**2. Framework and research method**

**1. Introduction**

128 Entrepreneurship - Trends and Challenges

entrepreneurship/entrepreneurs [3].

concerns [6–8].

In the development of entrepreneurial activities—particularly in the migrant and returnmigrant business operations that occur in places (countries) characterized by problematic comarket or living conditions—the business pattern tends to operate in two dimensions: social and economic. Anthropologist Barth [1], p. 3, regards entrepreneurship, both socially and practically, as being closely associated with general leadership and the social structures of communities. He portrays entrepreneurship practices as frequently involving the relationships of persons and institutions in one society with those in another, more economically advanced, society, in which the entrepreneur essentially becomes a broker in the context of culture contacts. In the activities of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship, we may recognize processes that are fundamental to questions of social stability and change—or that create change in normative orders, such as those noted by Stewart [2], p. 73—that are one of concern to anyone wishing to pursue a dynamic study of society. From this perspective, the profit-seeking aspect has been generalized in a model of social organization based on transactional relations, while the entrepreneurial aspect has been promoted to the status of explaining social behavior (or change). Behavior and change can be perceived as a social function of

On the economic side, Drucker [4], p. 28, suggests in a study on innovation and entrepreneurship that entrepreneurs are not necessarily agents of change themselves, but rather that they are canny and committed exploiters of change (and opportunity). According to Drucker, 'the entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as an opportunity', a premise observed up by academicians who study migrant entrepreneurship (e.g., [5]) and identify structure and cultural opportunities—and focus on individual (entrepreneur) intentionality, agency, and willful goal-seeking and strategic behavior—as study

In this study, I discussed on some ideas from these practical concepts of entrepreneurship, to apply in the Indonesian migrant entrepreneur in Taiwan and return-migrant entrepreneurship activities in home country village (Malang, East Java). First, I consider the societal functions of entrepreneurship, such as creating stability and change, and the societal role of the entrepreneur, such as being a leader or a broker/middleman. The second idea concerns the entrepreneurial mechanism, that is, entrepreneurship as a strategy for making an economic profit and a living. However, the scope of this study is not to examine entrepreneurship as a process of developing social stability and acting as a change agent in a society's formation. Instead, I wish to explore the roles of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in migrant and return-migrant group, as individuals who set up a business or businesses, and who manage entrepreneurship while performing their social roles/functions. Doing so involves seeing a migrant and a return-migrant entrepreneur as someone who carries out a task with a certain degree of autonomy in a specific market; someone who organizes, manages, and assumes the risks of a business; someone who is transformed from worker to business person, someone who builds an economic institution through his/her social activities; and whose enterprise

activities are connected to the local society and social situation in a number of ways.

This study on Indonesian migrant entrepreneurship in Taiwan and return-migrant entrepreneurship in Indonesia deals with the relationships between entrepreneurs' social environment, their socio-economic adjustments, the circumstances of individual entrepreneurship, and the role/social functions of entrepreneur(ship). On the one hand, they are products of socio-economic opportunity; on the other hand, they have the potential to make a significant impact on individual economic improvements, social status elevation, and social embeddedness through their economic behaviors. The simple graph below depicts the framework underpinning the reasoning process for this thesis, which combines entrepreneurship activities in Taiwan (host) with those in Indonesia (home). In this framework, the elements of migrant and return-migrant entrepreneurship are interconnected. I define their interconnection as being the social organizations that comprise Indonesian migrant and return-migrant entrepreneurships. This approach examines how the socio-economic conditions of entrepreneurship (e.g., structural opportunities, livelihood strategies, and migrant conditions), the role of entrepreneurs (e.g., patrons, brokers, and social activists), and the entrepreneurs' conditions (e.g., social networks, knowledge, and experiences) interact within entrepreneurs' living conditions in Taiwan or in the Indonesian villages. By examining the relational activities of entrepreneurship and the extension of migrant entrepreneurs' roles, one can hope to gain a better understanding of the social aspects and functions of migrant entrepreneurs/entrepreneurship in societies (**Figure 1**).

participant observation of their daily activities. During my fieldwork, most participant observation data were recorded through field notes, while interviewed records was recorded in a transcript verbatim. Most of the interviews and observations were conducted at their places of work or their homes. Since most informant entrepreneurs use social media—for example, LINE or Facebook—observation of their social media was also used as a research method to identify selected potential entrepreneurs and their entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, personal or social networking between the entrepreneurs can be observed. The history of migration and the entrepreneurship process was also employed in order to discover historical and chronological information about the entrepreneurs while they developed their

From Entrepreneurship to Social Activist: The Role of Indonesian Migrant Entrepreneurs…

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In Taiwan, fieldwork was conducted from June through December of 2014 and divided into two stages, the first from June until August, and the second from October until December. In total, I interviewed 48 business owners, 20 migrant workers, 8 migrant associations and their members, 7 researchers/lecturers, and 2 Indonesian government officials. I also search secondary data that were collected from the Internet and an academic library. Using local Indonesian migrant tabloid, magazine, and newspaper advertisements, listings in business directories, and personal contacts with and knowledge of migrant entrepreneurs, I was able to identify more than 300 active Indonesian-owned businesses that had been licensed and operated within Taiwan since 2000. There are probably more Indonesian entrepreneurs operating

The AJ and DW villages (or *Kampung*) in Southern Malang, situated in East Java, Indonesia, was chosen as the study site following three reason; first, I followed some returnee migrants that I came to know while they worked in Taiwan; second, since they could guide me as I observed return-migrant entrepreneurship in their home villages; and third reason was the accessibility to reach the location. The interviews completed at this field site consisted of the following: (1) 7 official staff in charge of the migrant empowerment program in Surabaya and Malang City; (2) 10 return-migrant entrepreneurs who had at least one current business in AJ village; and (3) 11 return-migrant entrepreneurs who had at least one current business in DW. I also interviewed some formal and informal community leaders included the village heads, educators, religious leaders, and other influential personalities in the community (known as *tokoh masyarakat*) whose advice is sought and respected by village members.

The trend of entrepreneurship as a popular career choice among Indonesian migrants has been spreading through the cities of Taiwan, especially since 2010. Most of the Indonesian migrant businesses in Taiwan are small and medium-sized enterprises. They are based on

entrepreneurship.

in the local informal economy.

**3. Findings and discussions**

*3.1.1. Practice and pattern*

**3.1. Indonesian entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in Taiwan**

The matrix above describes the general interrelation of the elements of entrepreneurship. In the study in Taiwan, the social role of the entrepreneur is created by the elements of entrepreneurship, such as structural conditions and personal experience. Entrepreneurs' conditions (both individual and social beings), for example, their experiences as poor foreign immigrants and close relationship with their counterparts, for example, Taiwanese/Indonesian friends, family, spouses, and community, shape their entrepreneurial behavior. In a simple way, the nature and function of entrepreneurship, the profile of entrepreneurs, and basic market social conditions can create socio-economic adjustment Indonesian migrant entrepreneurs in Taiwan. This framework will be used to elaborate on various social elements, such as motivation, social networking, and a model of Indonesian migrant in the context social interactions in Taiwan.

Meanwhile, in the case of return-migrant entrepreneurship in Indonesia, the most important problems in developing entrepreneurial activities are village economic adjustment and constraints in developing a business, which become constraints for sustaining a livelihood (structural condition) upon the migrant's return to the village. Otherwise, acquiring knowledge and forming a strategy are the ways for return-migrant entrepreneurs to cope with home difficulties and entrepreneurship (individual condition). If a return migrant is to establish an entrepreneurship in the home village, the relationship between the structural and individual conditions can develops socio-economic adjustment and economic reintegration.

The present study was conducted in Taiwan and Indonesia. Generally, I used a qualitative approach, having gathered the primary data mostly through in-depth interviews concerning the entrepreneurship stories of migrants and return-migrant entrepreneurs combined with

**Figure 1.** Framework of the reasoning process.

participant observation of their daily activities. During my fieldwork, most participant observation data were recorded through field notes, while interviewed records was recorded in a transcript verbatim. Most of the interviews and observations were conducted at their places of work or their homes. Since most informant entrepreneurs use social media—for example, LINE or Facebook—observation of their social media was also used as a research method to identify selected potential entrepreneurs and their entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, personal or social networking between the entrepreneurs can be observed. The history of migration and the entrepreneurship process was also employed in order to discover historical and chronological information about the entrepreneurs while they developed their entrepreneurship.

In Taiwan, fieldwork was conducted from June through December of 2014 and divided into two stages, the first from June until August, and the second from October until December. In total, I interviewed 48 business owners, 20 migrant workers, 8 migrant associations and their members, 7 researchers/lecturers, and 2 Indonesian government officials. I also search secondary data that were collected from the Internet and an academic library. Using local Indonesian migrant tabloid, magazine, and newspaper advertisements, listings in business directories, and personal contacts with and knowledge of migrant entrepreneurs, I was able to identify more than 300 active Indonesian-owned businesses that had been licensed and operated within Taiwan since 2000. There are probably more Indonesian entrepreneurs operating in the local informal economy.

The AJ and DW villages (or *Kampung*) in Southern Malang, situated in East Java, Indonesia, was chosen as the study site following three reason; first, I followed some returnee migrants that I came to know while they worked in Taiwan; second, since they could guide me as I observed return-migrant entrepreneurship in their home villages; and third reason was the accessibility to reach the location. The interviews completed at this field site consisted of the following: (1) 7 official staff in charge of the migrant empowerment program in Surabaya and Malang City; (2) 10 return-migrant entrepreneurs who had at least one current business in AJ village; and (3) 11 return-migrant entrepreneurs who had at least one current business in DW. I also interviewed some formal and informal community leaders included the village heads, educators, religious leaders, and other influential personalities in the community (known as *tokoh masyarakat*) whose advice is sought and respected by village members.
