**2. Interpretation and South African national parks**

Within South Africa, national parks, along with (special) nature reserves and protected environments fall within the scope of the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (NEM:PAA) (no. 57 of 2003) [20] since these protected areas are organs of state. The South African National Parks Board (SANParks) which is a public entity under the jurisdiction of the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) manages national parks. In total, SANParks manages 19 national parks within seven of the nine provinces of South Africa (**Figure 2**). This totals to over 4 million hectares or 67% of protected areas under state management [21].

Due to declining state funding, SANParks is primarily a self-funding entity that has three operational core pillars, namely, conservation, responsible tourism, and socio-economic development [21]. It costs approximately 1 billion rand (i.e., approximately 60 million euros) to run these parks of which 80% of these funds are self-generated through primarily tourism activities offered in the national parks [22]. If the 14% increase in tourist numbers over the 2016/2017 financial year [23] is any indication to go by the need for sustainable practices is desperately needed for the future.

Responsible Tourism Strategy is destined to take SANParks into a new era of sustainable and

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For the purpose of this chapter, three case studies within SANParks will be discussed. When one considers the area they occupy, the Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Addo Elephant National Park are the three largest national parks in South Africa. Interpretation services within SANParks have recently received attention and is being developed and in some cases redevelopment in several parks. Within the three largest parks, interpretation services are at different levels the details of the development and/or redevelopment

The Kruger National Park (KNP) is considered to be SANParks' flagship park. This park, covers approximately 2 million hectares of land, the largest park in South Africa [26] and attracted 1,817,724 million guests during 2016/2017 [23]. As the oldest and largest park, it is not surprising that this park has a great deal of interpretation services. The question should be asked whether these interpretation services are a true reflection of the park. Bunn and Auslander critique the history of the park and state that it was predominately subject to a Eurocentric approach and that a local Afrocentric approach to the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage of the Park should be followed [27]. This criticism also needs to filter through to the interpretation activities and services offered in the KNP. In a review of existing interpretation facilities in KNP in 2014 it became clear that there was no clear comprehensive interpretation program and that many of the pre-1994 (better known as the apartheid regime) interpretation initiatives were in need of renewal and redevelopment [15, 28]. As research progresses and more evidence emerges about the rich history of the ordinary people living in and around the park, there is a need that these stories should be told. While better historical accounts of events add to the completeness and comprehensiveness of the history of the park, the complexity of portraying the information is increased. It is against this background that the interpretation services of the park need to be redeveloped

and upgraded to be more representative of the past and contemporary history [29].

Planning for interpretation in such a large park may be complex especially if one considers the planning process suggested by Ham, Housego and Weiler [13]. This process is set out as follows: (1) interpretive inventory, (2) interpretive goals, (3) identify visitors, (4) determine outcomes of goals, (5) develop themes, (6) develop media matrices, (7) implementation plan, and (8) evaluation process. Although the information is not captured in line with this process, SANParks' planning seems to be on par in the interpretation documentation. For clarity purposes, these elements will be discussed in the order of Ham et al. planning process [13].

**1.** As part of the inventory process, SANParks evaluated the status of the current and potential interpretation sites and services against a set of criteria. Interpretation sites and services range from several centers to booklets, maps, personal interpretation (fire camp stories, game rangers), exhibits, historical sites, hides, lookout points, signage and activities. The criteria that these sites and services were evaluated against relate to one internal criterion and four international criteria [30]*.* The park's first criteria relates to the *placement and condition* of the

responsible tourism growth.

are discussed in the next sections.

**2.1. Kruger National Park**

**Figure 2.** Location of national parks in South Africa, three national parks that will be further discussed are labeled (namely, Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi National Park, and Addo Elephant National Park).

Although the importance and benefits of interpretation for national parks are well reported, SANParks realized that interpretation initiatives were undertaken on an ad hoc basis in the past and not clearly understood by site managers and planners [24]. Since SANParks are mandated to produce park management plans (NEM:PAA, 57 of 2003) [20], it was decided to incorporate visitor interpretation plans into park management plans, in order to address these issues [24].

SANParks has adopted Responsible tourism as a strategy for the rejuvenation and future development is tourism with in the national parks. As far back as 1996, the *White Paper on Development and Promotion of Tourism in South Africa* identified Responsible Tourism as the key guiding principle for tourism development. 'Responsible tourism respects the natural and cultural environment and contributes to local economic development in an ethical manner. It helps conserve fragile cultures, habitats and species by maximising the benefits to local communities and minimising negative social or environmental impacts' [22]. The National Minimum Standard for Responsible Tourism (NMSRT) (SANS 1162) will be used to guide the implementation of the Responsible Tourism Strategy. The NMSRT is based on the three cornerstones of sustainable tourism, namely social-cultural, environmental and economic responsibility [25]. Besides SANParks' the core mandate of conservation, it has an added responsibility to implement and manage nature-based tourism in national parks. According to the NEM: PAA (no. 57 of 2003), this includes educational, recreational, spiritual and scientific opportunities that are not harmful to the environment [20]. The implementation of the Responsible Tourism Strategy is destined to take SANParks into a new era of sustainable and responsible tourism growth.

For the purpose of this chapter, three case studies within SANParks will be discussed. When one considers the area they occupy, the Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Addo Elephant National Park are the three largest national parks in South Africa. Interpretation services within SANParks have recently received attention and is being developed and in some cases redevelopment in several parks. Within the three largest parks, interpretation services are at different levels the details of the development and/or redevelopment are discussed in the next sections.

#### **2.1. Kruger National Park**

Although the importance and benefits of interpretation for national parks are well reported, SANParks realized that interpretation initiatives were undertaken on an ad hoc basis in the past and not clearly understood by site managers and planners [24]. Since SANParks are mandated to produce park management plans (NEM:PAA, 57 of 2003) [20], it was decided to incorporate visitor interpretation plans into park management plans, in order to address

**Figure 2.** Location of national parks in South Africa, three national parks that will be further discussed are labeled

(namely, Kruger National Park, Kgalagadi National Park, and Addo Elephant National Park).

SANParks has adopted Responsible tourism as a strategy for the rejuvenation and future development is tourism with in the national parks. As far back as 1996, the *White Paper on Development and Promotion of Tourism in South Africa* identified Responsible Tourism as the key guiding principle for tourism development. 'Responsible tourism respects the natural and cultural environment and contributes to local economic development in an ethical manner. It helps conserve fragile cultures, habitats and species by maximising the benefits to local communities and minimising negative social or environmental impacts' [22]. The National Minimum Standard for Responsible Tourism (NMSRT) (SANS 1162) will be used to guide the implementation of the Responsible Tourism Strategy. The NMSRT is based on the three cornerstones of sustainable tourism, namely social-cultural, environmental and economic responsibility [25]. Besides SANParks' the core mandate of conservation, it has an added responsibility to implement and manage nature-based tourism in national parks. According to the NEM: PAA (no. 57 of 2003), this includes educational, recreational, spiritual and scientific opportunities that are not harmful to the environment [20]. The implementation of the

these issues [24].

146 National Parks - Management and Conservation

The Kruger National Park (KNP) is considered to be SANParks' flagship park. This park, covers approximately 2 million hectares of land, the largest park in South Africa [26] and attracted 1,817,724 million guests during 2016/2017 [23]. As the oldest and largest park, it is not surprising that this park has a great deal of interpretation services. The question should be asked whether these interpretation services are a true reflection of the park. Bunn and Auslander critique the history of the park and state that it was predominately subject to a Eurocentric approach and that a local Afrocentric approach to the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage of the Park should be followed [27]. This criticism also needs to filter through to the interpretation activities and services offered in the KNP. In a review of existing interpretation facilities in KNP in 2014 it became clear that there was no clear comprehensive interpretation program and that many of the pre-1994 (better known as the apartheid regime) interpretation initiatives were in need of renewal and redevelopment [15, 28]. As research progresses and more evidence emerges about the rich history of the ordinary people living in and around the park, there is a need that these stories should be told. While better historical accounts of events add to the completeness and comprehensiveness of the history of the park, the complexity of portraying the information is increased. It is against this background that the interpretation services of the park need to be redeveloped and upgraded to be more representative of the past and contemporary history [29].

Planning for interpretation in such a large park may be complex especially if one considers the planning process suggested by Ham, Housego and Weiler [13]. This process is set out as follows: (1) interpretive inventory, (2) interpretive goals, (3) identify visitors, (4) determine outcomes of goals, (5) develop themes, (6) develop media matrices, (7) implementation plan, and (8) evaluation process. Although the information is not captured in line with this process, SANParks' planning seems to be on par in the interpretation documentation. For clarity purposes, these elements will be discussed in the order of Ham et al. planning process [13].

**1.** As part of the inventory process, SANParks evaluated the status of the current and potential interpretation sites and services against a set of criteria. Interpretation sites and services range from several centers to booklets, maps, personal interpretation (fire camp stories, game rangers), exhibits, historical sites, hides, lookout points, signage and activities. The criteria that these sites and services were evaluated against relate to one internal criterion and four international criteria [30]*.* The park's first criteria relates to the *placement and condition* of the current interpretation: is it meaningful to the visitor's experience, is the placement sufficient for a connection to the experience, and are the information outdated or readable? Ham's criteria, or better known as the EROT model which the park used to evaluate the interpretation on the value of *entertainment* (does it hold attention, the use of the visitor's senses activated?); *relevance* (the use of analogies, comparisons or metaphors to make connections); *organized* (is it easy to follow and limited ideas); and *topics and themes communicated* (are the subject matter organized in themes with a beginning and ending) [30]. Some of the outcomes of the audit/inventory indicated that the interpretation in Letaba, Skukuza, and Berg-en-Dal is outdated; no communication of conservation; although some information is available there was no interpretation; stories are missing; and there is too much information on some themes [28]. Based on the criteria explained above, each camp's interpretation has recommendations, allocated periods for improvement, relevant responsible staff/sections and budgets.

As a following phase, several timeframes (2017–2020) were set out in the inventory phase to indicate by when these interpretation services should be implemented (steps 6 to 7). The Elephant Hall in Letaba, has recently been renovated and launched in March 2017 (**Figure 3a**– **c**) [23]. This project was a collaborative project between SANParks, Honorary Rangers and the

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New interpretation panels will also be erected in December 2017 for the Phabeni Interpretation site (**Figure 4**) [23]. This project took place over several years in collaboration with numerous interpretation, cultural and heritage specialists, external archeologists and SANParks'

University of Sunshine Coast in Australia.

**Figure 3.** a, b and c. Interior of the Elephant Hall (Letaba) [36].

**Figure 4.** Interpretation panels at Phabeni [36].

Honorary Rangers.


As a following phase, several timeframes (2017–2020) were set out in the inventory phase to indicate by when these interpretation services should be implemented (steps 6 to 7). The Elephant Hall in Letaba, has recently been renovated and launched in March 2017 (**Figure 3a**– **c**) [23]. This project was a collaborative project between SANParks, Honorary Rangers and the University of Sunshine Coast in Australia.

New interpretation panels will also be erected in December 2017 for the Phabeni Interpretation site (**Figure 4**) [23]. This project took place over several years in collaboration with numerous interpretation, cultural and heritage specialists, external archeologists and SANParks' Honorary Rangers.

**Figure 3.** a, b and c. Interior of the Elephant Hall (Letaba) [36].

current interpretation: is it meaningful to the visitor's experience, is the placement sufficient for a connection to the experience, and are the information outdated or readable? Ham's criteria, or better known as the EROT model which the park used to evaluate the interpretation on the value of *entertainment* (does it hold attention, the use of the visitor's senses activated?); *relevance* (the use of analogies, comparisons or metaphors to make connections); *organized* (is it easy to follow and limited ideas); and *topics and themes communicated* (are the subject matter organized in themes with a beginning and ending) [30]. Some of the outcomes of the audit/inventory indicated that the interpretation in Letaba, Skukuza, and Berg-en-Dal is outdated; no communication of conservation; although some information is available there was no interpretation; stories are missing; and there is too much information on some themes [28]. Based on the criteria explained above, each camp's interpretation has recommendations, allocated periods for improvement, relevant responsible staff/sections and budgets. **2.** Authors like Engelbrecht, Kruger and Saayman [31] and Botha et al. [32] reported that visitors to the Kruger National Park expect interpretation services to be delivered in the park and that there is a need to improve on these services. In response to this gap, the Kruger National Park's interpretation plan aims to deliver interpretation services that enhance visitor experience. As such the following visitor experience objectives are set out: (a) learning (protecting the under-conserved; role of KNP as a bank of rare species; inform about animal behavior); (b) emotional (improve emotional enhancement between visitor and park; encourage to care about threats; instill an appreciation of different cultures); (c) behavioral (encourage responsible tourists; acceptable behavior); and (d) promotional

(to become involved in volunteer programs; to be ambassadors of the park) [24].

variety of interpretation services to add to their park experiences.

research, stargazing, code of conduct, and careers in the park [24].

visitor experience' [24].

148 National Parks - Management and Conservation

**3.** Even though visitors to national parks are in majority leisure tourists, other visitors like staff, services providers, community groups, conference groups, schools, concession partners, suppliers (goods and services) and media, to name but a few, also frequent the park. It is within this context that the park also identified these audiences as target audiences [24]. It is perhaps the overnight visitors to the park that contribute financially the most and could therefore be regarded as the main target audience. Botha et al. [19], however, found four interpretation market segments for overnight visitors to the park and suggested to focus interpretation developments on the two largest segments (i.e., Inquisitive and Eager seekers). The issue with these two markets, however, is that these two markets require a

**4.** The outcomes of targeting the above-mentioned audiences are not precisely specified within the interpretation plans. Mention was, however, made to 'balancing conservation and visitor satisfaction,' 'growing the tourism market which in turns generates the revenue support the organization's biodiversity and conservation objectives,' and 'enhancing the

**5.** Due to the size of the park, differences in biodiversity, rainfall [33], forage [34], animal distribution and consequently tourist numbers and expectations [35] are evident in the park. It is therefore not surprising that over 50 themes are identified in the new interpretation plan of the park. These themes range from history (San Bushmen, development of the park to the Anglo-Boer war), heritage, geology, fauna (land and water), flora, conservation,

**Figure 4.** Interpretation panels at Phabeni [36].

#### **2.2. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park**

The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was the first transfrontier conservation area (TFCA) proclaimed in South Africa [37]. Transfrontier conservation areas are relatively large areas, with large-scale natural systems between two or more countries [37]. As such, the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park borders Namibia to the west and shares the area with Botswana to the east. The uniqueness of this park is also evident in the recent world heritage site status bestowed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). This status was granted to the park due to the cultural landscape of the Khomani San which dates back to the Stone Age and who still lives in the area [38]. Although the park only attracted 48,221 visitors during 2016/2017 the newly bestowed title will create an increased awareness about the park, leading to more traffic and a need for relevant interpretation services [23].

Due to the smaller size of the park (38,000 km2 ), the inventory of interpretation services in the Kgalagadi is less when compared to the KNP. Only one of the three interpretation centers (**Figure 5a** and **b**) is still functional and the other two are used as a storeroom (**Figure 6a** and **b**) or converted for housekeeping (Twee Rivieren). Even though the Nossob center is considered as functional, it needs an upgrade along with Mata Mata. Further to this, the park would like to create a living museum at the South African border gate as well as a new interpretation center at the Twee Rivieren rest camp [39]. The Twee Rivieren interpretation center will be cost intensive and as a result research with external stakeholders currently underway to inform the development process [29]. This research will shed some light on the visitor expectations with regards to themes, media and extent of information required. The park has similar goals and objectives as the KNP but have different themes for interpretation. These themes relate to the UNESCO status (i.e., the Khomani San), the history (Stone Age, wars and transfrontier status), myths and legends, fauna and flora adaptive to the arid conditions, and transfrontier aspects [39]. Many of the interpretation services are planned to be developed in 2018.

**2.3. Addo Elephant National Park**

park attracted 265,585 guests to the park [23].

**Figure 6.** a and b. Interpretation in Mata Mata rest camp [36].

One of the few national parks to include a marine protected area, the Addo Elephant National Park is the only national park to include the big 7 (including the marine animals namely the southern right whale and great white shark). Although this is the case, the park was originally proclaimed to protect the last 11 elephants in the then 2000 hectares area [40]. Today, how-

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Although this park's management plans indicate that interpretation plans should still be drafted [41], this park already has an impressive interpretation center called the Ulwazi Interpretive Center. The main theme in this center, and not surprising so, revolve around elephants. Information ranges from the evolution of elephants (**Figure 7**), background of the legendary dominant elephant Hapoor that roamed the park (**Figure 8**), and a family tree of all the elephants in the park (below Hapoor on **Figure 8**). Other interesting activities include two parabolic dishes to illustrate how elephants communicate and a jungle gym in the form of an

Other information is also provided on the surrounding cultures in the park, the environment

According to the management plans, future considerations for interpretation services are a historic house in the Kabouga section, Chief Chungwa's gravesite in the Woody Cape section and a number of shipwrecks that are not easily visible from the current visitor access sites [41]. It is clear from the current initiatives in the three largest parks of SANParks that they are in the process to improve their interpretation services. If these initiatives are any indication of the future, the other 16 national parks' interpretation plans will soon also follow and hopefully improve the balance between conservation and the decreased financial support that forces

area. During 2016/2017 the

ever, many other species are also being conserved in the 1640 km2

elephant to illustrate how big an elephant can be (**Figure 9**).

and other smaller animals like insects and birds.

initiatives to increase funding.

**Figure 5.** a and b. Interpretation at Nossob rest camp [36].

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**Figure 6.** a and b. Interpretation in Mata Mata rest camp [36].

#### **2.3. Addo Elephant National Park**

**Figure 5.** a and b. Interpretation at Nossob rest camp [36].

**2.2. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park**

150 National Parks - Management and Conservation

relevant interpretation services [23].

Due to the smaller size of the park (38,000 km2

the interpretation services are planned to be developed in 2018.

The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was the first transfrontier conservation area (TFCA) proclaimed in South Africa [37]. Transfrontier conservation areas are relatively large areas, with large-scale natural systems between two or more countries [37]. As such, the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park borders Namibia to the west and shares the area with Botswana to the east. The uniqueness of this park is also evident in the recent world heritage site status bestowed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). This status was granted to the park due to the cultural landscape of the Khomani San which dates back to the Stone Age and who still lives in the area [38]. Although the park only attracted 48,221 visitors during 2016/2017 the newly bestowed title will create an increased awareness about the park, leading to more traffic and a need for

the Kgalagadi is less when compared to the KNP. Only one of the three interpretation centers (**Figure 5a** and **b**) is still functional and the other two are used as a storeroom (**Figure 6a** and **b**) or converted for housekeeping (Twee Rivieren). Even though the Nossob center is considered as functional, it needs an upgrade along with Mata Mata. Further to this, the park would like to create a living museum at the South African border gate as well as a new interpretation center at the Twee Rivieren rest camp [39]. The Twee Rivieren interpretation center will be cost intensive and as a result research with external stakeholders currently underway to inform the development process [29]. This research will shed some light on the visitor expectations with regards to themes, media and extent of information required. The park has similar goals and objectives as the KNP but have different themes for interpretation. These themes relate to the UNESCO status (i.e., the Khomani San), the history (Stone Age, wars and transfrontier status), myths and legends, fauna and flora adaptive to the arid conditions, and transfrontier aspects [39]. Many of

), the inventory of interpretation services in

One of the few national parks to include a marine protected area, the Addo Elephant National Park is the only national park to include the big 7 (including the marine animals namely the southern right whale and great white shark). Although this is the case, the park was originally proclaimed to protect the last 11 elephants in the then 2000 hectares area [40]. Today, however, many other species are also being conserved in the 1640 km2 area. During 2016/2017 the park attracted 265,585 guests to the park [23].

Although this park's management plans indicate that interpretation plans should still be drafted [41], this park already has an impressive interpretation center called the Ulwazi Interpretive Center. The main theme in this center, and not surprising so, revolve around elephants. Information ranges from the evolution of elephants (**Figure 7**), background of the legendary dominant elephant Hapoor that roamed the park (**Figure 8**), and a family tree of all the elephants in the park (below Hapoor on **Figure 8**). Other interesting activities include two parabolic dishes to illustrate how elephants communicate and a jungle gym in the form of an elephant to illustrate how big an elephant can be (**Figure 9**).

Other information is also provided on the surrounding cultures in the park, the environment and other smaller animals like insects and birds.

According to the management plans, future considerations for interpretation services are a historic house in the Kabouga section, Chief Chungwa's gravesite in the Woody Cape section and a number of shipwrecks that are not easily visible from the current visitor access sites [41].

It is clear from the current initiatives in the three largest parks of SANParks that they are in the process to improve their interpretation services. If these initiatives are any indication of the future, the other 16 national parks' interpretation plans will soon also follow and hopefully improve the balance between conservation and the decreased financial support that forces initiatives to increase funding.

#### 152 National Parks - Management and Conservation

**3. Conclusion**

of visitor enjoyment emphasis.

Kevin Mearns\* and Elricke Botha

\*Address all correspondence to: mearnkf@unisa.ac.za

University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

**Author details**

High expectations are placed on national parks namely that they have to enhance local economies, conserve natural and cultural heritage as well as provide an ever-increasing number of visitors with experiences in nature [17]. Washburn explains that '[t]he survival of the national park system in the twenty-first century depends on how it interacts with society and how much society values it. The Interpretation Program is the primary means by which the National Park Service engages diverse publics with their national parks, providing access to meanings,

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Considering the interpretation initiatives taken by SANParks, one would agree that there is clearly an effort to improve the current situation. SANParks' interpretation plans predominantly focus on the soft interpretation examples [43, 44]. These authors explain that one should consider interpretation on a continuum where the one end, hard interpretation, refer to economical, physical and regulatory strategies to manage visitors and on the other end, soft interpretation, use educational strategies to manage visitors. The question is, therefore, whether national parks should only consider soft/educational interpretation strategies or should they also consider the hard interpretation strategies as part of the interpretation plans? Similarly, interpretation can be categorized into primary, secondary and tertiary interpretation based on easily identifiable characteristics. Primary and secondary interpretation's explanation is similar to that of soft interpretation but what is interesting is that tertiary education is considered to enhance the experience with the more noticeable examples of interpretation. Limited research is available on the correlation between hard and soft interpretation to support the notion of including hard interpretation into the interpretation plans of SANParks. This is probably why SANParks have separate visitor interpretation plans and visitor management plans [24, 39]. But what is clearly noticeable from SANParks' initiatives for visitor interpretation or visitor management plans is the fact that these plans form part of their responsible tourism mandate rather than sustainable tourism mandate [29]. Although similar on minimizing negative impacts, there is a common consensus that responsible and sustainable tourism should not be used interchangeably [45]. Responsible tourism has an emphasis on competitive advantage, involving communities, triple bottom line diversity and promotion of sustainable use of local resources [45]. This is a valuable lesson that other national parks can also take from SANParks. The interpretation plans of SANParks therefore go beyond the message of sustainability but also include an awareness of local cultures (history, stories, legends and myths), incorporating local communities (employment) and more

establishes relevance and connects people and communities to national heritage [42]'.

**Figure 7.** Evolution of elephants [36].

**Figure 8.** Hapoor and the elephant family tree [36].

**Figure 9.** Interior view of the Ulwazi Interpretation Center [36].
