**4. Wondering about challenges and avenues**

At this stage, it is important to point out certain questions/suggestions helping entrepreneurship scholars and educators to wonder about the challenges of how to bridge intentions to behaviors. However, if we are ever to truly understand the intention-behavior link, it is imperative that we understand how intentions evolve and which concept(s) responsible for the transformation of intentions into actions and behaviors. In order to contribute and add new knowledge, scholars should explore the following challenges and avenues for entrepreneurship research and education.

The main critique toward entrepreneurial intentions studies argues that whereas intentions are the best predictors of future individual behavior particularly when behavior is rare, hard to observe or involves unpredictable time lags [7, 71], there is still insufficiently understanding of the intention–action/behavior link. Entrepreneurship scholars have to define clearly their concepts and antecedents, and choose the adequate models and measurements. In addition, they have to precise carefully the relationships between antecedents, the types of intentions, the desired behaviors, and the direction of causality of the relationships between variables in intention-based models. In providing helpful critiques to most of these models, [94] questioned the direction of causality in intentions models (notably significant correlation between perceived desirability, intention and perceived feasibility). An evidence was seen a causation in the TPB model, confirming previous findings. The exploration of the aforementioned theoretical and empirical models based on leading theories (TRA and TPB) and alternative ones, has led to the identification of keys roles played by certain variables such as distal or proximal predictors, mediators or moderators, or as facilitator or accelerator of the action initiation [21, 49, 77].

behaviors by applying social role theory and proposing that the intention–behavior link is

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Growing efforts have been made to analyze the temporal progression of intention (i.e. whether intention is stable over time) or the intention-behavior link, using longitudinal analysis. Studies were followed and concerned to study the intention-behavior link with different populations: Business distance learners [64]; business students [62, 96]; student entrepreneurship [59, 97]; higher education graduates [57]; adult respondents [98]; scientists transiting to academic entrepreneurship [51]; nascent entrepreneurs [99, 100]. Other growing research stream developed in relationship with the intention-behavior link, and concerned the effectiveness and impacts of entrepreneurship educations programs. Several studies addressed the interrelationship between entrepreneurship education and the entrepreneurial intentions of its participants and supported their link [28, 29]. Participations in entrepreneurship education programs can positively influence students' cognitive factors (perceived desirability and feasibility, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy). Other studies go further to address their impacts on intentions and behaviors ([53, 100–103]; see [96], for a review of literature). For example, [102] found that entrepreneurship programs significantly raised students' subjective norms and intentions toward entrepreneurship by inspiring them to choose entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship education and training matter for enhancement and enactment of individuals' entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors. Follow-ups of students, learners, or trainees, within longitudinal and (quasi-) experimental research would be required for future analysis of the intention–behavior relationship. Scholars intending to study the impact of entrepreneurship education programs of the intention-behavior link will be encouraged by applying combining leading theories showing their predictive ability such as TPB and Shapero's entrepreneurial event [36], the integrating model validated by [49] or by experimenting and

This chapter discussed the theories, concepts and empirical models mobilized to wander and understand the gap between intentions and actions and behaviors. A social and cognitive psychological approach was adopted to understand entrepreneurship and in particular the intention-behavior link. This chapter provided certain challenges and avenues for entrepreneurship research field. This overview of study of intention-behavior link and the critiques directed to most of intentions-based models together lead to a series of critical issues that are not yet adequately taken into account within entrepreneurship research. These issues concern

• What types or kind of intentions do we focus on? The literature review shows that there is a diversity of intentions: competing/conflicting intentions; initial intention vs. formed/ enacted intention; strong vs. weak intentions, well-informed vs. ill-informed intentions [39, 40, 66]. There is a need for entrepreneurship scholars to specify them when conducting

moderated by sex from a sample of US students and different points in time.

applying the ImIn theory [28].

**5. Concluding remarks**

the following questionings:

a research on intention-behavior link.

There is an urgent need for integrating, improving and modifying entrepreneurial intention models to better represent the complexity of the entrepreneurial process and reduce the number of alternative entrepreneurial intentions models [21, 49, 89]. For example, the application of MGB and EMGB or of ImIn improves the predictive validity of the behavioral intention within the framework of the TPB [28, 49].

There is also a call for scholars to take the temporal dimensions into account for the intention formation/enactment process when choosing or conceiving their models. These models have to be considered as models of changing intentions. Scholars must move from static models toward theories and formal models that address the implications of that change [6, 7, 72]. Furthermore, researchers need to embrace theories reflecting the inherent dynamics of human decision making in order to understand how entrepreneurial intentions evolve: "*Capturing the dynamics is necessary to advance our understanding of how intent becomes action*" [6]. They have to monitor intentions and their antecedents longitudinally through experimentations by mobilizing the alternative theories [22]. For example, when studying the link between intention and behavior with longitudinal data, researchers can consider the TT, ImIn and commitment to fill the knowledge gap. A dynamic model such as TT and its variants should prove rich, fertile territory for entrepreneurship scholars [6, 40].

In a recent work, [40] questioned about the few studies, which were conducted to make the leap from intent to action except the study of [59]. He urged scholars to deploy dynamic and specified models more often [45]. Very recent studies have found to respond to this call including the studies of [95] and of [54]. For example, [95] used the temporal construal theory to propose longitudinal study that tracks individuals' intentions over time and the occurrence of the entrepreneurial action. In fact, researchers suggested that the inclusion of temporal construal theory in intent models "*would suggest path dependent influence on intent, and more specifically, that intent may be subdivided into temporally based categories, broadly codified as short-term and long-term intent*". This research intended to specify two kinds of intentions (short- and long-term) in the intentional process. Indeed, [54] proposed that intentions predict start-up behaviors by applying social role theory and proposing that the intention–behavior link is moderated by sex from a sample of US students and different points in time.

Growing efforts have been made to analyze the temporal progression of intention (i.e. whether intention is stable over time) or the intention-behavior link, using longitudinal analysis. Studies were followed and concerned to study the intention-behavior link with different populations: Business distance learners [64]; business students [62, 96]; student entrepreneurship [59, 97]; higher education graduates [57]; adult respondents [98]; scientists transiting to academic entrepreneurship [51]; nascent entrepreneurs [99, 100]. Other growing research stream developed in relationship with the intention-behavior link, and concerned the effectiveness and impacts of entrepreneurship educations programs. Several studies addressed the interrelationship between entrepreneurship education and the entrepreneurial intentions of its participants and supported their link [28, 29]. Participations in entrepreneurship education programs can positively influence students' cognitive factors (perceived desirability and feasibility, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy). Other studies go further to address their impacts on intentions and behaviors ([53, 100–103]; see [96], for a review of literature). For example, [102] found that entrepreneurship programs significantly raised students' subjective norms and intentions toward entrepreneurship by inspiring them to choose entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship education and training matter for enhancement and enactment of individuals' entrepreneurial intentions and behaviors. Follow-ups of students, learners, or trainees, within longitudinal and (quasi-) experimental research would be required for future analysis of the intention–behavior relationship. Scholars intending to study the impact of entrepreneurship education programs of the intention-behavior link will be encouraged by applying combining leading theories showing their predictive ability such as TPB and Shapero's entrepreneurial event [36], the integrating model validated by [49] or by experimenting and applying the ImIn theory [28].
