**5.4. Giant reed**

#### *5.4.1. Origin and distribution*

Giant reed (*Arundo donax* L.), also called giant cane, is a tall perennial grass of the family Poaceae. The area of origin of giant reed has been a subject of debate because the biogeographic and evolutionary origin of this species has been obscured through ancient and widespread cultivation [82]. As a result, there is no agreement on the location of the area where it originated. Botanical and historical evidence supports the hypothesis that the origin started from a pool of wild plants native to the Mediterranean region [83]. On the other hand, some authors suggest that Arundo genus originated in East Asia [84]. However, giant reed has been cultivated in Asia, Southern Europe, Southern Africa, Australia, and the Middle East for thousands of years [85]. The rapid spread of this species is probably attributed to its high productivity and multiple uses.

#### *5.4.2. General species description*

dry matter production of up to 6–7 t DM ha−1 within limited years on soils with N contents of more than 0.6%. They found that fertilization increases the yield as well as decreases yield variability in soils with low organic matter content, but soils with high N content show an increase in production risks when fertilizer applications increase. Pociene et al. [78] have reported that under favorable climatic conditions reed canarygrass yields are 7–11 t DM ha−1. Moreover, reed canary grass can produce over 15 t DM ha−1 in Canada [79], from 6 to 11 t DM ha−1

The main biomass characteristics of reed canarygrass are listed in **Table 1**. During the combustion of the reed canarygrass biomass, problems of ash fusion or corrosion have been detected. However, in the delayed harvest system, these problems are almost eradicated. During the winter, there is a decrease in the content of elements such as K, Ca, Mg, P, and Cl. This change in chemical composition is mainly caused by leaching and loss of leaves during the winter, which significantly modifies the chemical and physical characteristics of the ash. It has been reported that the ash content and ash composition show considerable differences between different locations. The type of soil has a great influence on the quality of the biomass. For example, high ash contents have been found in reed canarygrass biomass grown on heavy clay soils and low contents of ash in biomass grown on humus-rich

Reed canarygrass is established mainly by seeding. The recommended seeding rate is 15–20 kg ha−1. Seeds of reed canarygrass generally have a slow germination and show varying degrees of dormancy. Therefore, weed competition can reduce crop yields during the first year. Broadleaf weeds can be controlled with common herbicides. From the second year on, an established reed canarygrass stand becomes quite competitive, and as a result, weeds are no longer a problem. The number and timing of harvests during a growing season directly affect biomass yield of reed canarygrass and biofuel quality. Several studies have shown that reed canarygrass has higher than acceptable levels of silica [81], chlorine, and nitrogen [74]. However, delaying harvest of biomass from autumn to late winter or early spring, before

Giant reed (*Arundo donax* L.), also called giant cane, is a tall perennial grass of the family Poaceae. The area of origin of giant reed has been a subject of debate because the biogeographic and evolutionary origin of this species has been obscured through ancient and widespread cultivation [82]. As a result, there is no agreement on the location of the area where it originated. Botanical and historical evidence supports the hypothesis that the origin started from a pool of wild plants native to the Mediterranean region [83]. On the other hand, some authors suggest that Arundo genus originated in East Asia [84]. However, giant reed has been cultivated in Asia, Southern Europe, Southern Africa, Australia, and the Middle East for thousands of years [85]. The rapid spread of this species is probably attributed to its high

regrowth begins can reduce the levels of undesirable components [76].

in Sweden [80].

12 Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy

and organic soils [74].

**5.4. Giant reed**

*5.4.1. Origin and distribution*

productivity and multiple uses.

*5.3.5. Reed canarygrass as a bioenergy crop*

Giant reed is a tall, perennial C3 grass, and it is one of the largest of the herbaceous grasses that is widespread in the riparian areas of the Mediterranean and found over a wide range of subtropical and warm-temperate areas of the world [11]. The root system consists of tough, fibrous, lateral rhizomes and deep roots. The rhizomes form compact masses from which arise tough fibrous roots that penetrate deeply into the soil. The rhizomes usually lie close to the soil surface, while the roots are more than 100 cm long [86]. The stems arise during the whole period of growth from the large knotty rhizomes. It is reported that primary reproduction is asexual (sprouts from disturbed stems or rhizomes), due to seed sterility, caused by the failure of the megaspore mother cell to divide [87]. Due to the vegetative reproduction of giant reed, its genetic variability and the chances for finding new genotypes or varieties are low. However, according to the results from electrophoresis tests on some giant reed populations, there was a clustering of the selected populations in relation to their geographical origin, reflecting restricted migration of germplasm [11].

#### *5.4.3. Ecological demands*

Giant reed forms dense, monocultural stands and often crowds out native vegetation for soil moisture, nutrients, and space. It tolerates a wide variety of ecological conditions and, however, prefers well-drained soils with abundant soil moisture. It tolerates a pH in the range of 5.5–8.3 and soils of low quality such as saline ones. It can grow in all types of soils from heavy clays to loose sands and gravelly soils, but prefer wet drained soils [88]. Giant reed is a warmtemperate or subtropical species; however, it has little tolerance to survive frost, but when frosts occur after the initiation of spring growth, it is subject to serious damage [89].

Giant reed is commonly known as a drought-resistant species due to its ability to tolerate long periods of severe drought accompanied by low atmospheric humidity. This ability is attributed to the development of thick drought-resistant rhizomes and deeply penetrating roots that reach deep water sources [11].

#### *5.4.4. Biomass yields and characteristics*

Biomass yields in a study conducted in Spain showed 45.9 t DM ha−1 on average, ranging from 29.6 to 63.1 t DM ha−1 [90]. Angelini et al. [91] reported an average biomass yield of 37.7 t DM ha−1 in a study conducted in coastal Tuscany (Central Italy), and Di Candilo et al. [92] reported an average biomass of 39.6 t DM ha−1 in a study carried out in the Low Po Valley (Northern Italy). In Greece, the recorded average dry matter yields on irrigated plots for the first, second, third, and fourth growing periods were 15, 20, 30, and 39 t ha−1, respectively. The high heating value of different aerial parts of a number of giant reed populations grown in Greece ranged from 14.8 to 18.8 MJ kg−1. Depending upon the population and the growing period, the contents of ash ranged from 4.8 to 7.8%.

#### *5.4.5. Giant reed as a bioenergy crop*

Due to seed sterility, giant reed has to be vegetatively propagated from fragments of stems and rhizomes. This may limit large-scale cultivation, since it involves considerable cost and effort and is time-consuming. Tissue culture is an alternative to conventional methods of vegetative propagation and may represent a useful tool for large-scale propagation in a bioenergy crop [93].

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Giant reed has been reported to grow without irrigation under semiarid Southern European conditions [94]. However, it has been reported that irrigation had considerable effects on growth and biomass production since the plant used effectively any possible amount of water [95].

If the nutrient status of the soil is poor, a sufficient amount of K and P should be applied before establishing the giant reed plantation. Otherwise, moderate N fertilization of giant reed is favorable for both economic and environmental reasons. Due to its high growth rates, giant reed does not face significant weed competition from the second year onwards. However, herbicide application is recommended during the first year. Biomass can be harvested each year or every second year, depending on its use [86].
