**6. Discussion**

#### **6.1. The importance of building capacity for indigenous knowledge**

Communities living in or near the protected area, visitors and other stakeholders of PA will feel a far greater commitment to park management objectives and practices if they have the opportunity to be involved in managing the resource. In Kampung Gol, Kuala Tahan, the villagers, through the Taman Negara Bird Group (TNBG) have indulged seriously on bird watch activities when they collaborated with a group of researcher from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) – one of the Malaysia's public universities. This indicates an increased sense of ownership, the nature of traditional knowledge and cultural values represent the core for building a strong foundation that will ensure sustained growth. Arguably, therefore, that a first priority for developing efforts should be to exploit tacit knowledge by increasing participation of individuals and other local communities that could have a substantial impact on the process of development. Engage and empower indigenous peoples and local communities living in and around nature tourism sites as active participants in ecotourism planning and implementation so that their livelihoods are improved and the sites are better protected. It includes the incorporation of local knowledge and the power to input into the management process of these local resources which is often more important in supporting and providing the basis of local livelihoods to a majority of the population in a developing region such as Kuala Tahan and surrounding areas nearby Taman Negara.

Biodiversity, or the variety of life on earth, is something that we all critically depend on. It is essential to the well-being of the planet and, in particular, for the human beings who live on it [14]. In an effort to provide clarity, the World Bank explains that indigenous knowledge (IK) is the 'social capital of the poor, their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter or to achieve control of their own lives'. The United Nations describe the importance of the local knowledge this way: 'Indigenous Knowledge is the basis for local decision making and problem solving in areas including, but not limited to, agriculture, health care, food preparation, education and natural resource management. IK is tacit knowledge traditionally held by communities rather than individuals and is commonly embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships and rituals and therefore, difficult to codify' [15]. Generally, (1) the indigenous system is not well connected among various sectors of the economy including universities, private enterprises, government agencies and grassroots innovators. Owing to the inadequacy of scientific and technological research, low investment expenditures and poorly trained labour, the linkage of the traditional knowledge system with the modern knowledge system is inadequate to generate high backward and forward linkages. (2) Because of duality of the economic structure, indigenous peoples have remained isolated from modern sectors of the economy in which most modern technologies are employed. Under such circumstances, building technological capacity to foster growth is limited by lack of skilled labour capable of using, and access to training in, modern technology. (3) The modern knowledge system practised in developing countries is not well integrated into the global knowledge system. In these countries, inadequacy of international standards does not permit rapid improvement in the quality of technology and, therefore, engenders poor quality in products outputted in these countries. (4) The traditional knowledge system is disconnected from the educational and learning systems in developing countries. Accordingly, traditional knowledge systems to continue relying on traditional ideas and primitive practices with little input from modern knowledge. In isolation, the traditional knowledge system cannot promote global competitiveness. Only modern knowledge facilitates productivity through more efficient utilisation of IK. (5) It is not easy to codify and record IK and, therefore, sharing this kind of knowledge among communities and cultures becomes difficult [16, 17]. Most of these ideas are in the form of tacit knowledge stored in the mind of people who live in a given environment influenced by unique features related to their worldview. Some of these ideas have been in existence for thousands of years, which could further be developed in the light of the new knowledge and technologies [18].

this are orientated towards longer-term objectives in providing both a voice as well as practical assistance to specific segments of the population affected by the development. Through a cooperative approach, university researchers can also work along with communities more efficiently than in the past. In the case of nearby villages, the highly satisfactory results are in information for planning, improved local community consultation, improved enforcement and improved stakeholder engagement through the operationalising of formal governance

The networking of community and stakeholder engagement initiatives addressing multiple need of stakeholders including a diversity of communities - are significant achievements. The inclusion of various stakeholders is prerequisite for the project's success, improved technical and logistical capabilities coupled with more effective coordination on the ground have con-

Communities living in or near the protected area, visitors and other stakeholders of PA will feel a far greater commitment to park management objectives and practices if they have the opportunity to be involved in managing the resource. In Kampung Gol, Kuala Tahan, the villagers, through the Taman Negara Bird Group (TNBG) have indulged seriously on bird watch activities when they collaborated with a group of researcher from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) – one of the Malaysia's public universities. This indicates an increased sense of ownership, the nature of traditional knowledge and cultural values represent the core for building a strong foundation that will ensure sustained growth. Arguably, therefore, that a first priority for developing efforts should be to exploit tacit knowledge by increasing participation of individuals and other local communities that could have a substantial impact on the process of development. Engage and empower indigenous peoples and local communities living in and around nature tourism sites as active participants in ecotourism planning and implementation so that their livelihoods are improved and the sites are better protected. It includes the incorporation of local knowledge and the power to input into the management process of these local resources which is often more important in supporting and providing the basis of local livelihoods to a majority of the population in a developing region such as

Biodiversity, or the variety of life on earth, is something that we all critically depend on. It is essential to the well-being of the planet and, in particular, for the human beings who live on it [14]. In an effort to provide clarity, the World Bank explains that indigenous knowledge (IK) is the 'social capital of the poor, their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter or to achieve control of their own lives'. The United Nations describe the importance of the local knowledge this way: 'Indigenous Knowledge is the basis for local decision making and problem solving in areas including, but not limited to, agriculture, health care, food preparation, education and natural resource management.

mechanisms. Consequently, these are the strengths of the Taman Negara Pahang.

tributed to improvements in the overall park management [8].

Kuala Tahan and surrounding areas nearby Taman Negara.

**6.1. The importance of building capacity for indigenous knowledge**

**6. Discussion**

182 National Parks - Management and Conservation

Orang Asli in Taman Negara engage in predominately around the tourism industry and other activities that are inter-connected with this important industry such as fresh water fisheries. In developing countries, typical traditional rural communities benefits from a large number of species for medicinal purposes. This localised knowledge has been used by pharmaceutical companies in their search of new drugs, with high biodiversity and long tradition of the use of plants for medicinal purposes [2]. Biodiversity forms an essential part of the cultural life of Malaysia's indigenous people, including food and medicine from plant and animal species. For instance, both the availability of trees, rattans and aquatic plants as well as other natural offer motifs for carving and traditional weaving. The Dayak and Orang Asli, for example, incorporate designs of leaves, seed pods, tendrils, buds and flowers in their traditional carvings of houses. In echoing the cultural consciousness of the value of biodiversity to local community, towns and villages are named after important and useful plants, animals and characteristics found in nature, such that modern-day built-up environments persist [2]. A review conducted into management of PA in Taman Negara Pahang found that communities would show greater commitment to the Park's objectives if they were involved in the management process. The review recommended that all stakeholders should be engaged regularly to discuss decisions that will affect them. Further, PERHILITAN officer should continuously build relationships with all stakeholders, to establish a platform for dialogue, cooperation, and information sharing. Other studies have shown that a strong conservation ethic will arise from the community's sense of ownership of their heritage and the ability to see the connection between their livelihoods and sustainable resource use. Experience in many locations has demonstrated that involving local stakeholders in community-based resource management requires a great deal of consultative work, trust and commitment. The process requires patience and understanding and it cannot be shortened or rushed. The lack of such consultation in Malaysia in part explains why externally developed management activities in the PAs have had limited success.

may be considered for economic use by one stakeholder but have a different usage for local inhabitants who may see its use as 'an inalienable right' [21]. Benchmarking Australia, under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, regional communities are obligated to provide lists of endangered and critically endangered species, vulnerable species, and nationally threatened species, populations and ecological communities and key threatening processes [22, 23]. Because the PERHILITAN has been in partnership and networking with various stakeholders as well as with university researchers, it is a leading government agency with local legitimacy. With close and trust based relationships that the PERHILITAN has built with local communities, other agencies can leverage on this unique networking. At the same time, PERHILITAN can become a facilitating conduit for other agencies to deliver aid and coordinate programmes on the ground, through establishing and engaging with the park communities. This positions the PA as pivotal in the park – government relationship. In addition, PERHILITAN, when partnering with local communities, can play an important role especially in context of the local knowledge they are able to offer. Typically, PERHILITAN have a greater understanding of the local area, the community, and the situation on the ground, and are generally the lead agency to champion and drive any initiatives for national park. NGOs on the other hand, with direct links and ties into local communities, have the capacity to ensure that local level stakeholders are included. This governance model of PERHILITAN and NGOs working together, has not only enabled local people to be more directly involved in PA initiatives but foster greater community involvement through actively engaging with local communities. Such an approach provides an additional benefit of enhancing local capacity and building community resilience in the face of challenges that may limit the effectiveness of PA management.

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**6.3. Empowered and harnessed the commitment of all stakeholders to conserve** 

Conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of biological resources are complex and multi-facetted issues, which need to be determined and carried out at the national and local levels [24]. Realising this, the Government adopts a coordinated effort to manage the conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia. The initiative involves partners from the UN based in Malaysia, as well as a wide range of NGOs both at international and the local level who have significant influence on the intended changes and, at times, the capacity to fully determine the intervention approach and under what circumstances, thus having a direct impact on the biodiversity in local territory. However, part of the problem in relation to biodiversity responsibilities in Malaysia is fragmentation, with no single body, or collection of state bodies, assigned to undertake the systematic collection and reporting of biodiversity trends nationwide – pose a challenge for sustainable development. The management of the park is mainly enforcement rather than 'education' with limited funds, limited monitoring capabilities and limited expertise. Furthermore, complication in terms of governance across different authorities could leave communities disempowered when attempting to monitor or question arrangements, uses and conservation of biodiversity resources. Consideration of this in the context of the recent massive flooding seems particularly pertinent. Each sector has its own mandate and aspirations, all parties need to work together so that biodiversity conservation and sectorspecific development go hand in hand – as both are crucial components for nation building.

**biodiversity**

It is observed that, the informal sector tends to be larger in rural areas dominated by primary industry including agriculture and fisheries, when considering a broader international context [19]. Also typically elsewhere, the informal sector is of crucial significance to the tourism industry with no exception to Taman Negara Pahang. In the nearby villages, the communities involvement in the informal and agricultural sectors found to account for a conservatively estimated over half of employment. With a high proportion of the local communities dependent on income from the informal sector, the direction of social sustenance centred around livelihood support and social protection, needs to bear in mind underlying conditions impacting upon the target population. This is vital to ensure the effectiveness of any initiatives designed to foster a sustainable environment, which will underpin the long-term viability of both the economy and the natural environment upon which the economy depends. In the light of biodiversity loss such as deforestation, destruction of endangered fauna and flora, water pollution, sedimentation, decimation of water catchments, soil erosion, landslides, and downstream flooding, these problems have been worsened and turned into disasters due to the extremely fragile and sensitive nature of geographical ecosystems, which disrupts the ability of most of those affected as they did prior to the disaster. Organisations such as the Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) and the World Wide Fund for Nature-Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia) have played significant roles in scientific work as well as in advocacy in the conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia for the last few decades [8]. There is an effort to establish a framework for evaluating the effectiveness of PA management and governance, including developing appropriate criteria, methods, standards, and indicators for the National PA system, taking into account the IUCN-World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Framework. For example, community groups have been formed in order to improve participation in local government decision making and rehabilitation initiatives including the rebuilding of the houses which were demolished by the massive flood in 2016. The need to look after our natural environments and their biodiversity is a matter of great urgency as species become extinct at ever increasing and alarming rates, almost entirely as a direct result of human activities [20]. Yet despite evidence of local resilience community resources can be further be optimised with careful planning and plan of action.

#### **6.2. The role of PERHILITAN in facilitating sustainable and resilient communities**

Through its role in environmental management, monitoring and reporting, PERHILITAN plays a significant role particularly when they are involved in initiatives that engage with local communities aimed at rebuilding livelihoods to facilitate sustainable and build resilience. A holistic approach focused on long-term solutions to significantly sustaining the PAs management for those living in the National Park is increasingly a focus of PERHILITAN. This agency has become a valuable and ongoing contributor to efforts to conserve biodiversity through its role in local management of the park. In terms of risk, a biodiversity resource such as a natural forest, may be considered for economic use by one stakeholder but have a different usage for local inhabitants who may see its use as 'an inalienable right' [21]. Benchmarking Australia, under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, regional communities are obligated to provide lists of endangered and critically endangered species, vulnerable species, and nationally threatened species, populations and ecological communities and key threatening processes [22, 23]. Because the PERHILITAN has been in partnership and networking with various stakeholders as well as with university researchers, it is a leading government agency with local legitimacy. With close and trust based relationships that the PERHILITAN has built with local communities, other agencies can leverage on this unique networking. At the same time, PERHILITAN can become a facilitating conduit for other agencies to deliver aid and coordinate programmes on the ground, through establishing and engaging with the park communities. This positions the PA as pivotal in the park – government relationship. In addition, PERHILITAN, when partnering with local communities, can play an important role especially in context of the local knowledge they are able to offer. Typically, PERHILITAN have a greater understanding of the local area, the community, and the situation on the ground, and are generally the lead agency to champion and drive any initiatives for national park. NGOs on the other hand, with direct links and ties into local communities, have the capacity to ensure that local level stakeholders are included. This governance model of PERHILITAN and NGOs working together, has not only enabled local people to be more directly involved in PA initiatives but foster greater community involvement through actively engaging with local communities. Such an approach provides an additional benefit of enhancing local capacity and building community resilience in the face of challenges that may limit the effectiveness of PA management.

sense of ownership of their heritage and the ability to see the connection between their livelihoods and sustainable resource use. Experience in many locations has demonstrated that involving local stakeholders in community-based resource management requires a great deal of consultative work, trust and commitment. The process requires patience and understanding and it cannot be shortened or rushed. The lack of such consultation in Malaysia in part explains

It is observed that, the informal sector tends to be larger in rural areas dominated by primary industry including agriculture and fisheries, when considering a broader international context [19]. Also typically elsewhere, the informal sector is of crucial significance to the tourism industry with no exception to Taman Negara Pahang. In the nearby villages, the communities involvement in the informal and agricultural sectors found to account for a conservatively estimated over half of employment. With a high proportion of the local communities dependent on income from the informal sector, the direction of social sustenance centred around livelihood support and social protection, needs to bear in mind underlying conditions impacting upon the target population. This is vital to ensure the effectiveness of any initiatives designed to foster a sustainable environment, which will underpin the long-term viability of both the economy and the natural environment upon which the economy depends. In the light of biodiversity loss such as deforestation, destruction of endangered fauna and flora, water pollution, sedimentation, decimation of water catchments, soil erosion, landslides, and downstream flooding, these problems have been worsened and turned into disasters due to the extremely fragile and sensitive nature of geographical ecosystems, which disrupts the ability of most of those affected as they did prior to the disaster. Organisations such as the Malaysian Nature Society (MNS) and the World Wide Fund for Nature-Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia) have played significant roles in scientific work as well as in advocacy in the conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia for the last few decades [8]. There is an effort to establish a framework for evaluating the effectiveness of PA management and governance, including developing appropriate criteria, methods, standards, and indicators for the National PA system, taking into account the IUCN-World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Framework. For example, community groups have been formed in order to improve participation in local government decision making and rehabilitation initiatives including the rebuilding of the houses which were demolished by the massive flood in 2016. The need to look after our natural environments and their biodiversity is a matter of great urgency as species become extinct at ever increasing and alarming rates, almost entirely as a direct result of human activities [20]. Yet despite evidence of local resilience community resources can be further be optimised with careful planning and plan of action.

why externally developed management activities in the PAs have had limited success.

184 National Parks - Management and Conservation

**6.2. The role of PERHILITAN in facilitating sustainable and resilient communities**

Through its role in environmental management, monitoring and reporting, PERHILITAN plays a significant role particularly when they are involved in initiatives that engage with local communities aimed at rebuilding livelihoods to facilitate sustainable and build resilience. A holistic approach focused on long-term solutions to significantly sustaining the PAs management for those living in the National Park is increasingly a focus of PERHILITAN. This agency has become a valuable and ongoing contributor to efforts to conserve biodiversity through its role in local management of the park. In terms of risk, a biodiversity resource such as a natural forest,

#### **6.3. Empowered and harnessed the commitment of all stakeholders to conserve biodiversity**

Conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of biological resources are complex and multi-facetted issues, which need to be determined and carried out at the national and local levels [24]. Realising this, the Government adopts a coordinated effort to manage the conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia. The initiative involves partners from the UN based in Malaysia, as well as a wide range of NGOs both at international and the local level who have significant influence on the intended changes and, at times, the capacity to fully determine the intervention approach and under what circumstances, thus having a direct impact on the biodiversity in local territory. However, part of the problem in relation to biodiversity responsibilities in Malaysia is fragmentation, with no single body, or collection of state bodies, assigned to undertake the systematic collection and reporting of biodiversity trends nationwide – pose a challenge for sustainable development. The management of the park is mainly enforcement rather than 'education' with limited funds, limited monitoring capabilities and limited expertise. Furthermore, complication in terms of governance across different authorities could leave communities disempowered when attempting to monitor or question arrangements, uses and conservation of biodiversity resources. Consideration of this in the context of the recent massive flooding seems particularly pertinent. Each sector has its own mandate and aspirations, all parties need to work together so that biodiversity conservation and sectorspecific development go hand in hand – as both are crucial components for nation building.

In the National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016–2025, Malaysia outlined multiple insights highlighting to be taken into consideration in addressing biodiversity objectives. It is recognised that natural resource system is subject to depletion, degradation or use which exceeds sustainable yields [25]. Second, in Ref. [26], the anthropogenic factors and their correlation with biodiversity loss of mammals and birds are examined. They found that overuse of natural resources, albeit for survival, can severely degrade resources and eventually deny supply to the very people who need them. It should be noted that wholesale importation of inappropriate Western technologies has caused serious damage to indigenous culture and natural environment by suppressing traditional knowledge, increasing the risk of pollution, disrupting natural habitats and forcing migration [18]. In other words, decisions to promote development must take into consideration local factors that impact human transformation, be they cultural, religious, social, environmental, technological, economic or political. For that reason, the focus on developing and leveraging on local talents is more towards ensuring the local resilience and better protection of their well-being by investing in the strengthening the social capital, traditional knowledge and cultural values.

**7. Recommendation**

major flooding, etc.

**8. Conclusion**

In National Policy on Biological Diversity 2016–2025 Malaysia, a number of issues were to be addressed through all national and state development policies, plans and programmes. This is to ensure that there is an appropriate mechanism that is responsive towards biodiversity and incorporate sufficient safeguards to protect and conserve the biodiversity. All sectoral policies, including those on forestry, energy, agriculture, tourism, transportation, extractive industry and infrastructure, will need to address biodiversity conservation. To facilitate the process of development and strengthen the foundation for knowledge, government should:

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• provide knowledge, information, skills and incentive to local people in a manner to increase their participation in the economy. Special programmes should be created to learn more about indigenous people and earn their trust by giving them voice in policy construction and decision makings. Local knowledge helps communities to enforce, implement and monitor the policies, rules, laws and regulations formulated for National Park capable of

• adopt practical approach when implementing PA initiatives by considering the local community's readiness to adopt, the options available and how their impact will be assessed before any implementation occurs. Also, this provides a more holistic long-term sustainable initiatives to the specific governance structures to facilitate communication and create synergies while addressing the multiple threats of overfishing, poaching, illegal logging and illegal trade in wild animals, improper sewage, climate change and watershed due to

• Encourage initiatives that involve the local community and provide for the long-term sustainability of practical mechanisms, as in international instruments, often call for a designated focal point. Governance models seem to include political/management/technical levels, where political decisions are translated into an action plan carried out through their engagement with local communities and representation of those who are often strong in

Malaysia had been aware of the problems of the loss of natural habitats and environmental degradation resulting from economic development and has addressed these problems as early as 1975 and in the Third Malaysia Plan (1976–1980). Long-term initiatives that promote sustainable economic growth for particularly indigenous communities are vital. The approach to conservation that has been in place for over 2 decades is a 'top-down' or centrally managed, rather than a 'bottom-up', community-led model. However, it is increasingly acknowledged that this approach has limitations, particularly as local communities who are vulnerable have not been involved in management of the parks, in a way that is inclusive. In the spirit of facilitating sustainable development, the role of PERHILITAN in the biodiversity conservation

number supported by national institutions and scientific/technical boards.

solving problems directly related to development process.

It should be noted that these indigenous factors are vital for accelerating economic growth and sustaining development. In most developing countries, the failure of development policies to achieve satisfactory levels of development has been correctly attributed to the neglect of local ingredients in the potpourri of development [18]. For instance, recruitment of local key staff with technical knowledge are underrated strategy as they are often less visible, and their rights are mostly ignored by many parties. Thus, relevant authorities or agencies need to employ local people with biology backgrounds as they understand the area ecosystems, threats and mitigation and this will lead to the better management of these vulnerable ecosystems. Learning from the model of Johor National Park Corporation (JNPC), there has been a unique practice in which they employ the local communities as caretaker and rangers to be responsible for environmental monitoring and enforcement that is essential for effective park management. This practice can be expanded to other park authorities at other locations. The importance of the relationship between government and community support for biodiversity safeguarding and management is a key focus underpinning the objective of livelihood sustainability; in fact, it is an important factor in the proper management of ecosystems [27].

In 2004, Malaysia strengthened its management of conservation at the federal level when the restructuring of the ministries led to the formation of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE). In addition, building stakeholder understanding is critical for positive management outcome. If stakeholders, e.g. local universities, local communities, and any other knowledgeable individuals, truly understand the ecosystem threats to the park management they will undertake their own management intervention to mitigate the threats e.g. the establishment of UiTM-PERHILITAN Research Station and the Centre for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development of UiTM will certainly add value to the sustainable practices of the area, as researchers from university who work closely with local communities knew the situation very well, with their own adaptive management intervention. Besides, they also able to supply relevant data voluntarily to local authorities regarding the severity of water contamination or potential landslides at some of the area.
