3. ICTs implementation on selective UNESCO IHP case studies

#### 3.1. Remote sensing

emergence of new Internet technology, GIS are becoming more open and accessible, thereby facilitating the democratization of sharing spatial data, open accessibility, and effective dissemination of information [60]. Furthermore, the implementation of a relational database management system (RDBMS), which is related to geographical objects through geodatabases, enables the coupling of spatial information with tabulate data in order to store, update, manage, and properly allocate information. This means, for example, that a substance of concern that is recorded by a gauge station of a telemetric monitoring network can be connected to a number of spatial elements, such as the downstream water body, inhabited

In the latest years, both open source (OS) and commercial geo information systems are being routinely used, not only for sharing spatial datasets and monitoring observations but also for advanced geoprocessing functions across the Web [61]. In order to bypass interoperability problems and the data not only be easily accessible but also easily operated, international communication standards, including Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standard-compliant services, have been developed to support the establishment of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) [62]. The OGC Web Processing Service (WPS), for example, defines a standard interface to access geoprocessing functions through Web services, while the Catalog Service for the Web (CSW) defines a standard way for publishing and discovering geospatial resources. Similar approaches to the structure of spatial data have been adopted at European level by the INSPIRE Directive of the European Community (EC) [63] that triggers the creation of a European spatial data infrastructure which delivers integrated spatial information services

The evolution of the WebGIS systems in the early 1990s from the use of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) to the later use of geography mark-up language (GML) and scalable vector graphics (SVG) as well as the integration of Web Feature Services (WFS) and Web Map Services (WMS) to the current WebGIS systems is presented in the literature [64, 59]. Currently, one of the most up to date technologies for spatial information sharing is the Google Fusion Tables (GFTs). GFT is a cloud computing database that provides services on the Web for data management and integration. These services can be accessed directly over the Internet through a browser and permits programmatic access via application programming interface and integration of existing tabular data. The specific technology works by exporting data values from the tables created online or from a user provided spreadsheet and converting it into a meaningful graphical data representation. This collaborative scientific platform has started penetrating into the scientific community. In particular, GFTs coupled with Google Earth were used for time-critical geo-visualizations of the NASA Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Deepwater Horizon oil spill imaging campaign [65]. In this case, the GFT service was applied to create a highly interactive image archive and mapping display, while its Application programming interfaces (API) was utilized to create a flexible PHP-based interface for metadata creation as the basis for an interactive data catalog. Researchers combined GFT with the OGC sensor observation service (SOS), which can provide real-time or near-real-time observations, in order to manage and analyze in situ sensor observations of soil moisture due to its impacts on agricultural and hydrological processes [66]. The literature also shows that GFTs were used for the development of a geo-referenced information system developed for the

areas, and environmental protected areas.

186 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

linked by common standards and protocols to users.

Remote sensing precipitation and atmospheric analysis data have been used by UNESCO-IHP in collaboration with Princeton University for the development of an experimental drought and forecast system for Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean [10] (accessible at http:// stream.princeton.edu/). In particular, the historic and real-time data are calculated using the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) land surface hydrological model [67], and the system allows monitoring of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural droughts in developing regions, where institutional capacity is generally lacking and access to information and technology prevents the development of systems locally. It has the advantage of providing a standardized format for any of the components of the water balance, providing a comprehensive analysis for any point location within the Monitor's domain (currently covering Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean and the United States), while providing an overview of the regional, transboundary extent of drought hazards.

Similarly, UNESCO-IHP has collaborated with the Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS), University of California, Irvine, on the development of tools to provide near real-time global satellite precipitation estimates at high spatial and temporal resolutions, including the Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks-Cloud Classification System (PERSIANN-CCS) [68]. The specific system is used to inform emergency planning and management of hydrological risks, such as floods, droughts, and extreme weather events, with the Namibia Drought Hydrological Services (NHS), for example, using it to prepare daily bulletins with up-to-date information on flood and drought conditions for local communities.

Moreover, nowadays, ICTs coincide with the mobile phones and APIs blooming. Following this technological trend, in 2016, IHP and the Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS) at the University of California-Irvine launched the iRain mobile application, devoted to facilitate people's involvement in collecting local data for global precipitation monitoring (http://en.unesco.org/news/irain-new-mobile-app-promote-citizen-science-andsupport-water-management). The specific application allows users to visualize real-time global satellite precipitation observations, track extreme precipitation events worldwide, and report local rainfall information using crowd-sourcing functionality to supplement the data. The specific application works together with the PERSIANN-CSS tool and provides real time observation for the amelioration of the remote sensing precipitation estimations.

Within the framework of its groundwater and climate change programme (GRAPHIC) (http:// en.unesco.org/graphic), UNESCO-IHP undertook an in-depth assessment of climate variability impacts on total water storage across Africa using a simplified water balance model and GRACE satellites observations. Results indicate that rainfall patterns associated to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are the main drivers of inter-annual water storage changes in Northern Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, respectively. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) plays a significant role in decadal to multidecadal variability, particularly in the Sahel. The findings of this study could be beneficial to decision-makers and help to adequately prepare effective climate variability and adaptation plans (e.g., managed aquifer recharge—MAR) both at national and transboundary level through river basin organizations.

coastal aquifers, groundwater-related wetlands in the Mediterranean region, under the GEF/UNEP-MAP Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem (MedPartnership) project, were the creation of detailed digital maps with the use of GIS, Figure 1, demonstrating the aforementioned water bodies and wetlands in the specific region [70].

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For the creation of the specific map, apart from the data and descriptive information received by the project partners that indicates the characteristics of the coastal aquifers and wetlands, digital data about the groundwater resources and recharge were retrieved by the World-wide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP) (https://www.whymap. org), where UNESCO IHP has leading role in the joint program consortium. Maps prepared by WHYMAP include the Groundwater resources of the world (2008), River and groundwater basins of the world (2012), Global groundwater vulnerability to floods and droughts (2015), as

The publication and dissemination of spatial and descriptive information on the cloud are fostered by geo-referenced Web-based databases. The results of the PERSIANN-CCS project are included in the UNESCO-IHP's Global Network on Water and Development Information in Arid Lands (G-WADI) GeoServer (http://hydis.eng.uci.edu/gwadi/), which provides real-time

Figure 1. Main Mediterranean coastal aquifers and representative wetlands assessed by UNESCO-IHP for the

well as the World karst aquifer map (2017).

3.4. Web-based databases

MedPartnership.

#### 3.2. Monitoring networks for water

On the field of monitoring networks, the importance of groundwater resources is denoted by the Global Groundwater Monitoring Network (GGMN). GGMN is a participative, Web-based network of networks that was set up to improve quality and accessibility of groundwater monitoring information and subsequently the knowledge on the state of groundwater resources at global scale. GGMN is a UNESCO IHP programme, implemented by the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC) and supported by many global and regional partners. The GGMN portal (https://ggmn.un-igrac.org/) contains information on the availability of groundwater monitoring data through space and time, and through the portal, groundwater level data and changes can be displayed on a regional scale.

Users are allowed to upload, interpolate, and analyze the groundwater data using the following options:


Moreover, the produced documentation, manuals, and material by UNESCO IHP in the field of monitoring networks have been adopted at national level by many countries, e.g., the New Zealand's IHP National Committee has implemented the UNESCO IHP guidelines in order to benchmark its hydrological activities with those of the rest of the world and in particular introducing data telemetry [69].

#### 3.3. GIS on water resources

The use of GIS is an integral part of programs related with the management of spatial information, such as water bodies, aquifers, and wetlands. Among UNESCO-IHP's activities on coastal aquifers, groundwater-related wetlands in the Mediterranean region, under the GEF/UNEP-MAP Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem (MedPartnership) project, were the creation of detailed digital maps with the use of GIS, Figure 1, demonstrating the aforementioned water bodies and wetlands in the specific region [70].

For the creation of the specific map, apart from the data and descriptive information received by the project partners that indicates the characteristics of the coastal aquifers and wetlands, digital data about the groundwater resources and recharge were retrieved by the World-wide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP) (https://www.whymap. org), where UNESCO IHP has leading role in the joint program consortium. Maps prepared by WHYMAP include the Groundwater resources of the world (2008), River and groundwater basins of the world (2012), Global groundwater vulnerability to floods and droughts (2015), as well as the World karst aquifer map (2017).

#### 3.4. Web-based databases

GRACE satellites observations. Results indicate that rainfall patterns associated to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are the main drivers of inter-annual water storage changes in Northern Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, respectively. The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) plays a significant role in decadal to multidecadal variability, particularly in the Sahel. The findings of this study could be beneficial to decision-makers and help to adequately prepare effective climate variability and adaptation plans (e.g., managed aquifer recharge—MAR) both at national and transboundary level

On the field of monitoring networks, the importance of groundwater resources is denoted by the Global Groundwater Monitoring Network (GGMN). GGMN is a participative, Web-based network of networks that was set up to improve quality and accessibility of groundwater monitoring information and subsequently the knowledge on the state of groundwater resources at global scale. GGMN is a UNESCO IHP programme, implemented by the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC) and supported by many global and regional partners. The GGMN portal (https://ggmn.un-igrac.org/) contains information on the availability of groundwater monitoring data through space and time, and through the

Users are allowed to upload, interpolate, and analyze the groundwater data using the follow-

• Representative groundwater point measurements can be uploaded as well as can be transferred from a national system via Web services, while the data can be displayed showing the mean, range, or change in groundwater level for a selected time period. • Point measurements can be combined with proxy information and personal expertise to create groundwater level maps. Produced groundwater maps can be shared via the online

• Time series analysis can be performed for each point measurement location to better understand temporal changes of groundwater levels. The time series analysis is a stepby-step procedure to identify trends, periodic fluctuations and autoregressive model. Time series analysis helps defining optimal monitoring frequencies, one of the key com-

Moreover, the produced documentation, manuals, and material by UNESCO IHP in the field of monitoring networks have been adopted at national level by many countries, e.g., the New Zealand's IHP National Committee has implemented the UNESCO IHP guidelines in order to benchmark its hydrological activities with those of the rest of the world and in particular

The use of GIS is an integral part of programs related with the management of spatial information, such as water bodies, aquifers, and wetlands. Among UNESCO-IHP's activities on

ponents of groundwater monitoring network design.

portal, groundwater level data and changes can be displayed on a regional scale.

through river basin organizations.

188 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

3.2. Monitoring networks for water

ing options:

GGMN Portal.

introducing data telemetry [69].

3.3. GIS on water resources

The publication and dissemination of spatial and descriptive information on the cloud are fostered by geo-referenced Web-based databases. The results of the PERSIANN-CCS project are included in the UNESCO-IHP's Global Network on Water and Development Information in Arid Lands (G-WADI) GeoServer (http://hydis.eng.uci.edu/gwadi/), which provides real-time

Figure 1. Main Mediterranean coastal aquifers and representative wetlands assessed by UNESCO-IHP for the MedPartnership.

precipitation estimates for water resources managers. By providing updated precipitation observations at the global level, the usefulness of the GeoServer is a direct support to meteorological drought monitoring and early warning worldwide and a contribution to the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) hosted by WMO [71].

Moreover, the UNESCO Chair International Network of Water-Environment Centres for the Balkans (INWEB) has developed, with the use of different technologies, cloud-based databases for the internationally shared aquifers in the SE Europe, North Africa, and in the Middle East. These databases provide dynamic maps where descriptive information and aquifers characteristics can be easily retrieved by the users with the use of the customized Graphical Users Interface (GUI).

The utilization of the Google Fusion Tables Technology by the UNESCO Chair INWEB resulted in the construction of a prototype geo-referenced information system developed for the transboundary aquifers in Africa [59]. The specific information system contains different forms of interactions such as (i) the visualization of an aquifer's spatial extent and projection over the African continent, (ii) the acknowledge of the type of aquifers and the data availability, (iii) downloading capabilities of the data, and (iv) a customized search module that enables the identification of aquifers according to specific criteria, e.g., specific type of aquifers, e.g., porous, with an extent smaller or greater than a specific value and/or where the country population is smaller or greater than a second specific value, and/or where water recharge is more or less than a third specific value. The final output of the search queries is directly linked to the overlaid layers, i.e., only the aquifers which fulfill the search criteria are shown on the map.

The knowledge gained by the aforementioned geo-information system was used in the UNESCO-IHP's activities on coastal groundwater-related wetlands in the Mediterranean region, under the MedPartnership project (http://www.inweb.gr/fusion/coastal\_wetlands/ coastal\_wetlands.html), Figure 2. In particular, after the population of a Web database with the 82 coastal aquifers and the 26 wetlands characteristics, JavaScript and HTML5 Web programming languages were used for the creation of the platform interface and the linkage with the database. The final output aimed at (i) facilitating water users to easily retrieve data (spatial and descriptive) related to the coastal wetlands in the Mediterranean, (ii) informing users for the relation of coastal wetlands with underlayed coastal aquifers, (iii) supporting public participation by allowing users to provide comments (either general comments or comments related to a specific geolocation) on the water bodies and environmental areas that appear on the base map, and (iv) enhancing communication by automatically generate emails to specific workgroups whenever comments are made.

UNESCO-IHP is highly involved in the promotion of ICTs tool for water resources management. In June 2013, the UNESCO-IHP launched the Hydro free and/or Open-source software Platform for Experts initiative (also known as HOPE: http://www.hope-initiative.net/). The initiative brings together experts from several fields of water resources to engage in capacity building and trainings based on the use of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) [72]. Indeed, the FOSS provides reliable sustainable basis for scientific decision-making, which is essential for the sound governance of water resources. In that sense, HOPE offers a more integrative, international and solutions-oriented approach, with the aim of linking high-quality focused scientific research to policy-relevant interdisciplinary efforts for global sustainability. Because of its decreased software costs, FOSS contributes to improve access to technologies and more specifically in the developing world. The initiative also intends to stimulate cooperation in research and development and to enhance their dissemination. Furthermore, since education continues to be ever more linked to technologies, it is essential to promote and foster equal access to ICTs in order to improve the quality of education in the water sector. HOPE participates to that achievement by providing trainings on FOSS and e-Learning open solutions toward Inclusive Knowledge Societies. As a result, capacities of youth and young professionals in the water sector are reinforced, making them more fit and facilitating their integration in a

Figure 2. Illustration of the geo-referenced information system and its functionality tolls for coastal groundwater related

Information-Communication Technologies as an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Tool…

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191

wetlands in the Mediterranean basin.

As a result of the GEF-funded Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP) project, UNESCO-IHP and IGRAC executed an assessment of 199 transboundary aquifers and 43 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) groundwater systems. The data include indicators describing the hydrogeological, environmental, socioeconomic and governance dimensions of tranboundary aquifers and SIDS groundwater systems and are available on IGRAC's Global Groundwater Information System (GGIS) (https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater- information-system-ggis).

Information-Communication Technologies as an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Tool… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74700 191

precipitation estimates for water resources managers. By providing updated precipitation observations at the global level, the usefulness of the GeoServer is a direct support to meteorological drought monitoring and early warning worldwide and a contribution to the Global

Moreover, the UNESCO Chair International Network of Water-Environment Centres for the Balkans (INWEB) has developed, with the use of different technologies, cloud-based databases for the internationally shared aquifers in the SE Europe, North Africa, and in the Middle East. These databases provide dynamic maps where descriptive information and aquifers characteristics can be easily retrieved by the users with the use of the customized Graphical Users

The utilization of the Google Fusion Tables Technology by the UNESCO Chair INWEB resulted in the construction of a prototype geo-referenced information system developed for the transboundary aquifers in Africa [59]. The specific information system contains different forms of interactions such as (i) the visualization of an aquifer's spatial extent and projection over the African continent, (ii) the acknowledge of the type of aquifers and the data availability, (iii) downloading capabilities of the data, and (iv) a customized search module that enables the identification of aquifers according to specific criteria, e.g., specific type of aquifers, e.g., porous, with an extent smaller or greater than a specific value and/or where the country population is smaller or greater than a second specific value, and/or where water recharge is more or less than a third specific value. The final output of the search queries is directly linked to the overlaid

The knowledge gained by the aforementioned geo-information system was used in the UNESCO-IHP's activities on coastal groundwater-related wetlands in the Mediterranean region, under the MedPartnership project (http://www.inweb.gr/fusion/coastal\_wetlands/ coastal\_wetlands.html), Figure 2. In particular, after the population of a Web database with the 82 coastal aquifers and the 26 wetlands characteristics, JavaScript and HTML5 Web programming languages were used for the creation of the platform interface and the linkage with the database. The final output aimed at (i) facilitating water users to easily retrieve data (spatial and descriptive) related to the coastal wetlands in the Mediterranean, (ii) informing users for the relation of coastal wetlands with underlayed coastal aquifers, (iii) supporting public participation by allowing users to provide comments (either general comments or comments related to a specific geolocation) on the water bodies and environmental areas that appear on the base map, and (iv) enhancing communication by automatically generate emails

As a result of the GEF-funded Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP) project, UNESCO-IHP and IGRAC executed an assessment of 199 transboundary aquifers and 43 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) groundwater systems. The data include indicators describing the hydrogeological, environmental, socioeconomic and governance dimensions of tranboundary aquifers and SIDS groundwater systems and are available on IGRAC's Global Groundwater Information System (GGIS) (https://www.un-igrac.org/global-groundwater--

layers, i.e., only the aquifers which fulfill the search criteria are shown on the map.

to specific workgroups whenever comments are made.

information-system-ggis).

Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) hosted by WMO [71].

190 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

Interface (GUI).

Figure 2. Illustration of the geo-referenced information system and its functionality tolls for coastal groundwater related wetlands in the Mediterranean basin.

UNESCO-IHP is highly involved in the promotion of ICTs tool for water resources management. In June 2013, the UNESCO-IHP launched the Hydro free and/or Open-source software Platform for Experts initiative (also known as HOPE: http://www.hope-initiative.net/). The initiative brings together experts from several fields of water resources to engage in capacity building and trainings based on the use of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) [72]. Indeed, the FOSS provides reliable sustainable basis for scientific decision-making, which is essential for the sound governance of water resources. In that sense, HOPE offers a more integrative, international and solutions-oriented approach, with the aim of linking high-quality focused scientific research to policy-relevant interdisciplinary efforts for global sustainability. Because of its decreased software costs, FOSS contributes to improve access to technologies and more specifically in the developing world. The initiative also intends to stimulate cooperation in research and development and to enhance their dissemination. Furthermore, since education continues to be ever more linked to technologies, it is essential to promote and foster equal access to ICTs in order to improve the quality of education in the water sector. HOPE participates to that achievement by providing trainings on FOSS and e-Learning open solutions toward Inclusive Knowledge Societies. As a result, capacities of youth and young professionals in the water sector are reinforced, making them more fit and facilitating their integration in a constantly evolving environment. In that sense, HOPE encourages linkages between SDG 61 and SDG 82 with a focus on fostering innovative job creation.

In partnership with 18 universities, centers, and other organizations, UNESCO-IHP is also collaborating on the FREEWAT (FREE and open source tools for WATer resource management: http://www.freewat.eu/) project, a HORIZON 2020 project financed by the EU Commission. FREEWAT is an innovative participatory approach gathering technical staff and relevant stakeholders, including policy and decision makers, in designing scenarios for the proper application of conjunctive water policies [73]. The consortium organized also capacity building workshops and seminars and provided training to 700 participants.

In the framework of the promotion of open-source and free software, UNESCO is coordinating with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, the OpenWater Symposium. The symposium focuses on sharing experiences newly lead research using open source software and open access tools within the field of water management and hydrology.

UNESCO-IHP is also behind the Water Information Network System (IHP-WINS), which was launched in January 2017 [74]. This online platform (available at: http://ihp-wins.unesco.org/) incorporates GIS data on water resources into a cooperative and open-access participatory database to foster knowledge-sharing and access to information. IHP-WINS is freely made available by UNESCO's IHP to Member States, water stakeholders, and partners with the aim of facilitating access to information and encouraging contributors to share data on water. Thanks to those contributions, the platform benefits from continuous enrichments with spatial data and documents, coming from various sources. A variety of spatial data is shared and accessible on the platform: scale varies from the global to the very local level, information can be quantitative or qualitative, and both raster and vector are available. Additionally, because the platform is open to a variety of contributors, information covers a large array of waterrelated topics ranging from quality to risk, to gender, etc. Users can combine those layers of information to create maps tailored to their own needs. Transparency and respect of authorship are guaranteed as all information provided benefit from metadata in a standardized format and from a Digital Object Identifier (DOI). This allows for an accurate identification and crediting of any contribution and easy later sharing. Inter-disciplinary collaboration, professional networking, and mentoring are also stimulated through working groups, where users can exchange and provide feedbacks on their ongoing work. This involvement and participation contributes to the building of an online community. By gathering global and inclusive knowledge on water, and facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration, IHP-WINS aims overall at supporting Members States and stakeholders involved in resources management. The platform will also contribute to close the gap between North and South in terms of access to knowledge. The initiative contributes to the follow-up on the monitoring and implementation of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) and those of other water-related goals.

IHP-WINS offers different spatial information that can be overlaid to create tailored maps. As illustrated at Figure 3, which was developed by IGRAC and UNESCO-IHP in 2015, by superimposing information on the spatial extent of transboundary aquifers (1st layer) and groundwater pollution risk (2nd layer), users can quickly identify transboundary resources potentially at risk and the areas where inter-state cooperation for water management should

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Figure 3. Transboundary aquifers and groundwater pollution risk in Africa.

The way in which nowadays information is shared and communication takes place has changed the perspective of our world. The recent revolutionary progress of science, technology, and

be encouraged.

4. Conclusions

<sup>1</sup> Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

<sup>2</sup> Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Information-Communication Technologies as an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Tool… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74700 193

Figure 3. Transboundary aquifers and groundwater pollution risk in Africa.

superimposing information on the spatial extent of transboundary aquifers (1st layer) and groundwater pollution risk (2nd layer), users can quickly identify transboundary resources potentially at risk and the areas where inter-state cooperation for water management should be encouraged.

### 4. Conclusions

constantly evolving environment. In that sense, HOPE encourages linkages between SDG 61

In partnership with 18 universities, centers, and other organizations, UNESCO-IHP is also collaborating on the FREEWAT (FREE and open source tools for WATer resource management: http://www.freewat.eu/) project, a HORIZON 2020 project financed by the EU Commission. FREEWAT is an innovative participatory approach gathering technical staff and relevant stakeholders, including policy and decision makers, in designing scenarios for the proper application of conjunctive water policies [73]. The consortium organized also capacity building

In the framework of the promotion of open-source and free software, UNESCO is coordinating with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, the OpenWater Symposium. The symposium focuses on sharing experiences newly lead research using open source software and open access tools

UNESCO-IHP is also behind the Water Information Network System (IHP-WINS), which was launched in January 2017 [74]. This online platform (available at: http://ihp-wins.unesco.org/) incorporates GIS data on water resources into a cooperative and open-access participatory database to foster knowledge-sharing and access to information. IHP-WINS is freely made available by UNESCO's IHP to Member States, water stakeholders, and partners with the aim of facilitating access to information and encouraging contributors to share data on water. Thanks to those contributions, the platform benefits from continuous enrichments with spatial data and documents, coming from various sources. A variety of spatial data is shared and accessible on the platform: scale varies from the global to the very local level, information can be quantitative or qualitative, and both raster and vector are available. Additionally, because the platform is open to a variety of contributors, information covers a large array of waterrelated topics ranging from quality to risk, to gender, etc. Users can combine those layers of information to create maps tailored to their own needs. Transparency and respect of authorship are guaranteed as all information provided benefit from metadata in a standardized format and from a Digital Object Identifier (DOI). This allows for an accurate identification and crediting of any contribution and easy later sharing. Inter-disciplinary collaboration, professional networking, and mentoring are also stimulated through working groups, where users can exchange and provide feedbacks on their ongoing work. This involvement and participation contributes to the building of an online community. By gathering global and inclusive knowledge on water, and facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration, IHP-WINS aims overall at supporting Members States and stakeholders involved in resources management. The platform will also contribute to close the gap between North and South in terms of access to knowledge. The initiative contributes to the follow-up on the monitoring and implementation of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) and those of other water-related

IHP-WINS offers different spatial information that can be overlaid to create tailored maps. As illustrated at Figure 3, which was developed by IGRAC and UNESCO-IHP in 2015, by

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

and SDG 82 with a focus on fostering innovative job creation.

192 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

workshops and seminars and provided training to 700 participants.

within the field of water management and hydrology.

goals.

1

2

The way in which nowadays information is shared and communication takes place has changed the perspective of our world. The recent revolutionary progress of science, technology, and global communication has put new standards at national and international level, while this progress is also transforming the structure of the economic and social activities. The present work demonstrates that the exponential advances of the information-communication technologies (ICTs) have been also encapsulated in the environmental sector, with special emphasis to be given to the water sector, and international organizations, such as UNESCO-IHP, have adopted this potentiality in their various programs.

Author details

References

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1 UNESCO Chair/INWEB at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

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The specific work gives also emphasis to the use of ICTs that have been used in different UNESCO IHP programs in order to (i) strengthen the capacity building of water management institutions to implement sustainable forms of utilization, management and protection of transboundary water resources, (ii) facilitate water users to retrieve data related to transboundary water resources, (iii) enable water experts to share data, and (iv) support public participation.

ICTs can also contribute to other thematic fields. A holistic and comprehensive approach to promoting ICT in education, for example, has been conducted by UNESCO [75]. Particularly, UNESCO's Intersectoral Platform emphases on the joint work of the ICTs with science in order to support universal access to education, equity in education, the delivery of quality learning and teaching, teachers' professional development and more efficient education management, governance, and administration.

Integrated environmental data management is concerned with providing an opportunity to draw together relevant data on a transient or permanent basis within the same or across disciplinary boundaries so as to address through analyses, modeling or other means, environmental issues of local, regional, national, or international interest or concern [76]. In the water sector and especially in the integrated water resources management (IWRM), ICTs can provide solutions for its implementation. Particularly, technologies such as satellite earth observation, telemetric monitoring networks, and GIS and Web-based geo-referenced information systems could smooth any differences in the use of technical standards and specifications for data collection and information sharing at national and international level when dealing with transboundary water resources. In the case of engineers, hydrologists, environmental professionals, etc. where emphasis is given on modeling the hydro systems, the aforementioned tools could contribute for a more accurate modeling procedure, since accuracy is subjected to data availability and precision and thereafter for analyzing relationships between physical and ecological variables such as precipitation, river flow, or groundwater recharge [12]. The results of the modeling procedure are useful for understanding how the physical and ecological transboundary systems behave under natural conditions and when anthropogenic pressure is implemented.

However, the proper and standardized utilization of ICTs are a common problem in developing countries. For example, monitoring and early warning systems (MEWS) at operational phase contain the decentralized data collection, scattered over multiple agencies that are dependent on different ministries. This requires collaboration across ministries through a multisectorial approach, which often cannot be effectively implemented without direct support from highlevel policymakers [10]. Although most countries have foreseen the development of such monitoring systems in their legislation, it often remains underdeveloped and inappropriate for decision making.
