2. Evolution of ICTs and implementation on water related issues

The latest technological developments brought communications at the forefront of the technology advancements. Evolutions on communication, i.e., transfer of any type and form of information with high speed internet networks of global coverage, on computing machines, i.e., transformation of personal computers to powerful workstations as well as cloud computing, and on storage capabilities, i.e., cloud backup and storage services with unlimited utilities, have direct impact on technologies, such as remote sensing, monitoring equipment, data bases, and spatial data analysis, that have traditionally been used for the management of water resources.

parameters related to irrigation management, such as the extent of the irrigated area, evapotranspiration [33], biomass and yield estimation [34], and irrigation system performance [35]. A further contribution of remote sensing techniques such as light detection and ranging (LiDAR), interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), and photogrammetry is the construction of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) [36]. The latter has been proved as a significant tool both for hydrological and hydraulic modeling procedures. In the first case, a DEM can be used for extracting vital topographic and water targeted information including basin boundaries, area and perimeter, watershed delineation, stream definition, flow direction and accumulation, total length and slopes of stream channels, average stream length ratio, drainage density, etc. All the aforementioned information is introduced in spatial distributed or lumped hydrological models for calculating critical parameters, such as the time of concentration [37]

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At the same time, DEMs are currently routinely being used together with hydrodynamic models in order to simulate the inundation area after a flood event. Some authors [38] assess the impact of riverbed geometry mapping techniques, by comparing various terrain models, on the performance of a 1D hydraulic model in predicting the flood events. However, 2D hydraulic models are considered the most modern tool for flood inundation and flood hazard studies, where the hydrodynamic model could be coupled with terrain models in order to offer nearly automated flood mapping results [39]. The latter is proposed by the European Union Directive on the assessment and management of flood risks, as the most appropriate tools for

Telemetric monitoring systems have long been used in the water sector, for remotely monitoring river flows, water quality, and reservoir level to aid water resources management or assist in flood early warnings [40]. However, it was only the last years that the technological emergence in the fields of (i) electronics and microelectronics, such as advancements in new sensor technologies and automated controls, (ii) energy efficiency and autonomy, e.g., the use of photovoltaic panels coupled with electric batteries which have limited life range, (iii) communication technologies with GPRS/GSM extended coverage, (iv) computer technology with the creation of microprocessors and unlimited storage capabilities, and (v) costs in terms of the large cost decrease trend of the aforementioned technologies, boosted the continuous monitoring capabilities of the telemetric monitoring system. Other researchers, see [31] for example, facilitated the telemetric monitoring technology in order to investigate a natural and isolated lake in Northern Taiwan which was inaccessible for extended periods due to extreme climatic

Telemetric monitoring systems consist of two principal components: the field equipment and the base station equipment. The field equipment in general includes measuring sensors, a data logger system for data storage and a modem for data transmission, while the base station includes the database and the appropriate software. At the sensor level, the primary issues are the sensor suitability for placement in a field environment, its cost and its power requirements

and flow accumulation to the basin outlet.

generation of flood hazard maps.

2.2. Real time remote monitoring

conditions caused by typhoons.

#### 2.1. Satellite remote sensing

Over the last decade, significant advances in remote sensing techniques have led to a more complete overview of the water cycle at the global scale. Satellite earth observation can provide direct information to processes such as estimation of evapotranspiration [16], precipitation [17], and snowcover/snowmelt [18, 19]. Indirect methods, such as the coupling of remote sensing data with groundwater models, can be used for the assessment of the infiltration process and the recharge of the aquifers. Launched in 2002, the NASA Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellites (GRACE) is the first satellite mission able to provide global observations of terrestrial water storage changes. Many negative trends have been observed in north-west India [20], the Middle East [21], northern China [22], the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea regions [23], and the southern part of the La Plata basin [24]. Significant positive trends were found in southern Africa, near the Upper Zambezi and Okavango river basins, as well as in the Sahel and the Niger basin [25] and in the Amazon [26].

Regarding water quality characteristics, satellite RS has been used with high levels of accuracy for monitoring marine and coastal ecosystems [27]. Moreover, the specific technology provides essential information on the functioning of ecosystems and on the environmental change drivers [28]. Earth observation together with national statistics, field-based observations, and numerical simulation models are designated as the main source of information for the global monitoring of ecosystem services [29]. A recent study demonstrated that environmental parameters, such as chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and total suspended matters (TSM), can be investigated at river basin scale through direct and indirect remote sensed observations [30]. On the other hand, in situ measurements for various ecological parameters are limited to a few experiments sites due to severe economic cost, difficulty in accessing the area of interest and a posteriori highly laborious procedures. Moreover, according to a survey of 52 papers chosen randomly from the journal Ecology, the most ecological sampling is conducted at small spatial scales or consists of infrequent or one-time sampling [31].

In the irrigation sector, satellite earth observation is a useful tool for the retrieval of data that are required for an irrigation system characterization, a process that is necessary for effective water management, as it provides essential knowledge through performance and accounting indicators [32]. In particular, recent advances in satellite earth observation can provide several parameters related to irrigation management, such as the extent of the irrigated area, evapotranspiration [33], biomass and yield estimation [34], and irrigation system performance [35].

A further contribution of remote sensing techniques such as light detection and ranging (LiDAR), interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), and photogrammetry is the construction of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) [36]. The latter has been proved as a significant tool both for hydrological and hydraulic modeling procedures. In the first case, a DEM can be used for extracting vital topographic and water targeted information including basin boundaries, area and perimeter, watershed delineation, stream definition, flow direction and accumulation, total length and slopes of stream channels, average stream length ratio, drainage density, etc. All the aforementioned information is introduced in spatial distributed or lumped hydrological models for calculating critical parameters, such as the time of concentration [37] and flow accumulation to the basin outlet.

At the same time, DEMs are currently routinely being used together with hydrodynamic models in order to simulate the inundation area after a flood event. Some authors [38] assess the impact of riverbed geometry mapping techniques, by comparing various terrain models, on the performance of a 1D hydraulic model in predicting the flood events. However, 2D hydraulic models are considered the most modern tool for flood inundation and flood hazard studies, where the hydrodynamic model could be coupled with terrain models in order to offer nearly automated flood mapping results [39]. The latter is proposed by the European Union Directive on the assessment and management of flood risks, as the most appropriate tools for generation of flood hazard maps.

#### 2.2. Real time remote monitoring

2. Evolution of ICTs and implementation on water related issues

182 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

resources.

2.1. Satellite remote sensing

The latest technological developments brought communications at the forefront of the technology advancements. Evolutions on communication, i.e., transfer of any type and form of information with high speed internet networks of global coverage, on computing machines, i.e., transformation of personal computers to powerful workstations as well as cloud computing, and on storage capabilities, i.e., cloud backup and storage services with unlimited utilities, have direct impact on technologies, such as remote sensing, monitoring equipment, data bases, and spatial data analysis, that have traditionally been used for the management of water

Over the last decade, significant advances in remote sensing techniques have led to a more complete overview of the water cycle at the global scale. Satellite earth observation can provide direct information to processes such as estimation of evapotranspiration [16], precipitation [17], and snowcover/snowmelt [18, 19]. Indirect methods, such as the coupling of remote sensing data with groundwater models, can be used for the assessment of the infiltration process and the recharge of the aquifers. Launched in 2002, the NASA Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellites (GRACE) is the first satellite mission able to provide global observations of terrestrial water storage changes. Many negative trends have been observed in north-west India [20], the Middle East [21], northern China [22], the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea regions [23], and the southern part of the La Plata basin [24]. Significant positive trends were found in southern Africa, near the Upper Zambezi and Okavango river basins, as

Regarding water quality characteristics, satellite RS has been used with high levels of accuracy for monitoring marine and coastal ecosystems [27]. Moreover, the specific technology provides essential information on the functioning of ecosystems and on the environmental change drivers [28]. Earth observation together with national statistics, field-based observations, and numerical simulation models are designated as the main source of information for the global monitoring of ecosystem services [29]. A recent study demonstrated that environmental parameters, such as chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and total suspended matters (TSM), can be investigated at river basin scale through direct and indirect remote sensed observations [30]. On the other hand, in situ measurements for various ecological parameters are limited to a few experiments sites due to severe economic cost, difficulty in accessing the area of interest and a posteriori highly laborious procedures. Moreover, according to a survey of 52 papers chosen randomly from the journal Ecology, the most ecological sampling is conducted at small spatial

In the irrigation sector, satellite earth observation is a useful tool for the retrieval of data that are required for an irrigation system characterization, a process that is necessary for effective water management, as it provides essential knowledge through performance and accounting indicators [32]. In particular, recent advances in satellite earth observation can provide several

well as in the Sahel and the Niger basin [25] and in the Amazon [26].

scales or consists of infrequent or one-time sampling [31].

Telemetric monitoring systems have long been used in the water sector, for remotely monitoring river flows, water quality, and reservoir level to aid water resources management or assist in flood early warnings [40]. However, it was only the last years that the technological emergence in the fields of (i) electronics and microelectronics, such as advancements in new sensor technologies and automated controls, (ii) energy efficiency and autonomy, e.g., the use of photovoltaic panels coupled with electric batteries which have limited life range, (iii) communication technologies with GPRS/GSM extended coverage, (iv) computer technology with the creation of microprocessors and unlimited storage capabilities, and (v) costs in terms of the large cost decrease trend of the aforementioned technologies, boosted the continuous monitoring capabilities of the telemetric monitoring system. Other researchers, see [31] for example, facilitated the telemetric monitoring technology in order to investigate a natural and isolated lake in Northern Taiwan which was inaccessible for extended periods due to extreme climatic conditions caused by typhoons.

Telemetric monitoring systems consist of two principal components: the field equipment and the base station equipment. The field equipment in general includes measuring sensors, a data logger system for data storage and a modem for data transmission, while the base station includes the database and the appropriate software. At the sensor level, the primary issues are the sensor suitability for placement in a field environment, its cost and its power requirements [31], with sensors for physical parameters, such as temperature, moisture, light, etc., to be widely available, while nitrate and carbon dioxide sensors have to be currently very expensive and have moderate power requirements. As far water quantity observation is concerned, the use of electronics in water velocity instruments is responsible for the decommissioning of the traditional flow velocity measurements that were based on mechanical propeller velocity meters [41]. The velocity measurements coupled with water level observations were used for establishing a stage-discharge relationship (so-called rating curve) [42], a method that demonstrated several limitations due to changes in the channel geometry or roughness (vegetation for instance). The main reason behind this transition is the higher efficiency and easier operation that the new electronic equipment presents [43]. Currently, the progress that has been conducted in optics, radar, acoustics, and electromagnetism has led to a new generation of flow measurement devices, which can offer greater efficiency and performance to map river hydrodynamics [41, 44]. Toward this direction, the continuous acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) flowmeters are used to measure the bulk velocity in the acoustic beam, with the length of the river reach as well as the width of the river sections not being determining factors for the implementation of the ADCP method [38].

map spatial data [51]. Nevertheless, it was proved that because of the spatial nature of the required data in water resources modeling and management, GIS can be effectively utilized in both aforesaid water processes [52]. Currently, GIS technology is successfully being combined with surface hydrological models, groundwater models, water supply and irrigations systems, hydrodynamic models for floodplain management, water quality models, water resources monitoring and forecasting, and river basin management [52, 53]. Moreover, at the present state, the vast majority of water related models incorporate modules that are completely linked with GIS software in order both to retrieve the input data and to visualize the final outputs. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model, for example, is a robust watershed modeling tool that uses the ArcSWAT interface, which is an extension to ArcGIS environment to create its inputs [54]. Similarly, a lot of the models developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC), such as the Ecosystem Functions Model (HEC-EFM), Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS), and River Analysis System (HEC-RAS), have a set of procedures, tools, and utilities for processing geospatial data in ArcGIS

Information-Communication Technologies as an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Tool…

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However, this significant advantage of GIS capability to incorporate related spatial data into traditional water resources databases and then retrieved by water-related models can also be exploited by programming and the development of custom graphical user interfaces (GUI). In other words, GUI is a bridging software that makes the communication links between the GIS databases and the model interface by transforming the data on the format that is required by the model. GUI and query languages permit rapid selection and modification of attribute data and parameter values, allowing for swift sensitivity analyses and multiple scheme evaluation [51].

Prior to performing actual simulation, water resources modeling requires a number of timeconsuming steps, including collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, and manipulation of spatial data. With their ability to combine various data sets, GIS software changed the way water resources modeling is handled [55]. In surface water hydrology at river basin scale for example, the data required for the assessment of hydrological parameters such as time of concentration, infiltration rate, etc., depend on a big data set related to the following: geology, edaphology, land uses, land cover, and ground relief. At the same time, the meteorological information usually comes from specific monitoring stations, i.e., point sources, or is given in the form of a mesh. GIS technology enables the coupling of all the previous information in order to be spatially distributed in the hydrological model units and thereafter the model to simulate the rainfall-runoff process [56]. The usefulness of GIS can also be proved when dealing with climate change assessment at river basin scale [57]. In that case, the gridded climate change data were spatially distributed over the hydrological units derived by the MODCOU hydrological model [58] in order to simulate a transboundary river discharges

The development of cooperative databases has been fostered by the improvement of GIS technology which, among its other capabilities, combines the storage of descriptive and observational information with coverage characteristics [59]. At the same time, with the continuous

using a graphical user interface (GUI) for the preparation of data.

under specific climate change emission scenarios.

2.4. Geo-information cloud databases

Solutions to the power requirements of telemetry water monitoring systems can currently be given with the integration of solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells to the system infrastructure. The produced power of such systems is more than adequate, since similar approaches have been tested in energy intensive installations such as water pumping with SPV and been implemented around the globe as an alternative electric energy source for water pumping at remote locations [45]. As for the data transmission, it is revealed [46] that mobile phone is covering rural areas where few other services might be available (e.g., grid electricity or piped water supply), while it was estimated that in 2012, more people in sub-Saharan Africa had access to the mobile phone network than to improved water supplies. Consequently, the use of general packet radio service (GPRS) protocol, which is a packet-oriented mobile data service used in 2G and 3G cellular global system for mobile communications (GSM) [47], can satisfy the demands for observed data transmission to the base station.

However, it should be mentioned that sensor networks are not a panacea in data collection, since they are susceptible to malfunctions that can result in lost or poor-quality data [48, 49]. The fact that environmental sensors can be damaged or destroyed both by natural phenomena (e.g., floods, fire, animal activity), and by malicious human activity (e.g., theft, vandalism), as well as the not properly maintenance of the sensors, may produce low-quality data. Therefore, in order to secure the reliability and accuracy of the massive quantities of data that are collected by the automated monitoring networks, these new data streams require automated quality assurance and quality control processes in order to ensure the minimum bias, and because the manual methods are inadequate for the volumes of data and the time constraints imposed by near-real-time data processing [50].

#### 2.3. Geographic information systems

Despite its broad use, GIS technology was not specifically developed for engineering modeling applications, but it was launched as a general tool to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze, and map spatial data [51]. Nevertheless, it was proved that because of the spatial nature of the required data in water resources modeling and management, GIS can be effectively utilized in both aforesaid water processes [52]. Currently, GIS technology is successfully being combined with surface hydrological models, groundwater models, water supply and irrigations systems, hydrodynamic models for floodplain management, water quality models, water resources monitoring and forecasting, and river basin management [52, 53]. Moreover, at the present state, the vast majority of water related models incorporate modules that are completely linked with GIS software in order both to retrieve the input data and to visualize the final outputs. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model, for example, is a robust watershed modeling tool that uses the ArcSWAT interface, which is an extension to ArcGIS environment to create its inputs [54]. Similarly, a lot of the models developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC), such as the Ecosystem Functions Model (HEC-EFM), Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS), and River Analysis System (HEC-RAS), have a set of procedures, tools, and utilities for processing geospatial data in ArcGIS using a graphical user interface (GUI) for the preparation of data.

However, this significant advantage of GIS capability to incorporate related spatial data into traditional water resources databases and then retrieved by water-related models can also be exploited by programming and the development of custom graphical user interfaces (GUI). In other words, GUI is a bridging software that makes the communication links between the GIS databases and the model interface by transforming the data on the format that is required by the model. GUI and query languages permit rapid selection and modification of attribute data and parameter values, allowing for swift sensitivity analyses and multiple scheme evaluation [51].

Prior to performing actual simulation, water resources modeling requires a number of timeconsuming steps, including collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, and manipulation of spatial data. With their ability to combine various data sets, GIS software changed the way water resources modeling is handled [55]. In surface water hydrology at river basin scale for example, the data required for the assessment of hydrological parameters such as time of concentration, infiltration rate, etc., depend on a big data set related to the following: geology, edaphology, land uses, land cover, and ground relief. At the same time, the meteorological information usually comes from specific monitoring stations, i.e., point sources, or is given in the form of a mesh. GIS technology enables the coupling of all the previous information in order to be spatially distributed in the hydrological model units and thereafter the model to simulate the rainfall-runoff process [56]. The usefulness of GIS can also be proved when dealing with climate change assessment at river basin scale [57]. In that case, the gridded climate change data were spatially distributed over the hydrological units derived by the MODCOU hydrological model [58] in order to simulate a transboundary river discharges under specific climate change emission scenarios.

#### 2.4. Geo-information cloud databases

[31], with sensors for physical parameters, such as temperature, moisture, light, etc., to be widely available, while nitrate and carbon dioxide sensors have to be currently very expensive and have moderate power requirements. As far water quantity observation is concerned, the use of electronics in water velocity instruments is responsible for the decommissioning of the traditional flow velocity measurements that were based on mechanical propeller velocity meters [41]. The velocity measurements coupled with water level observations were used for establishing a stage-discharge relationship (so-called rating curve) [42], a method that demonstrated several limitations due to changes in the channel geometry or roughness (vegetation for instance). The main reason behind this transition is the higher efficiency and easier operation that the new electronic equipment presents [43]. Currently, the progress that has been conducted in optics, radar, acoustics, and electromagnetism has led to a new generation of flow measurement devices, which can offer greater efficiency and performance to map river hydrodynamics [41, 44]. Toward this direction, the continuous acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) flowmeters are used to measure the bulk velocity in the acoustic beam, with the length of the river reach as well as the width of the river sections not being determining factors

Solutions to the power requirements of telemetry water monitoring systems can currently be given with the integration of solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells to the system infrastructure. The produced power of such systems is more than adequate, since similar approaches have been tested in energy intensive installations such as water pumping with SPV and been implemented around the globe as an alternative electric energy source for water pumping at remote locations [45]. As for the data transmission, it is revealed [46] that mobile phone is covering rural areas where few other services might be available (e.g., grid electricity or piped water supply), while it was estimated that in 2012, more people in sub-Saharan Africa had access to the mobile phone network than to improved water supplies. Consequently, the use of general packet radio service (GPRS) protocol, which is a packet-oriented mobile data service used in 2G and 3G cellular global system for mobile communications (GSM) [47], can satisfy

However, it should be mentioned that sensor networks are not a panacea in data collection, since they are susceptible to malfunctions that can result in lost or poor-quality data [48, 49]. The fact that environmental sensors can be damaged or destroyed both by natural phenomena (e.g., floods, fire, animal activity), and by malicious human activity (e.g., theft, vandalism), as well as the not properly maintenance of the sensors, may produce low-quality data. Therefore, in order to secure the reliability and accuracy of the massive quantities of data that are collected by the automated monitoring networks, these new data streams require automated quality assurance and quality control processes in order to ensure the minimum bias, and because the manual methods are inadequate for the volumes of data and the time constraints

Despite its broad use, GIS technology was not specifically developed for engineering modeling applications, but it was launched as a general tool to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze, and

for the implementation of the ADCP method [38].

184 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

the demands for observed data transmission to the base station.

imposed by near-real-time data processing [50].

2.3. Geographic information systems

The development of cooperative databases has been fostered by the improvement of GIS technology which, among its other capabilities, combines the storage of descriptive and observational information with coverage characteristics [59]. At the same time, with the continuous emergence of new Internet technology, GIS are becoming more open and accessible, thereby facilitating the democratization of sharing spatial data, open accessibility, and effective dissemination of information [60]. Furthermore, the implementation of a relational database management system (RDBMS), which is related to geographical objects through geodatabases, enables the coupling of spatial information with tabulate data in order to store, update, manage, and properly allocate information. This means, for example, that a substance of concern that is recorded by a gauge station of a telemetric monitoring network can be connected to a number of spatial elements, such as the downstream water body, inhabited areas, and environmental protected areas.

transboundary aquifers in Africa. The aim of this system was to provide appropriate tools

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Remote sensing precipitation and atmospheric analysis data have been used by UNESCO-IHP in collaboration with Princeton University for the development of an experimental drought and forecast system for Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean [10] (accessible at http:// stream.princeton.edu/). In particular, the historic and real-time data are calculated using the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) land surface hydrological model [67], and the system allows monitoring of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural droughts in developing regions, where institutional capacity is generally lacking and access to information and technology prevents the development of systems locally. It has the advantage of providing a standardized format for any of the components of the water balance, providing a comprehensive analysis for any point location within the Monitor's domain (currently covering Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean and the United States), while providing an overview of the

Similarly, UNESCO-IHP has collaborated with the Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS), University of California, Irvine, on the development of tools to provide near real-time global satellite precipitation estimates at high spatial and temporal resolutions, including the Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks-Cloud Classification System (PERSIANN-CCS) [68]. The specific system is used to inform emergency planning and management of hydrological risks, such as floods, droughts, and extreme weather events, with the Namibia Drought Hydrological Services (NHS), for example, using it to prepare daily bulletins with up-to-date information on flood

Moreover, nowadays, ICTs coincide with the mobile phones and APIs blooming. Following this technological trend, in 2016, IHP and the Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS) at the University of California-Irvine launched the iRain mobile application, devoted to facilitate people's involvement in collecting local data for global precipitation monitoring (http://en.unesco.org/news/irain-new-mobile-app-promote-citizen-science-andsupport-water-management). The specific application allows users to visualize real-time global satellite precipitation observations, track extreme precipitation events worldwide, and report local rainfall information using crowd-sourcing functionality to supplement the data. The specific application works together with the PERSIANN-CSS tool and provides real time

Within the framework of its groundwater and climate change programme (GRAPHIC) (http:// en.unesco.org/graphic), UNESCO-IHP undertook an in-depth assessment of climate variability impacts on total water storage across Africa using a simplified water balance model and

observation for the amelioration of the remote sensing precipitation estimations.

under a Web-based platform for water management institutions in the region [59].

3. ICTs implementation on selective UNESCO IHP case studies

3.1. Remote sensing

regional, transboundary extent of drought hazards.

and drought conditions for local communities.

In the latest years, both open source (OS) and commercial geo information systems are being routinely used, not only for sharing spatial datasets and monitoring observations but also for advanced geoprocessing functions across the Web [61]. In order to bypass interoperability problems and the data not only be easily accessible but also easily operated, international communication standards, including Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standard-compliant services, have been developed to support the establishment of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI) [62]. The OGC Web Processing Service (WPS), for example, defines a standard interface to access geoprocessing functions through Web services, while the Catalog Service for the Web (CSW) defines a standard way for publishing and discovering geospatial resources. Similar approaches to the structure of spatial data have been adopted at European level by the INSPIRE Directive of the European Community (EC) [63] that triggers the creation of a European spatial data infrastructure which delivers integrated spatial information services linked by common standards and protocols to users.

The evolution of the WebGIS systems in the early 1990s from the use of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) to the later use of geography mark-up language (GML) and scalable vector graphics (SVG) as well as the integration of Web Feature Services (WFS) and Web Map Services (WMS) to the current WebGIS systems is presented in the literature [64, 59]. Currently, one of the most up to date technologies for spatial information sharing is the Google Fusion Tables (GFTs). GFT is a cloud computing database that provides services on the Web for data management and integration. These services can be accessed directly over the Internet through a browser and permits programmatic access via application programming interface and integration of existing tabular data. The specific technology works by exporting data values from the tables created online or from a user provided spreadsheet and converting it into a meaningful graphical data representation. This collaborative scientific platform has started penetrating into the scientific community. In particular, GFTs coupled with Google Earth were used for time-critical geo-visualizations of the NASA Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Deepwater Horizon oil spill imaging campaign [65]. In this case, the GFT service was applied to create a highly interactive image archive and mapping display, while its Application programming interfaces (API) was utilized to create a flexible PHP-based interface for metadata creation as the basis for an interactive data catalog. Researchers combined GFT with the OGC sensor observation service (SOS), which can provide real-time or near-real-time observations, in order to manage and analyze in situ sensor observations of soil moisture due to its impacts on agricultural and hydrological processes [66]. The literature also shows that GFTs were used for the development of a geo-referenced information system developed for the transboundary aquifers in Africa. The aim of this system was to provide appropriate tools under a Web-based platform for water management institutions in the region [59].
