**5.6. Prefrontal cortex (PFC)**

Cingulotomies have been performed for the drug-dependence treatment in order to interrupt obsessional thoughts about drug use. Significant complications have progressively been documented like impaired motivation, attention and executive functions [55, 56], in addition to very low effectiveness over addictive behaviors. Recent data showed decreased prefrontal activity on fRMN in drug-abuse patients and increased compulsive behavior after DBS of the lateral orbital cortex. The latter effect makes this procedure counterproductive [63].

risks (hemorrhages, infections, battery life), so every patient has to be carefully evaluated, and precise ethical standards must be defined in the form of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Beyond the negative parabola of psychosurgery, a rational scientific solid, a precise experimental protocol and adherence to a rigid ethical code are key factors to ensure the success of these researches. As to the target, the nucleus accumbens is very promising. We must keep in mind when choosing new optimal neural targets that likely the local and surrounding DBS influences might depend on the stimulated structure and its specific afferents, efferents, cell

Deep Brain Stimulation in Treatment-Refractory Addiction

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73694

7

Angelo Lavano\*, Giusy Guzzi, Attilio Della Torre, Donatella Gabriele, Domenico Chirchiglia,

[1] Cleary DR, Ozpinar A, Raslan AM, Ko AL. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disor-

[2] Bradizza CM, Stasiewicz PR, Paas ND. Relapse to alcohol and drug use among individuals diagnosed with co-occuring mental health and substance use disorders: A review. Clinical

[3] Feltenstein MV, See RE. The neurocircuitry of addiction: An overview. British Journal of

[4] Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;

ders: Where we are now. Neurosurgical Focus. Jun 2015;**38**(6):E2

Unit of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Department of Medical and Surgical

types, ratio of projection neurons to interneurons and transmitter systems.

The authors contributed equally to writing the manuscript.

Carmelino Angelo Stroscio and Giorgio Volpentesta

Sciences, University "Magna Graecia", Catanzaro, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to: lavano@unicz.it

Psychology Review. 2006;**26**:162-178

Pharmacology. 2008;**154**:261-274

**Declaration of interests**

**Contributors**

**Author details**

**References**

**35**:217-238

We declare no competing interests.
