**2.9. Adsorbent**

**2.5. Liquid oil from pyrolysis of jatropha cake**

(H<sup>2</sup> , CO2

278 Advances in Biofuels and Bioenergy

**2.6. Briquettes**

emission of CO and CO2

**2.7. Dye productions**

**2.8. Polymer composite production**

Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition without oxygen that converts biomass into solid (charcoal), liquid (tar and other organics, such as acetic acid, acetone and methanol) and gaseous products

lose and lignin contents. Lignocelluloses decompose at different temperatures. Hemicelluloses decompose at temperatures of 470–530 K. Meanwhile, cellulose decomposes at the temperature range between 510 and 620 K and lignin being the last component to pyrolyze at temperatures of 550–770 K [16]. Thus, pyrolysis of *J. curcas* seed cake is being carried out at elevated temperature [17]. The liquid oil as pyrolysis product has a reddish-brown color with an irritant odor [18].

*J. curcas* seed cake has empirical formula of CH1.53O0.4N0.007S0.0008 with H/C ratio 1.53. The gross energy value of seed cake was found to be 17.7 MJ/kg. Pyrolysis of seed cake can obtain maximum yield of oil (31.17% by wt) at 500°C [17]. Fast pyrolysis without catalyst (thermal pyrolysis) produced wide range of organic compounds. Purification needs to be addressed such as liquid–liquid extraction into aqueous and organic phases. This oil is considered as another

Briquetting can be used as one of the solution to handle the jatropha press cake. The seed cake still has energy content of around 25 MJ/kg [18]. Since the briquette produces a lot of smoke, it is better to use the product outdoors. It can be used indoors with proper ventilation [19]. The carbonized process should be maintained at average time 10 minutes per 5 kg in order to prevent cake from complete combustion. Complete combustion will produce ash instead of charcoal briquette. Cassava and corn starch were used as binders for bonding the carbonized cake. Pandey et al. [20] reported that using 10% binder (cassava and corn starch) for pressed cake produced good jatropha charcoal briquette. The briquette from jatropha seed cake has

Dye can be produced from leaves, stem, bark, wax, and roots of jatropha plant [21–23]. The leaves and stem of jatropha produced brownish dye when boiled in water as an extraction process [20]. It is based on experience of Tharu tribes, Devipatan division. The dye has no irritative and/or toxic effect on skin. Bark contains tannins that produce purple color in dye production [22]. Meanwhile, combining wax and bark produced dark blue dyes. Roots of jatropha could produce yellow dye. The dye is used to dye domestic threads, ropes and clothes during ceremonial occasions [23].

Polymer composite has strong and stiff fibers in a matrix which is weaker and less stiff compared to fiber. The quality of polymer composite is determined by their characteristic properties

are lower than briquette from wood. However, briquette from jatro-

than wood pellet. It is because of

source for biofuel. The sludge obtained after biogas can be used as fertilizer.

pha seed cake has much higher emissions of NO and NO2

the presence of residual oil and higher nitrogen content [20].

, CO). *J. curcas* seed cake is lignocellulosic biomass that consists of cellulose, hemicellu-

Adsorbent (activated carbon) was produced by using jatropha pods (hull). It is used as an adsorbent for the removal of reactive dye, Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) [26]. It adsorbed 24.5 g dye by using 0.1 g activated carbon from jatropha pods. Further, the adsorbent removed almost 245 g dye per g activated carbon. Another study [26] reported that the hull of jatropha produced active carbon that had the potential to remove heavy-metal ions, such as zinc and cadmium from waste water and dye (malachite green) and has shown a remarkable adsorption capacity. Its adsorption capacity can reach up to 11.89 mg/g for cadmium removal. Biosorption of Zinc (II) from waste water was also supported by Abidin et al. [27] by using aqueous solution of jatropha press cake (kernel part only). Abidin et al. [27] reported that ~40 mg/L Zinc (II) was removed from 1 L waste water by using 0.5 g jatropha press cake in about 100 minutes. It revealed that jatropha has potential for adsorbent production either in the form of activated carbon or deoiled-press cake itself without any prior treatment [27].
