistical packages CAP (Community Analysis Package III) and Past. For the state of

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

197

Degree of conservation Gc <sup>=</sup> <sup>C</sup> <sup>×</sup> AM <sup>×</sup> (A/Dcar.–A/Dcom.) <sup>×</sup> RF <sup>×</sup> Sm \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ <sup>R</sup>

**3.** Acar. – Acom. = Difference between the average values of the abundance indices of characteristics in higher syntaxonomic units in the association and the average values of the

**4.** RF = Floristic richness (value 1 if all the species are characteristic; 0.5 if characteristics and companion species are 50%, and 0 where there is no characteristic of the community, sig-

**5.** Sm = Minimum area in relation to the area of distribution of the community (subsector,

**a.** \*\*Species that live in humid environments that are temporarily or permanently waterlogged and have high salinity (mangrove forest plants), in environments in which the

**b.** \*Species that live in humid or temporarily waterlogged environments with or without slight salinity (species in transition between the mangrove forest and neighbouring communities); in this case, the salinity gradient is less than 0.2%. These are species that live in places that are waterlogged with freshwater, as in the case of Gran Estero in the

**c.** Invasive species from nearby communities typical of dry environments. These are species from communities in the surroundings, essentially belonging to the dry forest

district value: 0.5; sector: 1; subprovince, province: 2; group of provinces: 3.

conservation, we follow [8].

**1.** C = Coverage on a per unit basis

association companions.

Dominican Republic [10].

[11].

**2.** AM = Average height of dominant species

nifying that the original community has disappeared.

**6.** R = Extremely rare phytocoenosis; value 3, rare 2 and normal 1.

salinity ranges between 0.2% and 1.3%, according to [9].

1—As. *Machario lunati-Rhizophoretum manglis* Cano et al. 2012. 2—As. *Rhabdadenio biflori-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 3—As. *Sthalio monospermae-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 4—As. *Lonchocarpo pycnifolli-Conocarpetum erecti* Cano et al. 2012. 5—As. *Lonchocarpo sericei-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 6—As. *Crataevo tapiae-Conocarpetum erectae* Cano et al. 2012. 7—*Dalbergio-Rhizophoretum manglis* Borhidi 1991 (Borhidi 1991, Table 97 inv. 1–5). 8—As. *Batidi-Avicennietum germinantis* Borhidi & Del-Risco & Borhidi 1991 (Borhidi 1991, Table 98 inv. 1–6). 9—As. *Conocarpo erectae-Coccoloetum uviferae* Reyes in Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reys & Acosta 2003, Table 2 inv. 1–6). 10—*Caesalpinio bonduc-Dalbergietum ecastophylli* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 3 inv. 1–6). 11—*Dalbergietum browney* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 4 inv. 1–4). 12—*Conocarpetum erectae* Reyes in Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003). 13—*Rhizophoretum manglis* Cuatrecasas 1958 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 6 inv. 1–10). 14—As. *Avicennietum germinantis* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 7 inv. 1–10). 15—As. *Batidi-Avicennietum germinantis* Borhidi & Del-Risco & Borhidi 1991 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 8 inv. 1–3). 16—As. *Laguncurio racemosae-Avicennietum germinantis* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 9 inv. 1–7).

**Table 1.** Synthetic table of the plant associations studied.

each association presents its own characteristic species and companions; we add a synthetic index to each species from r, +, I to V, to represent the presence/absence of species in the community. These indices are transformed into Van der Maarel indices [7] for statistical treatment, with the following equivalences: The value r means that the species is very rare, and that it only appears very sporadically, we assign it the same value as +; r, + = 2; value 2 indicates the species is rare and only found in certain isolated inventories in the plant community; I = 3, indicating the species is present in under 40% of the total samplings for the community; II = 4, in 40–55%; III = 5, in 55–70%; IV = 6, in 70–80%; and V = 7, in 90–100% of the total samplings carried out for a particular community (**Table 1**). We then run a series of statistical analyses on the Excel table with the 16 plant communities: cluster (Jaccard's distance) to determine the similarity between communities, diversity (Shannon) for A, B, C and ordination by DCA. We used the statistical packages CAP (Community Analysis Package III) and Past. For the state of conservation, we follow [8]. Degree of conservation Gc <sup>=</sup> <sup>C</sup> <sup>×</sup> AM <sup>×</sup> (A/Dcar.–A/Dcom.) <sup>×</sup> RF <sup>×</sup> Sm \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ <sup>R</sup>

$$\text{Degree of conservation Gc} = \frac{\text{C} \times \text{AM} \times (\text{A/D car.} - \text{A/D com.}) \times \text{RF} \times \text{Sm.}}{\text{R}}$$

**1.** C = Coverage on a per unit basis

**Asociaciones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16**

I

*Prosopis juliflora* (Sw.) DC. I I r

1—As. *Machario lunati-Rhizophoretum manglis* Cano et al. 2012. 2—As. *Rhabdadenio biflori-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 3—As. *Sthalio monospermae-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 4—As. *Lonchocarpo pycnifolli-Conocarpetum erecti* Cano et al. 2012. 5—As. *Lonchocarpo sericei-Laguncularietum racemosae* Cano et al. 2012. 6—As. *Crataevo tapiae-Conocarpetum erectae* Cano et al. 2012. 7—*Dalbergio-Rhizophoretum manglis* Borhidi 1991 (Borhidi 1991, Table 97 inv. 1–5). 8—As. *Batidi-Avicennietum germinantis* Borhidi & Del-Risco & Borhidi 1991 (Borhidi 1991, Table 98 inv. 1–6). 9—As. *Conocarpo erectae-Coccoloetum uviferae* Reyes in Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reys & Acosta 2003, Table 2 inv. 1–6). 10—*Caesalpinio bonduc-Dalbergietum ecastophylli* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 3 inv. 1–6). 11—*Dalbergietum browney* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 4 inv. 1–4). 12—*Conocarpetum erectae* Reyes in Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003). 13—*Rhizophoretum manglis* Cuatrecasas 1958 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 6 inv. 1–10). 14—As. *Avicennietum germinantis* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 7 inv. 1–10). 15—As. *Batidi-Avicennietum germinantis* Borhidi & Del-Risco & Borhidi 1991 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 8 inv. 1–3). 16—As. *Laguncurio racemosae-*

I

*Thespesia populnea* (L.) Soland. I I I I II I

*Avicennietum germinantis* Reyes & Acosta 2003 (Reyes & Acosta 2003, Table 9 inv. 1–7).

*Leucanea leucocephala* (Lam.) De Wit r r

*Lonchocarpus domingensis* (Turp.) DC. I I *Lonchocarpus pycnophyllus* Urb. III *Luffa cilindrica* L. I *Maclura tinctoria* (L.) D. Don I

196 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

*Mikania cordifolia* (L.f.) Willd. I I

*Pentalinum luteum* (L.) Hansen &

Wunderlin

Anderson

*Paullinia pinnata* L. I I

*Pereskia quisqueyana* Alain I

*Pithecellobium unguis-cati* (L.) Mart. I

*Salpianthus purpurascens* (C.ex Lag.) H. et A. I *Sapindus saponaria* L. I

*Randia aculeata* L. I I

*Sophora tomentosa* L. I *Stigmaphyllon bannisterioides* (L.) A. E.

*Terminalia catalpa* L. I

*Vigna luteola* (Jacq.) Benth. I *Wedelia trilobata* (L.) Hitchc. I

*Zamia debilis* L. I *Ziziphus rignoni* Delp. I

**Table 1.** Synthetic table of the plant associations studied.

*Phoradendron quadrangulare* (HBK) J. K. & U. I

*Mucuna pruriens* L. I

	- **a.** \*\*Species that live in humid environments that are temporarily or permanently waterlogged and have high salinity (mangrove forest plants), in environments in which the salinity ranges between 0.2% and 1.3%, according to [9].
	- **b.** \*Species that live in humid or temporarily waterlogged environments with or without slight salinity (species in transition between the mangrove forest and neighbouring communities); in this case, the salinity gradient is less than 0.2%. These are species that live in places that are waterlogged with freshwater, as in the case of Gran Estero in the Dominican Republic [10].
	- **c.** Invasive species from nearby communities typical of dry environments. These are species from communities in the surroundings, essentially belonging to the dry forest [11].

### **3. Results and discussion**

This study revealed findings about mangrove community and adjacent vegetation's structure in Central America. This kind of phytosociological studies is ecologically significant and useful in conserving and managing ecosystems. The study identified that deforestation leads to siltation of soil, which can alter vegetation structure in surrounding areas.

#### **3.1. Community analysis**

Jaccard's analysis of similarity/dissimilarity shows that coincidences/differences between the plant communities are between 40 and 60%. The highest differences occur between group I (1–7) and group II (9–15) of the cluster (**Figure 6**). This is due to the different floristic composition of the plant communities caused by the influx of invasive species. This cluster analysis is confirmed by applying the DCA analysis (**Figure 7**), which shows two clearly differentiated groups of communities. Group GA in this analysis belongs to communities 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, which are characterised by a low presence—and even the absence—of mangrove species; in contrast, group GB has a very high presence of mangrove species. **Table 1** reveals the presence of 16 species (13.11%), which require strict ecological conditions of salinity and depth, as opposed to 33 species (27.04%) that grow in a low or non-existent salinity gradient, and 73 opportunistic invasive species from neighbouring habitats that penetrate owing to the significant silting of the lake basin (59.83%); this can be seen in the following vegetation profile (**Figure 8**) showing the introgression of dry forest species in the mangrove forest.

The communities in group I of the cluster have 11.68% of characteristic mangrove species, as opposed to 4.96% in group II. Salinity gradient in a given area depends on hydrology of that area. Lugo and Snedaker [12] first formulated the mangrove forest ecological classification system based on physiographic and structural components of mangroves of Florida. This study also showed vegetation groups based on salinity gradient. Modification of environmental parameters, such as salinity, depth of water, as a consequence of clogging, is a cause of change in the structure and diversity of the mangrove [13], and this change implies an

**Figure 8.** Profile of the vegetation of the cloud forest of Sierra Bahoruco. (1) *Rhabdadenio biflori-Laguncularietum racemosae* and *Lonchocarpo pycnophylli-Conocarpetum erecti.* (2) Salt marshes of *Batidi-Salicornietea*. (3) *Lonchocarpo pycnophylli-Cylindropundietum caribaeae. (*4) *Melocacto pedernalensis-Leptochloopsietum virgatae. (*5) Broad-leaved forest. (6) and (7)

**Figure 7.** DCA ordination analysis separating the two groups (group GA and group GB) of mangrove communities.

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

199

Cloud forest of *Prestoea montana.*

**Figure 6.** Jaccard similarity/dissimilarity cluster analysis of the 16 plant communities.

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947 199

**3. Results and discussion**

198 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**3.1. Community analysis**

This study revealed findings about mangrove community and adjacent vegetation's structure in Central America. This kind of phytosociological studies is ecologically significant and useful in conserving and managing ecosystems. The study identified that deforestation leads to

Jaccard's analysis of similarity/dissimilarity shows that coincidences/differences between the plant communities are between 40 and 60%. The highest differences occur between group I (1–7) and group II (9–15) of the cluster (**Figure 6**). This is due to the different floristic composition of the plant communities caused by the influx of invasive species. This cluster analysis is confirmed by applying the DCA analysis (**Figure 7**), which shows two clearly differentiated groups of communities. Group GA in this analysis belongs to communities 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, which are characterised by a low presence—and even the absence—of mangrove species; in contrast, group GB has a very high presence of mangrove species. **Table 1** reveals the presence of 16 species (13.11%), which require strict ecological conditions of salinity and depth, as opposed to 33 species (27.04%) that grow in a low or non-existent salinity gradient, and 73 opportunistic invasive species from neighbouring habitats that penetrate owing to the significant silting of the lake basin (59.83%); this can be seen in the following vegetation profile (**Figure 8**) showing the introgression of dry forest species in the mangrove forest.

siltation of soil, which can alter vegetation structure in surrounding areas.

**Figure 6.** Jaccard similarity/dissimilarity cluster analysis of the 16 plant communities.

**Figure 7.** DCA ordination analysis separating the two groups (group GA and group GB) of mangrove communities.

**Figure 8.** Profile of the vegetation of the cloud forest of Sierra Bahoruco. (1) *Rhabdadenio biflori-Laguncularietum racemosae* and *Lonchocarpo pycnophylli-Conocarpetum erecti.* (2) Salt marshes of *Batidi-Salicornietea*. (3) *Lonchocarpo pycnophylli-Cylindropundietum caribaeae. (*4) *Melocacto pedernalensis-Leptochloopsietum virgatae. (*5) Broad-leaved forest. (6) and (7) Cloud forest of *Prestoea montana.*

The communities in group I of the cluster have 11.68% of characteristic mangrove species, as opposed to 4.96% in group II. Salinity gradient in a given area depends on hydrology of that area. Lugo and Snedaker [12] first formulated the mangrove forest ecological classification system based on physiographic and structural components of mangroves of Florida. This study also showed vegetation groups based on salinity gradient. Modification of environmental parameters, such as salinity, depth of water, as a consequence of clogging, is a cause of change in the structure and diversity of the mangrove [13], and this change implies an increase in diversity due to a decrease in species specific to the mangrove and an increase in invasive species from nearby ecosystems. By analysing the state of conservation and the diversity of these ecosystems, it can be seen that those with a high Shannon value are not better preserved; on the contrary, the best preserved are those that have few species, but all or most of them are typical of the mangrove ecosystem.

#### **3.2. Diversity analysis**

Shannon's diversity analysis was applied to the characteristic mangrove species, the invasive species and the total species in the mangrove forest, and to the 16 plant communities. This was done based on the synthetic table published by ourselves [7]. This table comprises 16 characteristic mangrove plants, 33 plants that grow in areas of wetland and standing water with a low salt content (these are invasive plants in wetland sites), and 73 opportunistic invasive species from nearby areas that penetrate into mangrove forests due to a decrease in the depth of the lake basin as a result of silting.

**Table 2** reveals that communities 1–8 have a greater floristic richness than 9–16. There are 10 communities in which the Shannon index \*\* for characteristic species is greater than 1, and all the other communities have the value zero, signalling that these communities are not rich in mangrove species or have one single species. Paradoxically, in all communities except 12 and 16, the Shannon values for invasive species is equal or are higher than the values for characteristic species. This highlights the negative impact on the mangrove forest, and its substitution by invasive species. There are also anomalous situations such as community 14, where the Shannon value is zero in all cases; or 6, in which the total diversity value, 1.099, coincides with the characteristic species diversity, 1.099, due to the fact that the community has only mangrove species. In practically all cases, the typical floristic richness of characteristics\*\* is very low compared to the floristic richness of invasive species S\* + invasive plants, signalling a significant threat for mangrove forests. **Figures 9**–**11** show that communities 9–15 present a very low species diversity of characteristic mangrove plants, compared to the first communities, which are more diverse. Communities 9, 10, 12, 13 and 14 have a single mangrove species—thus constituting monospecific populations—and in communities 11 and 15 the species\*\* totally disappear.

#### **3.3. Analysis of the state of conservation**

To determine the state of conservation of the 16 plant communities studied in Central America, we apply the degree of conservation index (Gc) established by ourselves [8]. The best conserved communities are evidently the most biodiverse, as in these communities (1–8) the floristic richness (Rf) is high, ranging between 0.5 and 0.11; while communities 9–16 have a floristic richness (Rf) of between 0.01 and 0.04. In this second case, community 10 has a value Gc = −0.091, due to the fact that Acar = 1 (average values for the abundance of characteristic species) and Acom = 2.63 (average values for the abundance of companion species). **Table 1** shows that community 10 has a single mangrove species\*\* and 12 S\* + invasive plants; in this case, the community is under major threat. However, the other communities −9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16– present higher values for Acar than Acom, so the threat of **1** 3.965 2.157

2.34

1.899

2.044

1.881

1.365

1.598

1.703 0

0

0

1.349 0

0

0

1.099

3.46

3.252

3.503

2.842

2.164

2.733

2.419

2.004

2.502

1.723

1.554

1.537 0

0

1.099

Shannon\_H (total)

Shannon\_H\*\* Shannon\_H (\*

 + Shannon\_H (other invasive plants

Taxa\_S\_t Taxa\_S\_\*\* Taxa\_S\_\* +

invasive plants

Taxa\_S\_Invasive plants

Individual\_t Individual\_\*\* Individual\_\* +

Individual\_invasive plants

**Table 2.**

75

15

41

47

15 Shannon values for characteristic mangrove species and invasive species: number of species and individual per community.

3

39

19

19

42

17

0

15

0

0

3

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

201

invasive plants

152

69

68

80

35

18

46

19

26

53

17

0

15

0

0

3

25 193

41

45

35

33

30

21

30

26

7

3

0

7

7

7

0

22

114

103

113

65

39

76

45

33

56

17

7

22

7

15 25

5

13

15

5

1

10

6

6

10

4

0

5

0

0

1

45

22

20

26

11

5

11

6

7

12

4

0

5

0

0

1

54

9

11

7

8

7

4

5

6

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

4

33

27

34

18

9

16

12

8

13

4

1

6

1

3

5

3.219

1.609

2.559

2.697

1.609 0

2.286

1.785

1.785

2.241

1.609 0

1.318 0

0

0

invasive plants)

3.797

3.082

2.978

3.251

2.384

1.6

2.365

1.785

1.887

2.423

1.609 0

1.318 0

0

0

**2**

**3**

**4**

**5**

**6**

**7**

**8**

**9**

**10**

**11**

**12**

**13**

**14 15**

**16**


increase in diversity due to a decrease in species specific to the mangrove and an increase in invasive species from nearby ecosystems. By analysing the state of conservation and the diversity of these ecosystems, it can be seen that those with a high Shannon value are not better preserved; on the contrary, the best preserved are those that have few species, but all or

Shannon's diversity analysis was applied to the characteristic mangrove species, the invasive species and the total species in the mangrove forest, and to the 16 plant communities. This was done based on the synthetic table published by ourselves [7]. This table comprises 16 characteristic mangrove plants, 33 plants that grow in areas of wetland and standing water with a low salt content (these are invasive plants in wetland sites), and 73 opportunistic invasive species from nearby areas that penetrate into mangrove forests due to a decrease in the

**Table 2** reveals that communities 1–8 have a greater floristic richness than 9–16. There are 10 communities in which the Shannon index \*\* for characteristic species is greater than 1, and all the other communities have the value zero, signalling that these communities are not rich in mangrove species or have one single species. Paradoxically, in all communities except 12 and 16, the Shannon values for invasive species is equal or are higher than the values for characteristic species. This highlights the negative impact on the mangrove forest, and its substitution by invasive species. There are also anomalous situations such as community 14, where the Shannon value is zero in all cases; or 6, in which the total diversity value, 1.099, coincides with the characteristic species diversity, 1.099, due to the fact that the community has only mangrove species. In practically all cases, the typical floristic richness of characteristics\*\* is very low compared to the floristic richness of invasive species S\* + invasive plants, signalling a significant threat for mangrove forests. **Figures 9**–**11** show that communities 9–15 present a very low species diversity of characteristic mangrove plants, compared to the first communities, which are more diverse. Communities 9, 10, 12, 13 and 14 have a single mangrove species—thus constituting monospecific populations—and in communities 11 and 15

To determine the state of conservation of the 16 plant communities studied in Central America, we apply the degree of conservation index (Gc) established by ourselves [8]. The best conserved communities are evidently the most biodiverse, as in these communities (1–8) the floristic richness (Rf) is high, ranging between 0.5 and 0.11; while communities 9–16 have a floristic richness (Rf) of between 0.01 and 0.04. In this second case, community 10 has a value Gc = −0.091, due to the fact that Acar = 1 (average values for the abundance of characteristic species) and Acom = 2.63 (average values for the abundance of companion species). **Table 1** shows that community 10 has a single mangrove species\*\* and 12 S\* + invasive plants; in this case, the community is under major threat. However, the other communities −9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16– present higher values for Acar than Acom, so the threat of

most of them are typical of the mangrove ecosystem.

depth of the lake basin as a result of silting.

the species\*\* totally disappear.

**3.3. Analysis of the state of conservation**

**3.2. Diversity analysis**

200 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Table 2.** Shannon values for characteristic mangrove species and invasive species: number of species and individual per community.

**Figure 9.** Shannon diversity graph of the four situations. (A) the total species in the community; (B) only characteristic mangrove species; (C) invasive species (both those growing in flooded areas, and invasive species due to the loss of the lake basin); (D) invasive species from nearby communities due to the silting of the lake basin.

**Figure 11.** Box plot of the Shannon index.

**C AM Aca Aco Aca-Aco Rf Sm R Gc** 0.948 8.20 2.55 1.37 1.18 0.09 1 2 0.412 0.923 7.70 2.09 1.13 0.96 0.11 2 1 1.506 0.883 7.20 3.00 1.40 1.60 0.07 3 1 2.150 0.880 6.50 2.12 1.07 1.05 0.07 2 1 0.129 0.100 10.0 2.28 1.18 1.10 0.07 2 2 0.077 0.980 5.20 3.25 1.60 1.65 0.05 2 2 0.420 0.920 18.5 4.00 2.00 1.70 0.05 2 2 1.702 0.691 6.50 2.33 1.16 1.17 0.06 2 2 0.315 0.900 7.00 5.00 1.85 3.15 0.01 2 2 0.198 0.800 7.00 1.00 2.63 (− 1.63) 0.01 2 2 (−0.091) 0.800 4.00 5.00 1.00 4.00 0.01 2 2 0.128 0.900 5.00 4.50 1.00 3.50 0.04 2 2 0.630 0.900 8.50 5.00 2.25 2.75 0.01 2 2 0.210 0.900 10.0 5.00 0.00 5.00 0.01 2 2 0.450 0.691 6.50 5.00 0.00 5.00 0.01 2 2 0.224 0.900 12.0 3.50 0.00 5.50 0.04 2 2 1.510

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

**Table 3.** Analysis of the degree of conservation of the mangrove communities.

**Figure 10.** Graph showing the number of characteristic and invasive species.

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947 

**Figure 11.** Box plot of the Shannon index.

**Figure 9.** Shannon diversity graph of the four situations. (A) the total species in the community; (B) only characteristic mangrove species; (C) invasive species (both those growing in flooded areas, and invasive species due to the loss of the

lake basin); (D) invasive species from nearby communities due to the silting of the lake basin.

Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

**Figure 10.** Graph showing the number of characteristic and invasive species.


**Table 3.** Analysis of the degree of conservation of the mangrove communities.

these communities disappearing is negligible or non-existent, with the particularity that communities 14, 15 and 16 have values of Acom = 0 and have no invasive companion species and are thus the best conserved communities. In the first group of communities (**Table 3**), although the floristic richness of \*\* is high, the Rf of \* + invasive plants is also high, implying a significant degree of threat.

**Acknowledgements**

profiles.

**Author details**

Ana Cano-Ortiz<sup>1</sup>

Jaén, Spain

**References**

Italy

Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes<sup>3</sup>

We would like to thank Ms. Pru Brooke Turner (MA Cantab.) for the English translation of this article, and the architect Francisco Javier Quiros Higueras for developing the vegetation

Analysis of the Conservation of Central American Mangroves Using the Phytosociological Method

, Carmelo Maria Musarella1,2, José Carlos Piñar Fuentes<sup>1</sup>

1 Department of Animal and Plant Biology and Ecology, Botany Section, University of Jaén,

2 Department of AGRARIA, "Mediterranea" University of Reggio Calabria, Reggio Calabria,

[1] Spalding M, Kainuma M, Collins L. World Atlas of Mangroves (Version 2). A Collaborative Project of ITTO, ISME, FAO, UNEP-WCMC,UNESCO-MAB, UNU-INWEH and TNC. London (UK): Earthscan, London; 2010. 319 pp. data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/5 [2] Mendes LW, Tsai SM. Variations of bacterial community and composition in mangrove

[3] Leisher C, Touval J, Hess SM, Boucher TM, Reymondin L. Land and Forest degradation

[4] Cano E, Cano Ortiz A, Veloz A, Alatorre J, Otero R. Comparative analysis between the mangrove swamps of the Caribbean and those of the state of Guerrero (Mexico). Plant

[5] Borhidi A. Phytogeography and vegetation ecology of Cuba. Ed. Académiai Kiado, Bud-

sediment at different depths in southeastern Brazil. Diversity. 2014;**6**:825-843

inside protected areas in Latin America. Diversity. 2013;**5**:779-795

Biosystems. 2012;**146**(Supplement):112-130

apest. 1991:1-858

3 Department of Landscape, Environment and Planning/Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Mediterranean (ICAAM), University of Évora, Evora, Portugal

4 Department of Biodiversity and Environmental Management (Botany), Faculty of

5 CCMAR – Centro de Ciências do Mar, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of León, León, Spain

, Ricardo Quinto Canas<sup>5</sup>

, Sara Del Rio4

\*Address all correspondence to: ecano@ujaen.es

,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78947

and Eusebio Cano<sup>1</sup>

\*

205

The threats that affect the mangrove are several; among which we highlight tourism, industries, infrastructure and deforestation. The methodology used to find out the conservation status of these ecosystems is based on the phytosociological method. With this method, 16 plant communities have been described, which present ecological and floristic differences. Each plant association presents its own characteristic species (Acar), and companion species (Acom) belonging to neighbouring communities. For this reason, and for the first time, we take stock of the relationship between characteristic and companion species, and in response to this, the state of conservation of the plant association. The state of conservation of the mangrove is high when all its species are characteristic, as this ecosystem is poor in characteristic species, its conservation is good, but if it presents a high diversity, it means that it presents many opportunistic companion species, and the state of conservation the mangrove is bad.

### **4. Conclusions**

The floristic diversity presented by some mangrove communities is not synonymous with a good state of conservation, but rather the reverse: this diversity is a cause for concern, as it is due to the high number of invasive species that are difficult to eradicate while the current threats are maintained, in the form of cutting, burning, forest fires, charcoal manufacture, and so on.

Therefore, the best conserved mangrove communities are those which present only typical mangrove species and no companions, even in the case of monospecific populations of *Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpu erectus.* The mangrove forest must be regarded as a fragile ecosystem as it demands ecological conditions of depth of water, salinity, and a very specific substrate, and in which any alteration triggers the deviation and substitution of these communities by neighbouring ones.

Based on the results obtained, we propose concrete measures to mitigate and prevent the destruction of the mangrove communities:


### **Acknowledgements**

these communities disappearing is negligible or non-existent, with the particularity that communities 14, 15 and 16 have values of Acom = 0 and have no invasive companion species and are thus the best conserved communities. In the first group of communities (**Table 3**), although the floristic richness of \*\* is high, the Rf of \* + invasive plants is also high, implying

The threats that affect the mangrove are several; among which we highlight tourism, industries, infrastructure and deforestation. The methodology used to find out the conservation status of these ecosystems is based on the phytosociological method. With this method, 16 plant communities have been described, which present ecological and floristic differences. Each plant association presents its own characteristic species (Acar), and companion species (Acom) belonging to neighbouring communities. For this reason, and for the first time, we take stock of the relationship between characteristic and companion species, and in response to this, the state of conservation of the plant association. The state of conservation of the mangrove is high when all its species are characteristic, as this ecosystem is poor in characteristic species, its conservation is good, but if it presents a high diversity, it means that it presents many opportunistic companion species, and the

The floristic diversity presented by some mangrove communities is not synonymous with a good state of conservation, but rather the reverse: this diversity is a cause for concern, as it is due to the high number of invasive species that are difficult to eradicate while the current threats are maintained, in the form of cutting, burning, forest fires, charcoal manufacture, and

Therefore, the best conserved mangrove communities are those which present only typical mangrove species and no companions, even in the case of monospecific populations of *Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans, Conocarpu erectus.* The mangrove forest must be regarded as a fragile ecosystem as it demands ecological conditions of depth of water, salinity, and a very specific substrate, and in which any alteration triggers the

Based on the results obtained, we propose concrete measures to mitigate and prevent the

**1.** Not to carry out deforestation in peripheral areas to avoid erosive phenomena and the

deviation and substitution of these communities by neighbouring ones.

**2.** Deforestation with the aim of obtaining energy (coal) must be prohibited.

**3.** Implement policies for the integration of rural populations in their environment.

a significant degree of threat.

204 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

state of conservation the mangrove is bad.

destruction of the mangrove communities:

consequent filling of the lagoon vessel.

**4.** Control of mass tourism.

**4. Conclusions**

so on.

We would like to thank Ms. Pru Brooke Turner (MA Cantab.) for the English translation of this article, and the architect Francisco Javier Quiros Higueras for developing the vegetation profiles.

### **Author details**

Ana Cano-Ortiz<sup>1</sup> , Carmelo Maria Musarella1,2, José Carlos Piñar Fuentes<sup>1</sup> , Carlos Jose Pinto Gomes<sup>3</sup> , Sara Del Rio4 , Ricardo Quinto Canas<sup>5</sup> and Eusebio Cano<sup>1</sup> \*

\*Address all correspondence to: ecano@ujaen.es

1 Department of Animal and Plant Biology and Ecology, Botany Section, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain

2 Department of AGRARIA, "Mediterranea" University of Reggio Calabria, Reggio Calabria, Italy

3 Department of Landscape, Environment and Planning/Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Mediterranean (ICAAM), University of Évora, Evora, Portugal

4 Department of Biodiversity and Environmental Management (Botany), Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of León, León, Spain

5 CCMAR – Centro de Ciências do Mar, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

### **References**


[6] Reyes OJ, Acosta Cantillo F. Fitocenosis presentes las áreas costeras del sur de la Sierra Maestra, Cuba. I. Comunidades con influencia marina. Foresta Veracruzana.

[7] Van der Maarel E. Transformation of cover-abundance values in phytosociology and its

[8] Cano E, García A, Nieto J, Torres JA. Estudio de la evaluación de hábitats de Laguna Honda (Jaén, España). Departamento de Ecología. Universidade de Évora, Actas: I colo-

[9] Mendes LW, Tsai SM. Variations of bacterial community and composition in mangrove

[10] Cano E, Veloz Ramirez A, Cano Ortiz A, Esteban FJ. Analysis of the *Pterocarpus officinalis* forests in the gran Estero (Dominican Republic). Acta Bot. Gallica. 2009;**156**(4):559-570

[11] Cano Ortiz A, Musarella CM, Piñar JC, Veloz A, Cano E. The dry forest in the Dominican

[12] Lugo AE, Snedaker SC. The ecology of mangroves. Annual Review of Ecology and

[13] Joshi HG, Ghose M. Community structure, species diversity, and aboveground biomass

of the Sunderban mangrove swamps. Tropical Ecology. 2014;**55**(3):283-303

sediment at different depths in southeastern Brazil. Diversity. 2014;**6**:825-843

effects on community similarity. Vegetatio. 1979;**39**:97-114

quio internacional de ecología da vegetaçao; 1996. pp. 265-275

Republic. Plant Biosystems. 2015;**149**(3):451-472

Systematics. 2003;**5**:39-64

2003;**5**(002):1-8

206 Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

### *Edited by Sahadev Sharma*

*Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function* deals with several aspects of mangrove science, as well as conservation, management, and related policies. The book is divided into six sections and structured into 10 chapters. The first section discusses mangrove ecology, structure, and function; the second section explains mangrove physiology related to salt accumulation; the third section focuses on mangrove polychaetes; the fourth section talks about the bioprospect of mangrove microbes; the fifth section discusses soil geochemistry; and the sixth section elucidates mangrove management and conservation. Researchers from different countries and fields of mangrove ecosystem exploration have contributed their findings. This book would be an ideal source of scientific information to graduate students, advanced students, researchers, scientists, and stakeholders involved in mangrove ecosystem research.

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © atosan / iStock

Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function

Mangrove Ecosystem

Ecology and Function

*Edited by Sahadev Sharma*