3. Water quality improvement and challenges

Convention and a Chloride Convention [3]. Both Conventions were signed in 2 December 1976 in Bonn together with an additional protocol to the Berne Convention of 1963 which confirmed

In the 1970s and 1980s, successful programmes were developed to reduce inputs of polluted municipal and industrial wastewater, with the focus on "end-of-pipe" techniques, that is, wastewater treatment, rather than on preventive measures within the industrial enterprises.

The Sandoz accident in 1986 clearly illustrated the disastrous impact accidental pollution can have on the whole river. Due to a fire in a Swiss factory producing chemical and pharmaceutical products, between 10 and 30 tons of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides flushed into the river with the fire extinction water and killed almost all aquatic life between Basel and Koblenz (approx. 400 km downstream). Citizens from Switzerland downstream to the Netherlands demonstrated solidarity with the Rhine and its protection. The considerable public pressure exercised on the governments of the states in the Rhine catchment contributed to the increasing influence of the ICPR. The riparian states of the Rhine were forced to act. The governments triggered by two Rhine ministerial meetings after the accident—charged the ICPR to draft a plan aimed at saving the river. One year later the Rhine Action Programme (RAP) was ready for

When adopting the RAP, the ministers agreed on very challenging and ambitious targets like the return of the salmon by the year 2000 and a 50–70% reduction of inputs of dangerous substances between 1985 and 1995. All along the river, measures were taken to prevent pollution (see Part 3). Since 1970, more than 80 billion Euros have been invested into constructing municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants; today, about 96% of the population in the Rhine catch-

Almost all reduction targets were achieved by 2000. Inputs of most priority substances were reduced by 70–100% or were no longer detectable. The success of the Salmon 2000 and Salmon 2020 programmes is evident [5]. Although completely extinct in the 1950s, by 2016, almost 8900 adult salmon returned to the Rhine basin for spawning (see Part 4.5). Further measures are required to achieve a self-sustaining salmon population in the Rhine catchment. The ongoing reactivation of parts of the former floodplain areas will lead to more room for the

The concept of further integration of policies received an extra impetus and stronger political commitment after the extreme floods in 1993 and 1995 (see Part 5). Two floods were needed to convince the Rhine states that flood prevention measures had to be taken. In 1998, the ICPR adopted an Action Plan on Floods [6]. By 2010, important action targets were achieved after implementing different measures entailing costs of 10.3 billion Euros [7]. With the aim of reducing extreme flood levels, retention areas for 229 million m3 of flood water along the main

Since 1998 and in order to integrate the main uses and functions within the Rhine basin in the working process, the ICPR grants an observer status to non-governmental organisations (NGO) and stakeholders, thus giving them the possibility to participate in the plenary

the European Economic Community becoming a contracting party to the ICPR.

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As a result of these measures, the concentrations of toxic substances also dropped.

approval [4]. It was designed to thoroughly rehabilitate the Rhine by the year 2000.

river, higher biodiversity and a more natural river system (see Parts 4 and 5).

ment are connected to municipal wastewater treatment plants.

stream have been created.

As mentioned in Part 2, water quality improvement has been a main ICPR task since the Commission's establishment in 1950. The Rhine has had to face tremendous pollution. Flowing through densely populated and industrialised areas, it had to cope with huge loads of untreated wastewater in the past. Additionally, there was some accidental pollution as, for example, the severe Sandoz accident in 1986.

Between 1950 and 1970, the ICPR established a uniform monitoring programme from Switzerland down to the Netherlands (Figure 2). This required a comparison of the different national monitoring stations and an agreement on an international monitoring programme, the substances to monitor, monitoring frequency, sampling dates and analytic methods. Due to a joint approach of the authorities in charge, the Rhine water quality could and can still be assessed reliably and on a scientific basis.

During the last 40 years and following the many measures taken, the water quality of the Rhine and of many of its tributaries has considerably improved. At an early stage, in the beginning of the 1980s, the ICPR recommended its member states to include a third treatment stage (elimination of phosphates) when planning new wastewater treatment plants. One of the results of this recommendation is that the Rhine water quality steadily improved, in particular with respect to heavy metals, total phosphorus and ammonium nitrogen (Figure 3).

The improved water quality is also reflected by the development of oxygen concentrations at the monitoring stations Rekingen (High Rhine, Switzerland), Koblenz (Middle Rhine,

Germany) and Bimmen/Lobith (Lower Rhine, German-Dutch border) between 1954 and 2015

Figure 3. Annual average concentrations of total phosphorus from 1973 to 2015 in Weil am Rhein (near Basel), Koblenz

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The political approaches were changed to a long-term ambitious goal setting, and programmes combatting pollution and furthering river restoration were launched shortly after the Sandoz accident. Within short time, three conferences of ministers were staged [12], leading to the

After the accident at Sandoz in 1986, the ICPR also improved its international Warning and Alarm Plan (WAP) [13]. If, in spite of all preventive measures, an accident occurs or great amounts of hazardous substances flow into the Rhine, the WAP is activated, which above all

Figure 4. Annual average concentrations of oxygen from 1954 to 2015 in Rekingen, Koblenz and Bimmen/Lobith.

(Figure 4).

adoption of the RAP in 1987 (see Part 2).

(Middle Rhine) and Bimmen/Lobith (German-Dutch border).

Figure 2. Monitoring stations of the Rhine monitoring programme (2015–2020) [11].

Figure 3. Annual average concentrations of total phosphorus from 1973 to 2015 in Weil am Rhein (near Basel), Koblenz (Middle Rhine) and Bimmen/Lobith (German-Dutch border).

Germany) and Bimmen/Lobith (Lower Rhine, German-Dutch border) between 1954 and 2015 (Figure 4).

The political approaches were changed to a long-term ambitious goal setting, and programmes combatting pollution and furthering river restoration were launched shortly after the Sandoz accident. Within short time, three conferences of ministers were staged [12], leading to the adoption of the RAP in 1987 (see Part 2).

After the accident at Sandoz in 1986, the ICPR also improved its international Warning and Alarm Plan (WAP) [13]. If, in spite of all preventive measures, an accident occurs or great amounts of hazardous substances flow into the Rhine, the WAP is activated, which above all

Figure 4. Annual average concentrations of oxygen from 1954 to 2015 in Rekingen, Koblenz and Bimmen/Lobith.

Figure 2. Monitoring stations of the Rhine monitoring programme (2015–2020) [11].

128 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

warns all users downstream (Figure 5). Apart from warnings, which are only issued during huge and serious water pollution events, the WAP is more and more also used as an instrument for exchanging reliable information on sudden water pollution measured by monitoring stations along the Rhine rivers, Neckar and Main and smaller tributaries.

Following this most successful Rhine Action Programme, the ministers in charge of the Rhine adopted "Rhine 2020" [10]. In this new programme, the ICPR recommended goals regarding the water quality for environmental quality standards; the phased reduction of emissions; the guarantee to produce drinking water using simple and near to nature treatment procedures; the further reduction of the accumulation of hazardous substances in organisms; the uncritical consumption of fish, mussels and crustaceans; the disposal of dredged material, bathing and

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The pollution of the Rhine with heavy metals and other pollutants has been reduced (Figure 6). Additionally, the amount of polluted Rhine sludge has decreased. For instance, the quantity of polluted harbour sludge that the city of Rotterdam had to dispose sunk from 10 million cubic

Today, water bodies in the Rhine watershed are used for many, partly concurrent purposes which almost always modify water bodies and impact on water quality. In order to reach a sustainable situation, uses and protection of the Rhine and its tributaries must be brought into

Worldwide, the Rhine figures among the most important shipping lanes and is the most important one in Europe. Compared to other means of transportation, inland navigation is rather environmentally friendly. Nevertheless, it still directly and indirectly contributes to deteriorating the ecological state and water quality of the Rhine. The ICPR and the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR) are closely cooperating on different environmental issues. Examples of actions helping to achieve environmental objectives are information and recording losses of pollutants from navigation and the "Convention on the collection, deposit and reception of waste produced during navigation on the Rhine and inland

The impact of the different uses is regularly monitored within international and national monitoring programmes, in order to be able to assess the impact of their stress. The results

Figure 6. Annual average concentrations of HCB (hexachlorobenzene) in suspended matter from 1990 to 2015 in Weil am

Rhein (yellow), Koblenz (red) and Bimmen/Lobith (purple).

metres in 1987 to about 1 million cubic metres per year in 2016.

the depollution of the North Sea.

an acceptable balance.

waterways" (CDNI).

Another consequence of the Rhine Action Programme was that requirements concerning municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants became distinctly stricter.

Figure 5. The international main alert centres and the exchange of information.

Following this most successful Rhine Action Programme, the ministers in charge of the Rhine adopted "Rhine 2020" [10]. In this new programme, the ICPR recommended goals regarding the water quality for environmental quality standards; the phased reduction of emissions; the guarantee to produce drinking water using simple and near to nature treatment procedures; the further reduction of the accumulation of hazardous substances in organisms; the uncritical consumption of fish, mussels and crustaceans; the disposal of dredged material, bathing and the depollution of the North Sea.

warns all users downstream (Figure 5). Apart from warnings, which are only issued during huge and serious water pollution events, the WAP is more and more also used as an instrument for exchanging reliable information on sudden water pollution measured by monitoring

Another consequence of the Rhine Action Programme was that requirements concerning

stations along the Rhine rivers, Neckar and Main and smaller tributaries.

130 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

Figure 5. The international main alert centres and the exchange of information.

municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants became distinctly stricter.

The pollution of the Rhine with heavy metals and other pollutants has been reduced (Figure 6). Additionally, the amount of polluted Rhine sludge has decreased. For instance, the quantity of polluted harbour sludge that the city of Rotterdam had to dispose sunk from 10 million cubic metres in 1987 to about 1 million cubic metres per year in 2016.

Today, water bodies in the Rhine watershed are used for many, partly concurrent purposes which almost always modify water bodies and impact on water quality. In order to reach a sustainable situation, uses and protection of the Rhine and its tributaries must be brought into an acceptable balance.

Worldwide, the Rhine figures among the most important shipping lanes and is the most important one in Europe. Compared to other means of transportation, inland navigation is rather environmentally friendly. Nevertheless, it still directly and indirectly contributes to deteriorating the ecological state and water quality of the Rhine. The ICPR and the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR) are closely cooperating on different environmental issues. Examples of actions helping to achieve environmental objectives are information and recording losses of pollutants from navigation and the "Convention on the collection, deposit and reception of waste produced during navigation on the Rhine and inland waterways" (CDNI).

The impact of the different uses is regularly monitored within international and national monitoring programmes, in order to be able to assess the impact of their stress. The results

Figure 6. Annual average concentrations of HCB (hexachlorobenzene) in suspended matter from 1990 to 2015 in Weil am Rhein (yellow), Koblenz (red) and Bimmen/Lobith (purple).

and an assessment of the water quality are summarised and published by the ICPR, from 1956 to 1999 as books and since 2000 on the Internet [14]. In addition to the regular monitoring programmes, the ICPR established a platform for new and upcoming techniques. Since 2015, laboratories in the Rhine catchment using nontarget analysis meet on a regular basis in an expert group. In 2017, the ICPR organised a special monitoring programme including nontarget analysis. This will help to get a better overview over potential pollutants in the Rhine and its tributaries.

emissions and ecotoxicological reactions in nature and to draft suitable treatment methods. The knowledge collected since 2008 has been published in several ICPR reports [16, 17].

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The ICPR will continue its efforts towards reducing point source inputs, inputs of diffuse

Although we are still facing challenges to improve the water quality, the Rhine, one of the largest rivers in Europe, has undergone an impressive restoration. The ICPR programmes are a success story, as pollution could be reduced so that the salmon is coming back to the Rhine (see

Due to the cooperation of the Rhine-bordering countries within the ICPR, not only the water quality of the Rhine but also its ecological state has further improved. Many intermediate aims for the ecological revalorisation of the Rhine river stated in the "Programme for the Sustainable Development of the Rhine – Rhine 2020" have already been achieved [7, 10, 18]. Besides, the common implementation of the Internationally Coordinated Management Plan 2015 for the

Alluvial plains of the Rhine are again flooded, oxbow lakes are reconnected to the river and along short stretches the river structures have been ecologically improved. The number of animal and plant species has increased. Since 2006, salmon and other migratory fish may again

The connection of the different habitats along the Rhine from Lake Constance to the sea in order to achieve habitat patch connectivity is successful. In this connection, the ICPR sets definite targets and spatial focal points aimed at linking water protection with nature and

origin (e.g. nutrients and plant protection agents) and the inputs of micro-pollutants.

4. Conservation and rehabilitation of aquatic ecosystems

reach Strasbourg on their way upstream from the North Sea (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Atlantic salmon (source: Ulrich Haufe, AugenBlick Naturfilm).

4.1. Ecological balance and ICPR programme "Rhine 2020"

IRBD Rhine is currently going on [15].

Part 4).

In spite of improvements in water quality, a few substances are still detected in too high concentrations. This particularly concerns ubiquitous substances (e.g. mercury), which are persistent and occur almost everywhere in the Rhine catchment [15]. Unfortunately, there are few measures capable of reducing the pollution with these substances on the short run.

Additionally, micro-pollutants are of concern for water quality. There is a diverse group of micro-pollutants, like medicinal products (e.g. carbamazepine) (Figure 7) or odoriferous substances, which are partly not eliminated in the wastewater treatment plants. Very low quantities of these pollutants are detectable in waters and may detrimentally affect life in the Rhine and drinking water production.

The active pharmaceutical agents of medicinal products are detected in the Rhine catchment area. The highest concentrations are measured in the Lower Rhine and in tributaries with a high share of municipal wastewater. Wastewater treatment plants have been identified to be a main pathway of input for all therapeutic products for human use and their transformation products. One example of an active pharmaceutical agent in the Rhine catchment area is carbamazepine which is used for the treatment of seizure disorders and neuropathic pain (Figure 7).

The Conference of Rhine Ministers (2007) [12] assigned the ICPR to develop a joint and comprehensive strategy for reducing and avoiding micro-pollutant inputs from urban wastewater and diffuse sources into the Rhine and its tributaries by improving knowledge on

Figure 7. Annual average concentrations of carbamazepine from 2007 to 2015 in Weil am Rhein, Koblenz and Bimmen.

emissions and ecotoxicological reactions in nature and to draft suitable treatment methods. The knowledge collected since 2008 has been published in several ICPR reports [16, 17].

The ICPR will continue its efforts towards reducing point source inputs, inputs of diffuse origin (e.g. nutrients and plant protection agents) and the inputs of micro-pollutants.

Although we are still facing challenges to improve the water quality, the Rhine, one of the largest rivers in Europe, has undergone an impressive restoration. The ICPR programmes are a success story, as pollution could be reduced so that the salmon is coming back to the Rhine (see Part 4).
