**2. Entrepreneurship, entrepreneur, intention and behavior**

Since more than two decades, there is a growing body of literature related to the field of entrepreneurship arguing that this field acquires some solid foundation and certain paradigms are emerging as the dominant theoretical constructions in this research field [5, 14, 30–34]. Fortunately, research in entrepreneurship has notably evolved and several approaches were adopted in the attempt to understand and explain entrepreneurial human behavior. Particularly, the cognitive approach gained much importance in adding insights into the complexity of process of entrepreneurship [8, 35, 36]. Thus, after defining entrepreneurship and entrepreneur, we introduce the concepts of intentions and behaviors as main concepts in the entrepreneurship literature.

#### **2.1. Defining entrepreneurship and entrepreneur**

its basic building block was (and is) that individual action is guided by intentions. As mental

Researches like [7, 8] stated that understanding the link between ideas/intentions and actions was critical for understanding the entrepreneurial behavior, process and phenomenon. Notwithstanding, understanding this behavior is difficult enough and predicting it presents so many challenges. Considerable progress has even been made toward understanding critical antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions, and, toward considering entrepreneurial behavior as intentional and planned behavior predicted by intentions [9] and goal-directed leading to an outcome [10, 11]. In the line with several researchers [12–15], we adopt a theoretical approach based on social and cognitive psychology to understand the complexity of entrepreneurial behavior, to study the link between intentions and behaviors, and to bridge the gap between the two. In this chapter, we present several concepts that are seemingly proposed from such literature in order to bridge this gap: goal intentions, implementation intention, desire and emotions, motivation, volition, and commitment [16–20] and with some empirical

The chapter shows that several researchers asked if the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions were known according to the different conceived and tested intentions-based models, the factors that facilitate the translation of intention into actions and behaviors are still unknown [28, 29]. Intentions may be still the best predictor of human behavior, including entrepreneurial behavior, but scholars have understudied how intention is translated into action and become reality, and this can become a promising issue challenging the entrepreneurship research and education field [28]. Thus, the chapter proceeds on a critical review of the literature (leading and alternative theories, conceptual and empirical models) to define the different challenging concepts between intentions and behaviors. The central question is why do some people act on their entrepreneurial intentions, whereas others do not in spite of favorable perceptions of desirability and feasibility of the entrepreneurial actions? After emphasizing the importance of advancing main concepts and reviewing literature from social and cognitive psychology perspective, the chapter challenges future research about adding new conceptual and empirical work in order to enhance our understanding of the whole process. The chapter discusses, at the end, some avenues for future research related to entre-

states, human intentions matter (Ghoshal, 2005, cited in [6]).

106 Entrepreneurship - Trends and Challenges

studies from entrepreneurship literature [14, 15, 21–27].

preneurship research and education.

**2. Entrepreneurship, entrepreneur, intention and behavior**

Since more than two decades, there is a growing body of literature related to the field of entrepreneurship arguing that this field acquires some solid foundation and certain paradigms are emerging as the dominant theoretical constructions in this research field [5, 14, 30–34]. Fortunately, research in entrepreneurship has notably evolved and several approaches were adopted in the attempt to understand and explain entrepreneurial human behavior. Particularly, the cognitive approach gained much importance in adding insights into the complexity of process of entrepreneurship [8, 35, 36]. Thus, after defining entrepreneurship and Several scholars attempted to define entrepreneurship and the entrepreneur. In fact, [34] emphasized the importance of innovation and novelty and considered the entrepreneur as performing the function of innovation throughout the power of creation-destruction. Indeed, [31] defined entrepreneurship as the emergence of a new organization by the action of entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship is about individuals who perceive/create opportunities where other do not, and who attempt to exploit those opportunities through various modes of organizing, without regard to resources currently controlled [32]. It's also about the study of opportunities to create future goods and services that are discovered, evaluated, and exploited by these individuals [33]. In addition, it was argued that the scientific object studied in entrepreneurship field is the dialogic between individual and new value creation, within an ongoing process and within an environment that has specific characteristics [2].

Dealing with its essential features, entrepreneurship is seen as essentially variable, heterogeneous, discontinuous, complex and dynamic phenomenon that is likely to be unpredictable and sensitive to initial conditions [2, 4, 5]. It is also characterized by uncertainty, risk and novelty, resource constraints, and financial as well as psychological ownership [35]. Consequently, being as a potential alternative to the trait approach, the processual approach of entrepreneurship makes possible to understand better intentions, actions, activities and behaviors of entrepreneurs. It considers entrepreneurship as a process of change, emergence and creation [2]. Accordingly, [15] consider this approach shifting when some researchers turned to entrepreneurial intentions recognizing that understanding the link between ideas and actions of entrepreneurs was critical for understanding the entrepreneurial process [7, 8]. Others turned to the study of entrepreneurial decision making and behavior and viewed entrepreneurship as process of causation [33], effectuation [37], and bricolage [38]. Moreover, the decision to become an entrepreneur may be considered as conscious and his behavior as an intentional, planned and goal-directed behavior [36]. In this chapter, we will refer to entrepreneurship in the sense of starting a new business and the entrepreneur as the main actor in the entrepreneurial process.

#### **2.2. Entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors and the mysterious link**

According to [7], intention(ality) is a state of mind directing person's attention (and therefore experience and action) toward specific object (goal) or a path in order to achieve something (means). Entrepreneurial intentions are defined as entrepreneurs' states of mind that direct attention, experience, and action to toward starting a business. They guide their goal setting, communications, commitment, organization, and other kinds of work [7]. In the same way, [39, 40] defined classically entrepreneurial intentions as the cognitive state temporally and causally prior to the decision and action of starting a business. Thus, in an intentional action the intention functions as a mediator. For several scholars, intentionality seems to be central to behaviors and for an emerging new venture [30]. In general, behavior is shaped and motivated by cognitions and affects and it's an outcome of traits, knowledge, skills, abilities and perceived attitudes and intentions. Nevertheless, it's important to consider that the cognitive theory has demonstrated that intentions have an impact on behavioral outcomes [41].

While acknowledging the importance of intentions in predicting behaviors, the literature in many academic fields (e.g., psychology) showed that there is no direct link established between intention and action, the main meta-analytic reviews concluded that the intentionbehavior is not systematic. It is revealed that there is a gap in sense that not every intention is eventually transformed into actual behavior. Thus, a range of 27–30% of behaviors was found to be explained by intentions [10, 11, 19, 47, 48]. Same conclusion was reached in the entrepreneurial context with the meta-analytical work of [49]. This link intention-behavior began

From Entrepreneurial Intentions to Behaviors: Wandering In-Between and Wondering…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70836

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In this section, extant literature review based on several meta-analyses, conceptual and experimental studies was proposed to study the link between intentions and actions/behaviors. Which link (s) can bridge between intention and behaviors? In order to attempt to answer this question, we suggest, first, to examine the main leading theories supposed to understand and predict intentions and behaviors, then, the empirical studies conducted to test these theories in the entrepreneurship field, and, the alternative theories and models which are likely suggested as cutting edges for the future of entrepreneurial intentions-behavior link research.

The theory of reasoned action (TRA) [41, 58] aimed to explain the relationship between beliefs, attitudes and human behaviors. According to this theory, behavioral intentions have been conceptualized as being a function of beliefs that provides a link between beliefs and subsequent behavior. They are determined by attitudes toward behaviors (ATB) and subjective norms (SN). Behavioral intention results from attitudes and becomes the immediate determinant of behavior. In sum, the TRA is applicable when the behavior in question is under volitional control. In others words, individual always has the control of whether or not to perform the target behavior.

The TPB of [9] extended the TRA by adding Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) as a third antecedent to behavioral intentions. The TPB considers human behavior as planned and therefore being preceded by intention toward that behavior. The TPB postulates three conceptually independent determinants of intention: ATB, SN and PBC. These antecedents should be sufficient to predict intentions. ATB refers to the degree to which a person has a (un)favorable evaluation or appraisal of the desired behavior in question. SN refers to what the social group that is important to that person (as social pressure) thinks about performing the intended behavior. PBC refers to people's perception of the ease of difficulty of performing the behavior of interest. Thus, the TPB predicts that the more favorable the ATB and SN are with respect to the behavior, and the greater the PBC is, the stronger an individual's intention to perform the behavior in question will be [9]. Intention and PBC must be assessed in relation to the behavior of interest. Both, they can make significant contribution to its prediction. Their relative importance in that is expected to vary across situations and across different behaviors. Behaviors can be predicted from intentions with considerable accuracy when there is no problem of serious problems of control.

relatively to be explored in entrepreneurship literature [21, 46, 50–57].

**3.1. Leading theories for the prediction of intentions and behaviors**

*3.1.1. Theory of reasoned action*

*3.1.2. Theory of planned behavior (TPB)*

The one of the first authors in the field of entrepreneurship studying intentions was Barbara Bird [7] who considered the concept of intention as playing an important role in the entrepreneurial process. For her, the formulation of entrepreneurial intention is dependent on the interaction of personal and social contexts with rational and intuitive thinking [7]. Entrepreneurial intentions determine the form and direction of an organization at its inception. From that date, the study of entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors began to appear with other pioneering studies based on intentions and provided a practical insight to entrepreneurial behavior [8, 36, 42]. Empirically, intentions are consistently the single best predictor of subsequent behavior. In these dominant intentions-based studies or models, intentions require the belief that the behavior is feasible and desirable [36]. Understanding and studying important categories of entrepreneurship research as behavioral intentions, decisive actions (behaviors), perceptions, and implementation of opportunities require, in fact, a grounded theory developed in social/cognitive psychology literature (e.g., [13, 21]).
