**Animal Husbandry**

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry**

**The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72501

Technology is developing rapidly. In this development, the transfer of computer systems and software to the application has made an important contribution. Technologic instruments made farmers can work more comfortable and increased animal production efficiency and profitability. Therefore, technologic developments are the main research area for animal productivity and sustainability. Many technologic equipment and tools made animal husbandry easier and comfortable. Especially management decisions and applications are effected highly ratio with this rapid development. In animal husbandry management decisions that need to be done daily are configured according to the correctness of the decisions to be made. At this point, smart systems give many opportunities to farmers. Milking, feeding, environmental control, reproductive performance constitute everyday jobs most affected by correct management decisions. Human errors in this works and decisions made big effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry. Also, innovative approaches and applications for animal husbandry are tried to be summarized with detail latest research results.

**Keywords:** animal husbandry, futuristic techniques, innovative applications

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The increased world population is demanding more reliable quality livestock products the number of farms is decreasing but the number of animals for per farm and animal production are increasing In addition to this trend livestock production problems also increasing [1]. The solution of these problems comes from multidisciplinary studies from very different fields such as technology. In large enterprises it is not possible to obtain the expected performance without using technology and automation systems from animals with very high genetic values. Daily work on livestock farming is simple in and standard application

Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör

Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Provisional chapter**

## **The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry**

**The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72501

Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501

#### **Abstract**

Technology is developing rapidly. In this development, the transfer of computer systems and software to the application has made an important contribution. Technologic instruments made farmers can work more comfortable and increased animal production efficiency and profitability. Therefore, technologic developments are the main research area for animal productivity and sustainability. Many technologic equipment and tools made animal husbandry easier and comfortable. Especially management decisions and applications are effected highly ratio with this rapid development. In animal husbandry management decisions that need to be done daily are configured according to the correctness of the decisions to be made. At this point, smart systems give many opportunities to farmers. Milking, feeding, environmental control, reproductive performance constitute everyday jobs most affected by correct management decisions. Human errors in this works and decisions made big effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry. Also, innovative approaches and applications for animal husbandry are tried to be summarized with detail latest research results.

**Keywords:** animal husbandry, futuristic techniques, innovative applications

#### **1. Introduction**

The increased world population is demanding more reliable quality livestock products the number of farms is decreasing but the number of animals for per farm and animal production are increasing In addition to this trend livestock production problems also increasing [1]. The solution of these problems comes from multidisciplinary studies from very different fields such as technology. In large enterprises it is not possible to obtain the expected performance without using technology and automation systems from animals with very high genetic values. Daily work on livestock farming is simple in and standard application

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

routinely Data monitoring in the modern dairy farm enables the ongoing control of production, animal health, and welfare [2]. However, as the number of animals increases, error burden and work load increase. Successful livestock farmers will be capable of rapidly adapting their infrastructures to exploit changes in technology for better production. Mechanism and automation systems offer options in front of the user in intense competition for convenience. Currently, most data is extracted manually, yet manual observation is gradually being replaced by many milking systems by automated recording (milk yield, milk conductivity, activity recording and body weight measurements) leading to better data, both in quantity and quality. The number of farms automation systems has increased rapidly since 1980. Almost any medium- to large-sized farmers can benefit from enhanced automation [1, 2]. There are many opportunities for facilities in automation technologies and systems. Today livestock farmers increasingly use robots on production or algorithms to optimize their farm management decisions. Technological developments are creating a new automation system in which smarter and more flexible work possibilities in livestock production [3]. The automation of animal husbandry and integration of on-farm systems and processes have a key role to play in facilitating the process of meeting each of important challenges for competitive market [4]. The main technology are electronic recording, milking, heat detection auto-weighing, auto-drafting, genetic improvement, feeding, barn optimization, and health monitoring, livestock housing and equipment designs. These technologies provide to dairyman many opportunities to make easier and more convenient their decisions about dairy future plans. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry aspect of milk, meat production and reproductive performances of the herds. Also, innovative approaches to dairy cattle, beef cattle breeding, and reproductive performance characteristics are tried to be summarized with detail research results. This chapter provides an introduction to systematic reviews and discuss the result of innovative research results in animal husbandry, animal welfare, animal health. The aim of this chapter is to present a review of the current scientific viewpoints about the concept and definition of animal husbandry innovations. The use of systematic reviews to address questions about intervention effects, usage, economy, positive and negative points of technology and innovations are discussed. The need of interaction among different disciplines is stressed, as well as the need to scientifically assess innovation using validated indicators. This chapter starts with examining technology requirements in animal production for getting better and good quality animal products and the role of innovation. Also, current innovative technologies and equipment's possibilities usage results were reviewed using most detailed research results. After these section chapter then examines the different technologies that use to obtain more convenient production knowledge and technologies usage level at farm level. Lastly, the chapter uses worldwide research results to assess the overall level of innovation of animal production. In addition to benefits of the innovation, some suggestions and implications about unintended side effects in its production and application will be summarized.

monitoring, access to real-time data) and improved provision of important production data. The new technology means producers can work easier and improve cattle welfare, production efficiency, and profitability. Technologic developments provide more efficient, profitable and fast solutions for farmers to get on time process using management and direct manipulation possibilities. Continuous monitoring of disease, and its careful management is essential for the well-being of an animal management [5, 6]. This can be achieved through the detection of early stages and, subsequently, the detection and treatment of the infection [7, 8]. Automation today is super-sophisticated technology and software as well as complicated machinery. A number of computer-assisted image analysis applications are being developed for more convenient animal husbandry. The latest computer programs can identify and classify sounds of animal for specific situations. Many research concluded that these applications could be used to monitor the welfare of animals and provide early identification of disease, physiologic

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 5

The main technology that livestock farmers requirements met is electronic records, milking, heat detection walk-over-weighing, auto-drafting, genetic improvement, feeding, barn environment optimization, and health recording etc. Some sensors are currently available for this purpose, but they do not fulfill all demands. Also, with advances in proteomics and genomics, new biomarkers are being discovered, allowing the disease to be detected at earlier stages. This will lead to assays with higher sensitivity, which can provide additional quantitative information on the level of inflammation 'on-site' and 'on-line' and which is also faster and less expensive. These technologies provide to dairyman many opportunities to make easier

In dairy farms which very high genetic value of breeding animals cannot get the expected performance without the use of latest technology. Dairy cattle herd management programs if can be used as effectively, dairy farming will have many advantages for consumer, farmer and also animals. Genetic information and type evaluation of herd members and bulls are particularly suitable for expanded electronic updating. However, to obtain these advantages from this system required to have knowledge of the functions and effective use of the functions. The large amount of data in the obtained on many issues related to animals, herd management, and an individual unless used in decisions about animals, ensuring the heavy data flow, record keeping or assessment will not give the expected results. Breeds in animal husbandry has changed a lot with the use of breeding and gene technology. Till 1980s livestock products demands have been met by breed substitution, cross-breeding, and within-breed selection. But these demand in future is to be met using new techniques such as such as artificial insemination and more specific selection techniques. Genomic selection provides more possibilities for the more high rate of genetic gain in the livestock sector. After all genomic breeding values will be calculated from the genetic marker, rather than from pedigree and phenotypic information in near future. The genome maps for poultry and cattle is completed and these developments provide new opportunities for animal breeding and animal models [11]. Leakey [12] reported that DNA-based tests for genes or markers affecting traits that are difficult to

and more convenient their decisions about dairy future plans.

status, and abnormality [9, 10].

**3. Breeding and genetics**

#### **2. Current technology applications**

The benefits of new technology are plentiful and include increased cost efficiency, improved animal welfare, improved working conditions, better production monitoring (e.g. remote monitoring, access to real-time data) and improved provision of important production data. The new technology means producers can work easier and improve cattle welfare, production efficiency, and profitability. Technologic developments provide more efficient, profitable and fast solutions for farmers to get on time process using management and direct manipulation possibilities. Continuous monitoring of disease, and its careful management is essential for the well-being of an animal management [5, 6]. This can be achieved through the detection of early stages and, subsequently, the detection and treatment of the infection [7, 8]. Automation today is super-sophisticated technology and software as well as complicated machinery. A number of computer-assisted image analysis applications are being developed for more convenient animal husbandry. The latest computer programs can identify and classify sounds of animal for specific situations. Many research concluded that these applications could be used to monitor the welfare of animals and provide early identification of disease, physiologic status, and abnormality [9, 10].

The main technology that livestock farmers requirements met is electronic records, milking, heat detection walk-over-weighing, auto-drafting, genetic improvement, feeding, barn environment optimization, and health recording etc. Some sensors are currently available for this purpose, but they do not fulfill all demands. Also, with advances in proteomics and genomics, new biomarkers are being discovered, allowing the disease to be detected at earlier stages. This will lead to assays with higher sensitivity, which can provide additional quantitative information on the level of inflammation 'on-site' and 'on-line' and which is also faster and less expensive. These technologies provide to dairyman many opportunities to make easier and more convenient their decisions about dairy future plans.

## **3. Breeding and genetics**

routinely Data monitoring in the modern dairy farm enables the ongoing control of production, animal health, and welfare [2]. However, as the number of animals increases, error burden and work load increase. Successful livestock farmers will be capable of rapidly adapting their infrastructures to exploit changes in technology for better production. Mechanism and automation systems offer options in front of the user in intense competition for convenience. Currently, most data is extracted manually, yet manual observation is gradually being replaced by many milking systems by automated recording (milk yield, milk conductivity, activity recording and body weight measurements) leading to better data, both in quantity and quality. The number of farms automation systems has increased rapidly since 1980. Almost any medium- to large-sized farmers can benefit from enhanced automation [1, 2]. There are many opportunities for facilities in automation technologies and systems. Today livestock farmers increasingly use robots on production or algorithms to optimize their farm management decisions. Technological developments are creating a new automation system in which smarter and more flexible work possibilities in livestock production [3]. The automation of animal husbandry and integration of on-farm systems and processes have a key role to play in facilitating the process of meeting each of important challenges for competitive market [4]. The main technology are electronic recording, milking, heat detection auto-weighing, auto-drafting, genetic improvement, feeding, barn optimization, and health monitoring, livestock housing and equipment designs. These technologies provide to dairyman many opportunities to make easier and more convenient their decisions about dairy future plans. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry aspect of milk, meat production and reproductive performances of the herds. Also, innovative approaches to dairy cattle, beef cattle breeding, and reproductive performance characteristics are tried to be summarized with detail research results. This chapter provides an introduction to systematic reviews and discuss the result of innovative research results in animal husbandry, animal welfare, animal health. The aim of this chapter is to present a review of the current scientific viewpoints about the concept and definition of animal husbandry innovations. The use of systematic reviews to address questions about intervention effects, usage, economy, positive and negative points of technology and innovations are discussed. The need of interaction among different disciplines is stressed, as well as the need to scientifically assess innovation using validated indicators. This chapter starts with examining technology requirements in animal production for getting better and good quality animal products and the role of innovation. Also, current innovative technologies and equipment's possibilities usage results were reviewed using most detailed research results. After these section chapter then examines the different technologies that use to obtain more convenient production knowledge and technologies usage level at farm level. Lastly, the chapter uses worldwide research results to assess the overall level of innovation of animal production. In addition to benefits of the innovation, some suggestions and implications about unintended

4 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

side effects in its production and application will be summarized.

The benefits of new technology are plentiful and include increased cost efficiency, improved animal welfare, improved working conditions, better production monitoring (e.g. remote

**2. Current technology applications**

In dairy farms which very high genetic value of breeding animals cannot get the expected performance without the use of latest technology. Dairy cattle herd management programs if can be used as effectively, dairy farming will have many advantages for consumer, farmer and also animals. Genetic information and type evaluation of herd members and bulls are particularly suitable for expanded electronic updating. However, to obtain these advantages from this system required to have knowledge of the functions and effective use of the functions. The large amount of data in the obtained on many issues related to animals, herd management, and an individual unless used in decisions about animals, ensuring the heavy data flow, record keeping or assessment will not give the expected results. Breeds in animal husbandry has changed a lot with the use of breeding and gene technology. Till 1980s livestock products demands have been met by breed substitution, cross-breeding, and within-breed selection. But these demand in future is to be met using new techniques such as such as artificial insemination and more specific selection techniques. Genomic selection provides more possibilities for the more high rate of genetic gain in the livestock sector. After all genomic breeding values will be calculated from the genetic marker, rather than from pedigree and phenotypic information in near future. The genome maps for poultry and cattle is completed and these developments provide new opportunities for animal breeding and animal models [11]. Leakey [12] reported that DNA-based tests for genes or markers affecting traits that are difficult to measure currently, such as meat quality and disease resistance, will be particularly useful. But genetic resources still important for helping livestock adapt to changing the climate [13]. Native breeds are to genetic insurance against future challenges. In combination with modem reproductive technologies, there is potential to use frozen and stored germplasm (genetic resource banks) to support conservation measures for the maintenance of genetic diversity in threatened species. Besides the direct application of technologically advanced reproductive procedures, modern approaches to non-invasive endocrine monitoring play an important role in optimizing the success of natural breeding programs [14]. A separate progeny-test category may be developed for farms that collect all data electronically and have those data monitored closely. Automated data collection along with parentage verification offers substantial opportunities for genetic improvement of overall economic merit. Nowadays biological samples are sent laboratory for genetic analysis to identify the relevant genes responsible for productive parameters. Also, selective breeding can reduce the need for alternative methods.

experience and not enough time to spent [18]. On the other hand, the country wide effect of the communication instruments extends to 80% and this is enough to eliminate most of the reasons which are mentioned above. If the farmer evaluates the benefits of using computer

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 7

The Electronic identification system is started 1970s. However, current laws deal with the visual, readable markings that are placed on the animal (EU Directives 92:102:EEC and EU Directives 820:97:EC) [19]. There are numerous animal ID technologies available to livestock producers. Radio frequency identification (RFID) will likely be used to identify cattle. These devices have an electronic number that will be unique for an individual animal and link that animal to the database [20]. Electronic ear tags, injectable transponders and boluses with a transponder, inside in the reticulum are the latest technology for animal identification technology [18]. Many types of RFID tags (boluses, ear tags, injectable glass tags) are used subcutaneous placement for animal identification. These systems work using radio frequency for sending data. Boluses retain in the first two stomachs of the ruminants and accepted as safe for animal health [21]. They can be administered even to lambs after weaning at the fifth week and the retention rate can reach 100% [22]. The injectable transponders, on the other hand, can be applied easily after birth [23], while the preferable locations differ in each animal species [24–26]. These technologies (implants, ear tags, and rumen boluses) are available on the market for cattle farmers. All these devices has special chip system for sending data for the base computer for evaluation. These devices has some specific components on their system regarding storing and evaluating data used for evaluating herd data. Some electronic tags has reader which can be receive and store the required many data for evaluation. Some of tag works transferring the number to another storage system for another evaluation stage. Data sends using antenna for transfer data on the system [27]. From a technological point of view, RFID tags can be grouped in two categories according to the carrier frequency band: LF (low frequency) tags function at 125–134.2 kHz, whereas HF (high frequency) tags function at 13.56 MHz. Electronic scales may be justified as a way to determine body condition score automatically. Another technology which is very useful for farmers is electronic weighing system. An easy and powerful electronic weighing system that accurately measures cattle weight. So farmers can monitor cattle performance easily and continuously. These system established on the road the waterer or cattle squeeze. Stored information send to the main computer for evaluation. Complimenting this is auto-drafting, where cattle going through a race are automatically separated on the

and internet they will replace this technology in farm management.

basis on age, sex, or weight, or any other criteria the producer preferences.

Milking automation system is also involve the dairy sector at 1990s [28]. Suitable objective measuring systems are needed in animal husbandry to quickly and safely recognize illness,

**5. Electronic identification**

**6. Milking automation**

## **4. Computer and internet usage**

New technology in computers, biotechnology and scientific discoveries regarding ruminant nutrition and genetics provide the basis for accelerated progress in milk production for those dairy farmers that adopt these technologies. 10 years ago most dairy farmers focused their attention solely on animal husbandry practices. The use of computers for farm management in dairy sector started in as early in 1990s in many developing countries. As personal computer was developed and the price has dramatically declined, more and more farmers began to use computers by themselves in the last decade. But generally, computers have been used by producers with larger farms. Small-scale farmers bypassed the technology because of its cost and their lack of knowledge about computer use in farming. Many computer programs were described, by which data on data in dairy herds may be processed. The some computer software is designed for timely and direct convenience to farmers. Thus, the breeder can evaluate the monthly lots of data using many formulas with high accuracy using these software. It can also be programmed for annual report for detail evaluation of herd evaluation. In addition to all these, daily milk yields feed consumption, pregnancy check, inseminated cow list can be programmed for daily work routine. In recent years there is a form of high interest to cattle breeding and this is leading to the establishment of intensive farms. The only criteria for the life cycle continuity of these intensive farms would be on maximum profitability and competitiveness ability on market. This concept mainly related to forceful usage of knowledge, technology and management at intensive farms and small enterprises and cattle breeding organizations. Whenever the farmers meet any problem in order to refer to an organization for learning to new solutions and the absolute result most probably they prefer to share with farmers who are more experienced for them [15]. But developed countries heavily use computer and internet that is the main way to reach information [16, 17]. Meanwhile in undeveloped or developing countries, several reasons limit using computer and internet these are listed as high financial cost, difficulties to use technology, loss of knowledge to economic benefits, hesitate to use new technologies, lack of education, strict personality, poor infrastructure, lack of personal experience and not enough time to spent [18]. On the other hand, the country wide effect of the communication instruments extends to 80% and this is enough to eliminate most of the reasons which are mentioned above. If the farmer evaluates the benefits of using computer and internet they will replace this technology in farm management.

## **5. Electronic identification**

measure currently, such as meat quality and disease resistance, will be particularly useful. But genetic resources still important for helping livestock adapt to changing the climate [13]. Native breeds are to genetic insurance against future challenges. In combination with modem reproductive technologies, there is potential to use frozen and stored germplasm (genetic resource banks) to support conservation measures for the maintenance of genetic diversity in threatened species. Besides the direct application of technologically advanced reproductive procedures, modern approaches to non-invasive endocrine monitoring play an important role in optimizing the success of natural breeding programs [14]. A separate progeny-test category may be developed for farms that collect all data electronically and have those data monitored closely. Automated data collection along with parentage verification offers substantial opportunities for genetic improvement of overall economic merit. Nowadays biological samples are sent laboratory for genetic analysis to identify the relevant genes responsible for productive

parameters. Also, selective breeding can reduce the need for alternative methods.

New technology in computers, biotechnology and scientific discoveries regarding ruminant nutrition and genetics provide the basis for accelerated progress in milk production for those dairy farmers that adopt these technologies. 10 years ago most dairy farmers focused their attention solely on animal husbandry practices. The use of computers for farm management in dairy sector started in as early in 1990s in many developing countries. As personal computer was developed and the price has dramatically declined, more and more farmers began to use computers by themselves in the last decade. But generally, computers have been used by producers with larger farms. Small-scale farmers bypassed the technology because of its cost and their lack of knowledge about computer use in farming. Many computer programs were described, by which data on data in dairy herds may be processed. The some computer software is designed for timely and direct convenience to farmers. Thus, the breeder can evaluate the monthly lots of data using many formulas with high accuracy using these software. It can also be programmed for annual report for detail evaluation of herd evaluation. In addition to all these, daily milk yields feed consumption, pregnancy check, inseminated cow list can be programmed for daily work routine. In recent years there is a form of high interest to cattle breeding and this is leading to the establishment of intensive farms. The only criteria for the life cycle continuity of these intensive farms would be on maximum profitability and competitiveness ability on market. This concept mainly related to forceful usage of knowledge, technology and management at intensive farms and small enterprises and cattle breeding organizations. Whenever the farmers meet any problem in order to refer to an organization for learning to new solutions and the absolute result most probably they prefer to share with farmers who are more experienced for them [15]. But developed countries heavily use computer and internet that is the main way to reach information [16, 17]. Meanwhile in undeveloped or developing countries, several reasons limit using computer and internet these are listed as high financial cost, difficulties to use technology, loss of knowledge to economic benefits, hesitate to use new technologies, lack of education, strict personality, poor infrastructure, lack of personal

**4. Computer and internet usage**

6 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

The Electronic identification system is started 1970s. However, current laws deal with the visual, readable markings that are placed on the animal (EU Directives 92:102:EEC and EU Directives 820:97:EC) [19]. There are numerous animal ID technologies available to livestock producers. Radio frequency identification (RFID) will likely be used to identify cattle. These devices have an electronic number that will be unique for an individual animal and link that animal to the database [20]. Electronic ear tags, injectable transponders and boluses with a transponder, inside in the reticulum are the latest technology for animal identification technology [18]. Many types of RFID tags (boluses, ear tags, injectable glass tags) are used subcutaneous placement for animal identification. These systems work using radio frequency for sending data. Boluses retain in the first two stomachs of the ruminants and accepted as safe for animal health [21]. They can be administered even to lambs after weaning at the fifth week and the retention rate can reach 100% [22]. The injectable transponders, on the other hand, can be applied easily after birth [23], while the preferable locations differ in each animal species [24–26]. These technologies (implants, ear tags, and rumen boluses) are available on the market for cattle farmers. All these devices has special chip system for sending data for the base computer for evaluation. These devices has some specific components on their system regarding storing and evaluating data used for evaluating herd data. Some electronic tags has reader which can be receive and store the required many data for evaluation. Some of tag works transferring the number to another storage system for another evaluation stage. Data sends using antenna for transfer data on the system [27]. From a technological point of view, RFID tags can be grouped in two categories according to the carrier frequency band: LF (low frequency) tags function at 125–134.2 kHz, whereas HF (high frequency) tags function at 13.56 MHz. Electronic scales may be justified as a way to determine body condition score automatically. Another technology which is very useful for farmers is electronic weighing system. An easy and powerful electronic weighing system that accurately measures cattle weight. So farmers can monitor cattle performance easily and continuously. These system established on the road the waterer or cattle squeeze. Stored information send to the main computer for evaluation. Complimenting this is auto-drafting, where cattle going through a race are automatically separated on the basis on age, sex, or weight, or any other criteria the producer preferences.

## **6. Milking automation**

Milking automation system is also involve the dairy sector at 1990s [28]. Suitable objective measuring systems are needed in animal husbandry to quickly and safely recognize illness, normal estrus cycle, quiet heat or stress in animals [29, 30]. An automatic milking system requires a completely different management system for milking, feeding, cow traffic, cow behavior and grazing, but also for safeguarding milk quality and animal health [31]. Electronic devices or sensors are the tools that need to take over the human visual inspection for abnormality. In order to develop sensors to detect abnormal milk a definition of abnormal milk is still basic requirements [32–36].

Tsenkova et al. [41] Near infrared (NIR) SCC in raw milk

Eriksson et al. [43] A gas-sensor array system, or 'electronic

Whyte et al. [44] To automatically determine the SCC

Choi et al. [47] Fluorescence was measured using an optical sensor

Mottram et al. [48] Chemical-array-based sensor ''electronic

tongue'

Hettinga et al. [51] Detection of the patterns of volatile metabolites produced

somatic cells

nose'

Electrobiochemical sensor using a screenprinted carbon electrode (SPCE)

based on measuring the DNA content of

Wu et al. [45] PicoGreen The DNA from somatic cells was incubated with

Moon et al. [49]. Disposable microchips The milk sample is mixed with a lysis solution to

Disposable device On counting milk leukocytes

Lee et al. [55] A biochip Incorporated DNA amplification of genes that are

Dimov et al. [56] Microfluidic device Integrates solid-phase extraction and NASBA has

Biochips Sensor-based platforms with the development of

Microfluidic CD-based assay device After centrifugation on a conventional CD-player,

cell pellet formed

numbers of *E. coli*

Davis et al. [52] A lactate screen printed sensor Elevated levels of lactate

**Table 1.** Research results of sensors technology used for mastitis detection.

Akerstedt et al. [46] Competitive biosensor assay Surface plasmon resonance to monitor the

Detect NAGase via its ability to convert the substrate 1-naphthyl N-acetyl-b-D-glucosaminidinase to

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 9

Interact with volatile substances, including sulfides,

The DNA and histone levels can then be measured

PicoGreen, and the resulting fluorescence was

interaction between Hp, which was immobilized onto the chip surface, and hemoglobin (Hb)

A chip for simultaneously monitoring pathogens, somatic cells and pH in raw milk samples

To detect chloride, potassium and sodium ions released during mastitis in addition to inorganic and

burst the somatic cells, and a fluorescent dye is

To identify different pathogens, such as *S. aureus*, coagulase negative staphylococci, streptococci and *E. coli*, and to determine infection-free udder quarters

novel biomarkers could thus allow the diagnosis of

the SCC can be measured based on the height of the

specific for seven known mastitis-causing pathogens

recently been reported for the identification of low

the pre-clinical stage of mastitis

1-naphthol

ketones, amines and acid

and correlated to the SCC

measured using an optical sensor

organic cations and anions

added to stain the DNA

Pemberton et al.

Rodriguez and Galanaugh [50]

Garcia-Cordero and Ricco [53]

Garcia-Cordero and Ricco [54]

[42]

Sensors have been in the market for a long time, but their use in milking systems is quite new. Because milks were being evaluated by milkers during milking. However, with the development of intelligent milking systems, the use of sensors in the milking systems has become widespread [37].

The milking robots equipped with sensors to detect signs of mastitis which measures the many characters of the abnormal milk pH, Somatic cell count, milk acidity, milk conductivity etc. systems also can be regarded milking specifications of the system such as parlor performances, milking efficiency etc. [5]. Simple automatic cup removal devices monitor the milk flow rate from individual cows and at a threshold, the milking vacuum is shut off and the system is activated to withdraw the cups from the cow. Post-milking teat disinfection is an established component of many mastitis control strategies. This is normally performed manually in many farmers using either a pressure operated spray lance or more a dip cup. Behavior meter also installed to the milking systems for animal monitoring. The behavior meter continuously records the lying time, lying bouts and the activity of the individual animals. The cow-behavior observations enable animal welfare assessment in different environmental conditions and stressful situations, as well as reproductive and health status [38]. Another options to separation gate usage at automatic management systems.

The cattle separation is a risky and challenging activity that needs to be done frequently. If milkers also make an animal separation, the milking efficiency and parlor performances decrease. Reducing the need and risk of this workforce for separation is an important advantage. The grouping and separation of cattle in the big herd constitutes an enormous workload for the farmers. Electronic separation gates are not common in many cattle farms [19, 20].

Removing the labor required to separate animals can have a significant impact on the performance of the handling and management operations. To a lesser extent, diseased cows need to be brought to the attention of the dairy farmer. Some sensors are currently available for this purpose, but they do not fulfill all demands. When an operator is involved with animal separation, other tasks are not being done and performance suffers. With larger herds, identification and drafting of individuals are major tasks. Automatic drafting is not routinely installed on many dairy farms. Electronic tongue technology gives more advantage for farmers for many aspects [39]. Electronic tongue used potentiometric chemical sensors. An array comprised sensors with plasticized PVC membranes with cross-sensitivity to inorganic and organic cations and anions, chalcogenide glass sensors, chloride-, potassium- and sodiumselective electrodes, and glass pH electrode. Automatic milking systems using newly developed sensors (NIR, SCC and LDH etc.) provide much faster and more effective results. Many biosensor search studies for mastitis diagnosis continue [40].


**Table 1.** Research results of sensors technology used for mastitis detection.

normal estrus cycle, quiet heat or stress in animals [29, 30]. An automatic milking system requires a completely different management system for milking, feeding, cow traffic, cow behavior and grazing, but also for safeguarding milk quality and animal health [31]. Electronic devices or sensors are the tools that need to take over the human visual inspection for abnormality. In order to develop sensors to detect abnormal milk a definition of abnormal milk is

Sensors have been in the market for a long time, but their use in milking systems is quite new. Because milks were being evaluated by milkers during milking. However, with the development of intelligent milking systems, the use of sensors in the milking systems has become

The milking robots equipped with sensors to detect signs of mastitis which measures the many characters of the abnormal milk pH, Somatic cell count, milk acidity, milk conductivity etc. systems also can be regarded milking specifications of the system such as parlor performances, milking efficiency etc. [5]. Simple automatic cup removal devices monitor the milk flow rate from individual cows and at a threshold, the milking vacuum is shut off and the system is activated to withdraw the cups from the cow. Post-milking teat disinfection is an established component of many mastitis control strategies. This is normally performed manually in many farmers using either a pressure operated spray lance or more a dip cup. Behavior meter also installed to the milking systems for animal monitoring. The behavior meter continuously records the lying time, lying bouts and the activity of the individual animals. The cow-behavior observations enable animal welfare assessment in different environmental conditions and stressful situations, as well as reproductive and health status [38]. Another

The cattle separation is a risky and challenging activity that needs to be done frequently. If milkers also make an animal separation, the milking efficiency and parlor performances decrease. Reducing the need and risk of this workforce for separation is an important advantage. The grouping and separation of cattle in the big herd constitutes an enormous workload for the farmers. Electronic separation gates are not common in many cattle farms [19, 20].

Removing the labor required to separate animals can have a significant impact on the performance of the handling and management operations. To a lesser extent, diseased cows need to be brought to the attention of the dairy farmer. Some sensors are currently available for this purpose, but they do not fulfill all demands. When an operator is involved with animal separation, other tasks are not being done and performance suffers. With larger herds, identification and drafting of individuals are major tasks. Automatic drafting is not routinely installed on many dairy farms. Electronic tongue technology gives more advantage for farmers for many aspects [39]. Electronic tongue used potentiometric chemical sensors. An array comprised sensors with plasticized PVC membranes with cross-sensitivity to inorganic and organic cations and anions, chalcogenide glass sensors, chloride-, potassium- and sodiumselective electrodes, and glass pH electrode. Automatic milking systems using newly developed sensors (NIR, SCC and LDH etc.) provide much faster and more effective results. Many

options to separation gate usage at automatic management systems.

biosensor search studies for mastitis diagnosis continue [40].

still basic requirements [32–36].

8 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

widespread [37].

Viguier et al. [40] reported that the current SCC and alternative methods for detection of mastitis. There are a lot of sensors which are used for good quality milk productions. Faster results have been achieved with the use of microchip technologies. In addition, with these technologies, you are ready to diagnose more successful mastitis with more effective tests and results with wider angle, more accurate results. All these each tests provide rapid mastitis detection. Milk conductivity and appearance of milk is used commonly on the farms. But other methods give another early mastitis detection for the fast and accurate decision for cure disease.

days of medication than calves in hutches [60] fed milk-replacer from buckets twice a day. Electronic Concentrate Feeding system ensures that each cow is supplied with the exact ration of feed at the exact right time. The Belt Feeder feed distributor is the ideal introduction to the concept of automatic feed supply systems. Small, flexible, economical – the combination of a conveyor belt and sliding scraper. Grothmann et al. [61] reported that the various technical approaches to automation. These are reported that the stationary systems such as conveyor belts and mobile systems such as self-propelled or rail guided feeder wagons. In addition to feeding system automation approaches, rumen activity sensors are very popular innovative techniques for cattle farmers to reduce metabolic disorders. When the sensitive cows exhibit increasing acidosis, this allows a farmer to adjust feeding to prevent major problems [62].

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 11

Many electronic sensors can be used for rumen pH and rumen temperature of cattle. Especially rumen bolus can work 100 days continuously and data stored every 15 minutes for future

The rumination activity is a good indicator of cattle health condition. A certain level of well being is a prerequisite for rumination [64] excitement and stress [65], states of anxiety [66] and various diseases [67, 68] inhibit rumination [69]. Another sensor used for collecting data for cow jaw movement to estimate chewing activity. This sensor works on the principle that the changing pressure of the animal is not detected during opening and closing

The big hazard for animal production is to disease outbreak. The disease can spread quickly in the confined conditions. Many diseases has specific signals for detection, animals to look for signs of stress, disease, and damage caused by many agents. They alert staff or, potentially, other systems to find the affected animals and identify them report to manger before the problem spreads. An animal disease has serious economic implications on farm productivity. Public institutions and private groups are working collectively to assist individuals in addressing society's stake in disease prevention and control [69]. The right time detects disease three to 5 days' sooner, reduce treatment costs, reduce mortality rates, improve production efficiency. The production, product quality, product composition, body condition, and behavior provide a good indication for the health status of animals. By closely monitoring normal pattern changes, the farmers ensure animal health status. Many firms provided programs developed and provided by data collection and analysis products for monitoring animal behavior for the best early detection system. To monitor the health conditions of each cow the sensors are mounted on the cow. Sensor networks consist of several tiny, low price devices and are logically self-organizing ad hoc systems. The role of the sensor network is monitoring the health parameters of animals, gather and convey the information to other sink nodes. Sensors that collect data such as temperature, pH, etc., receive a lot of data, so it is possible to transmit data at intervals. Many new sensor technologies that will be useful in animal

evaluation [63].

of the mouth.

**8. Health observation**

health and behavior are developed [70, 71].

A number of other methods using visible and other light spectra have shown promise in detecting milk abnormalities and measuring various components of milk [39]. **Table 1** summarized the technology of main sensors used for mastitis detection.

But De Mol and Ouweltjes [57] reported that the single and combined measures of 29,033 milkings to detect clinical mastitis and concluded that early warning is not reliable with sensors and software currently on the market. Lind et al. [58] reported that as of 2000 there were not yet sufficiently effective methods available to monitor characteristics of milk automatically so as to divert milk from unhealthy cows. Binda et al. [59] reported that many farmers were still reluctant to rely on electronic devices to monitor cow health status.

Automatic milking systems give many information about milk production, milking speed, milk acidity, milk conductivity etc. new sensor added some other new component such as milk progesterone level, milk temperature etc. But radio-frequency identification provide more possibilities for improving the reliability of collecting data.

## **7. Feeding automation**

Computer programmer designed many software for make best option for farmer to ration preparation. Optimal feeding programs can be done for advanced options such as live weight, racing, lactation period and animal feed stock information. These programs use data from the National Research Council in animal feed and feed content.

Various systems for automated animal feeding will be used in many big dairy farms to get better production. They will comprise complete systems include each stage of feeding, feed preparation, mixing equipment and the installations for distributing feed. Feed components such as grass and maize/corn silage as well as mineral feed and feed concentrate will be loaded, mixed and delivered to the feed table built up there by the systems. The Automation systems as simple consists of a control panel, a programmable command manager, a scale, a communication interface and finally all the needed equipment to organize the feeding process and feed provision to the animal of each age groups. Computer-controlled calf feeders have many advantages over traditional calf feeding methods. Calves carry a transponder, and it is possible to follow the daily intake of individual calves [39]. Calves learn to use the computer-controlled milk feeding system fairly easily and this the technology offers a significant reduction in labor cost (73%). These systems can be combined with automatic weighing and health observation system for calf welfare. Calves reared in a group-pen had fewer days of medication than calves in hutches [60] fed milk-replacer from buckets twice a day. Electronic Concentrate Feeding system ensures that each cow is supplied with the exact ration of feed at the exact right time. The Belt Feeder feed distributor is the ideal introduction to the concept of automatic feed supply systems. Small, flexible, economical – the combination of a conveyor belt and sliding scraper. Grothmann et al. [61] reported that the various technical approaches to automation. These are reported that the stationary systems such as conveyor belts and mobile systems such as self-propelled or rail guided feeder wagons. In addition to feeding system automation approaches, rumen activity sensors are very popular innovative techniques for cattle farmers to reduce metabolic disorders. When the sensitive cows exhibit increasing acidosis, this allows a farmer to adjust feeding to prevent major problems [62].

Many electronic sensors can be used for rumen pH and rumen temperature of cattle. Especially rumen bolus can work 100 days continuously and data stored every 15 minutes for future evaluation [63].

The rumination activity is a good indicator of cattle health condition. A certain level of well being is a prerequisite for rumination [64] excitement and stress [65], states of anxiety [66] and various diseases [67, 68] inhibit rumination [69]. Another sensor used for collecting data for cow jaw movement to estimate chewing activity. This sensor works on the principle that the changing pressure of the animal is not detected during opening and closing of the mouth.

## **8. Health observation**

Viguier et al. [40] reported that the current SCC and alternative methods for detection of mastitis. There are a lot of sensors which are used for good quality milk productions. Faster results have been achieved with the use of microchip technologies. In addition, with these technologies, you are ready to diagnose more successful mastitis with more effective tests and results with wider angle, more accurate results. All these each tests provide rapid mastitis detection. Milk conductivity and appearance of milk is used commonly on the farms. But other methods give another early mastitis detection for the fast and accurate decision for cure disease.

A number of other methods using visible and other light spectra have shown promise in detecting milk abnormalities and measuring various components of milk [39]. **Table 1** sum-

But De Mol and Ouweltjes [57] reported that the single and combined measures of 29,033 milkings to detect clinical mastitis and concluded that early warning is not reliable with sensors and software currently on the market. Lind et al. [58] reported that as of 2000 there were not yet sufficiently effective methods available to monitor characteristics of milk automatically so as to divert milk from unhealthy cows. Binda et al. [59] reported that many farmers

Automatic milking systems give many information about milk production, milking speed, milk acidity, milk conductivity etc. new sensor added some other new component such as milk progesterone level, milk temperature etc. But radio-frequency identification provide

Computer programmer designed many software for make best option for farmer to ration preparation. Optimal feeding programs can be done for advanced options such as live weight, racing, lactation period and animal feed stock information. These programs use data from the

Various systems for automated animal feeding will be used in many big dairy farms to get better production. They will comprise complete systems include each stage of feeding, feed preparation, mixing equipment and the installations for distributing feed. Feed components such as grass and maize/corn silage as well as mineral feed and feed concentrate will be loaded, mixed and delivered to the feed table built up there by the systems. The Automation systems as simple consists of a control panel, a programmable command manager, a scale, a communication interface and finally all the needed equipment to organize the feeding process and feed provision to the animal of each age groups. Computer-controlled calf feeders have many advantages over traditional calf feeding methods. Calves carry a transponder, and it is possible to follow the daily intake of individual calves [39]. Calves learn to use the computer-controlled milk feeding system fairly easily and this the technology offers a significant reduction in labor cost (73%). These systems can be combined with automatic weighing and health observation system for calf welfare. Calves reared in a group-pen had fewer

marized the technology of main sensors used for mastitis detection.

more possibilities for improving the reliability of collecting data.

National Research Council in animal feed and feed content.

**7. Feeding automation**

10 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

were still reluctant to rely on electronic devices to monitor cow health status.

The big hazard for animal production is to disease outbreak. The disease can spread quickly in the confined conditions. Many diseases has specific signals for detection, animals to look for signs of stress, disease, and damage caused by many agents. They alert staff or, potentially, other systems to find the affected animals and identify them report to manger before the problem spreads. An animal disease has serious economic implications on farm productivity. Public institutions and private groups are working collectively to assist individuals in addressing society's stake in disease prevention and control [69]. The right time detects disease three to 5 days' sooner, reduce treatment costs, reduce mortality rates, improve production efficiency. The production, product quality, product composition, body condition, and behavior provide a good indication for the health status of animals. By closely monitoring normal pattern changes, the farmers ensure animal health status. Many firms provided programs developed and provided by data collection and analysis products for monitoring animal behavior for the best early detection system. To monitor the health conditions of each cow the sensors are mounted on the cow. Sensor networks consist of several tiny, low price devices and are logically self-organizing ad hoc systems. The role of the sensor network is monitoring the health parameters of animals, gather and convey the information to other sink nodes. Sensors that collect data such as temperature, pH, etc., receive a lot of data, so it is possible to transmit data at intervals. Many new sensor technologies that will be useful in animal health and behavior are developed [70, 71].

Another sensor usage results of an experiment in which a temperature sensor built into a bolus were placed in the rumen of a cow [68, 72, 73]. On-farm scoring of behavioral indicators of animal welfare is challenging but the increasing availability of low cost technology now makes automated monitoring of animal behavior feasible. Furthermore, behavioral measures, such as the occurrence of aggression or stereotypic behavior, are important indicators of welfare problems. Including behavioral-based welfare criteria is, therefore, essential for an overall welfare assessment.

activity data. After analyzing data programs prepare report for cow which is activity accepted as estrus. Beeper or flashing light is also use for alerts the farmer for control this cows [79].

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 13

Pedometers also used for estrus detection attached to the leg of the cow to measure the amount

Many pedometric systems are commercially available in the market. Also standing activity systems is commercially available in the markets. Standing activity activated by the mounting cow. Radio signal picked up by receiver and relayed to a buffer and a personal computer to analyzing of data. This system record cows number, standing time, date and duration to

Chung et al. [86] reported that voice identification processing can be used to detect estrus both economically (simple microphone) and accurately (over 94% accuracy), either as a stand alone solution. The Mount Count manual version of the Heat Watch system is also available in the markets at more low price which is not required a computer or software to process and display the data. One aid is a pressure sensitive device mounted on the back of each cow, which can be triggered when the cow stands for mounting. Pressure sensitive device is programmed when a certain number of valid mounts have been recorded a light give signals. The second one is effective aids for detecting standing estrus is a marker or teaser animal. Marker animals are worn marking device. When an animal in standing estrus is mounted by the marker animal, the chin-ball marker will rub against the animal in standing estrus, leaving marks on her back and rump. Mounting and standing activity are effective methods for estrus detection. There are many other methods available on the system such as cervical mucus, vaginal characteristics, temperature, blood flow, and hormone changes in blood and milk. But these methods not applicable on the farm level. Milk progesterone level is o good criteria for stage of the cycle or pregnancy. So it can be used for

The behavior meter continuously records the animal behavior for many purposes (lying time, lying bouts and the activity of the individual cows). The cow-behavior enables animal welfare assessment in different environmental conditions and stress situations, as well as reproduc-

Pregnancy check: Pregnancy diagnosis is one of the most important factors to get ideal calving interval. The most common methods are rectal and transrectal ultrasonography of the reproductive tract. Both procedures are required training and time. An experienced practitioner using ultrasound can reliably diagnose pregnancy from 30 days gestation whilst an experienced veterinary is able to diagnose pregnancy from 35 days. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA) or latex agglutination (LA) tests use either blood or milk to detect a marker of pregnancy. Estrone sulfate, progesterone and glycoproteins are used for indicators of pregnancy in cattle [8, 88, 90]. Estrone sulfate is a conjugated steroid product of estrone, is produced by the fetus and as such offer high specificity. The negative part of this test is to high rate of false negatives and the inability of the test to reliably diagnose pregnancies before 100 days of gestation [88], progesterone [89]. Wireless system

of her activity over a unit time span.

diagnose problem cows in herd [87].

tive and health status [28].

evaluation on time [79].

## **9. Reproductive performances**

Estrus detection technology; Average calving interval in cattle farm is the best criteria for comparisons for reproductive performances of the farms which is varying between 13 and 18 months [60, 74], heat detection efficiency vary between 30 and 50% in most dairy herds [69, 75]. Research results showed that the 5–30% of the cows were not in or near oestrus when inseminated [76, 77]. Results of oestrus detection varied depending on the many factor such as threshold value, cow number, barn style, and the statistical method for data analysis. The detection error rates between 17 and 55% and indicate a large number of false warnings [78]. As a result of satisfying oestrus detection and conception rates, purchase and maintenance costs of the oestrus detection system should charge off. A number of both inexpensive to expensive aids and technologies are available to meet some but not all of these criteria [79]. Traditionally, oestrus detection is performed by visual observation of the dairy herd in many countries but this procedure particularly difficult on large dairy farms [80] because of short observation periods during feeding and milking. Galiç et al. [81] reported that the effect of herd size on milk yield, calving age, lactation number, and calving interval is significantly important (P < 0.01) and small farms are generally more successful than large farms. Mean duration of oestrus was calculated by Schofield et al. [82] as 13.5 h with a standard deviation of 2.3 h. [83, 84]. As a result of technical progress in monitoring cows using computers, automatic oestrus detection has become possible. In many studies, different traits have been analyzed for utilization in automatic oestrus detection. The electronic systems are an electronic device that detects cows that stand to be mounted by a herd mate and provides a continuous monitoring of activity [85], radiotelemetry is a computerized estrus detection devices. Also patches give another possibilities using mounting activity of cows. I a cow mount another cow then he transmitter is depressed and a signal sent to a receiver. During this time, date, time and duration of the mount stored and send to the main computer. On computer all these data evaluated and prepared for final decision.

Although costs associated with computerized estrous detection are higher than other methods, the benefits may pay off with increased estrous detection accuracy. Estrus detection errors can result huge economic loses for dairy farms. The economic loses vary \$2–\$6/day for dairy farms. But missing 1 cycle cost \$42 to \$126 for a cow. Using detection aids provide advantages because of the prevention of these losses [85]. Pedometers are used to detect the estrus by storing past physical activity the current physical activity and comparing it previous activity data. After analyzing data programs prepare report for cow which is activity accepted as estrus. Beeper or flashing light is also use for alerts the farmer for control this cows [79].

Another sensor usage results of an experiment in which a temperature sensor built into a bolus were placed in the rumen of a cow [68, 72, 73]. On-farm scoring of behavioral indicators of animal welfare is challenging but the increasing availability of low cost technology now makes automated monitoring of animal behavior feasible. Furthermore, behavioral measures, such as the occurrence of aggression or stereotypic behavior, are important indicators of welfare problems. Including behavioral-based welfare criteria is, therefore, essential for an

Estrus detection technology; Average calving interval in cattle farm is the best criteria for comparisons for reproductive performances of the farms which is varying between 13 and 18 months [60, 74], heat detection efficiency vary between 30 and 50% in most dairy herds [69, 75]. Research results showed that the 5–30% of the cows were not in or near oestrus when inseminated [76, 77]. Results of oestrus detection varied depending on the many factor such as threshold value, cow number, barn style, and the statistical method for data analysis. The detection error rates between 17 and 55% and indicate a large number of false warnings [78]. As a result of satisfying oestrus detection and conception rates, purchase and maintenance costs of the oestrus detection system should charge off. A number of both inexpensive to expensive aids and technologies are available to meet some but not all of these criteria [79]. Traditionally, oestrus detection is performed by visual observation of the dairy herd in many countries but this procedure particularly difficult on large dairy farms [80] because of short observation periods during feeding and milking. Galiç et al. [81] reported that the effect of herd size on milk yield, calving age, lactation number, and calving interval is significantly important (P < 0.01) and small farms are generally more successful than large farms. Mean duration of oestrus was calculated by Schofield et al. [82] as 13.5 h with a standard deviation of 2.3 h. [83, 84]. As a result of technical progress in monitoring cows using computers, automatic oestrus detection has become possible. In many studies, different traits have been analyzed for utilization in automatic oestrus detection. The electronic systems are an electronic device that detects cows that stand to be mounted by a herd mate and provides a continuous monitoring of activity [85], radiotelemetry is a computerized estrus detection devices. Also patches give another possibilities using mounting activity of cows. I a cow mount another cow then he transmitter is depressed and a signal sent to a receiver. During this time, date, time and duration of the mount stored and send to the main computer. On computer all these

Although costs associated with computerized estrous detection are higher than other methods, the benefits may pay off with increased estrous detection accuracy. Estrus detection errors can result huge economic loses for dairy farms. The economic loses vary \$2–\$6/day for dairy farms. But missing 1 cycle cost \$42 to \$126 for a cow. Using detection aids provide advantages because of the prevention of these losses [85]. Pedometers are used to detect the estrus by storing past physical activity the current physical activity and comparing it previous

overall welfare assessment.

12 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

**9. Reproductive performances**

data evaluated and prepared for final decision.

Pedometers also used for estrus detection attached to the leg of the cow to measure the amount of her activity over a unit time span.

Many pedometric systems are commercially available in the market. Also standing activity systems is commercially available in the markets. Standing activity activated by the mounting cow. Radio signal picked up by receiver and relayed to a buffer and a personal computer to analyzing of data. This system record cows number, standing time, date and duration to evaluation on time [79].

Chung et al. [86] reported that voice identification processing can be used to detect estrus both economically (simple microphone) and accurately (over 94% accuracy), either as a stand alone solution. The Mount Count manual version of the Heat Watch system is also available in the markets at more low price which is not required a computer or software to process and display the data. One aid is a pressure sensitive device mounted on the back of each cow, which can be triggered when the cow stands for mounting. Pressure sensitive device is programmed when a certain number of valid mounts have been recorded a light give signals. The second one is effective aids for detecting standing estrus is a marker or teaser animal. Marker animals are worn marking device. When an animal in standing estrus is mounted by the marker animal, the chin-ball marker will rub against the animal in standing estrus, leaving marks on her back and rump. Mounting and standing activity are effective methods for estrus detection. There are many other methods available on the system such as cervical mucus, vaginal characteristics, temperature, blood flow, and hormone changes in blood and milk. But these methods not applicable on the farm level. Milk progesterone level is o good criteria for stage of the cycle or pregnancy. So it can be used for diagnose problem cows in herd [87].

The behavior meter continuously records the animal behavior for many purposes (lying time, lying bouts and the activity of the individual cows). The cow-behavior enables animal welfare assessment in different environmental conditions and stress situations, as well as reproductive and health status [28].

Pregnancy check: Pregnancy diagnosis is one of the most important factors to get ideal calving interval. The most common methods are rectal and transrectal ultrasonography of the reproductive tract. Both procedures are required training and time. An experienced practitioner using ultrasound can reliably diagnose pregnancy from 30 days gestation whilst an experienced veterinary is able to diagnose pregnancy from 35 days. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA) or latex agglutination (LA) tests use either blood or milk to detect a marker of pregnancy. Estrone sulfate, progesterone and glycoproteins are used for indicators of pregnancy in cattle [8, 88, 90]. Estrone sulfate is a conjugated steroid product of estrone, is produced by the fetus and as such offer high specificity. The negative part of this test is to high rate of false negatives and the inability of the test to reliably diagnose pregnancies before 100 days of gestation [88], progesterone [89]. Wireless system was designed to measure many characteristics of cows is also developed to detect early stage of pregnancy in multiple cows.

anytime for more productive animal production. Environmental sensors and other control facilities of the barn is first component of the barn automation. Secondly computerize system for monitoring and controlling for barn environment. And thirdly supports the com-

The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72501 15

The industrial revolution has made a radical change in the production method and systems throughout the world. The net result has been the more comfortable animal, higher production, and decreased labor. The rapid penetration of these new age technologies will provide a further layer of sophistication of farm work and new strategies in animal production. Some of the technologies are already available on the market for framers but most are at the research stage in labs for new applications. Each new technology can enable productivity, growth and other benefits at farm level for animal and farmers as well as at the level of the country where productivity acceleration is sorely needed. Within countries, technology potential will be affected by their sector, and these activities will be affected within sectors. Although some of these technologies are already available, most are at the research stage in labs. Taking all of the factors into account, someone estimate it will take times for technology effect on current farm activities. Animal farming is to big market for technologic applications for more convenient production. While most of the farmers are reliant on new technologic applications to improve their productivity and competitiveness, technology plays a major role in achieving many critical tasks in many animal farms. In today's dynamic competitive market, it does not matter where they operate and where they operate for farmers that the use of technology is not an

[1] Thornton PK. Livestock production: Recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences. 2010;**365**(1554):2853-2867. DOI:

[2] Ipema AH, Holster HC, Hogewerf PH, Bleumer EJB. Towards an Open Development

Environment for Recording and Analysis of Dairy Farm Data

munication between this two component.

option is a solution for their problems.

Serap Göncü\* and Cahit Güngör

10.1098/rstb.2010.0134

\*Address all correspondence to: sgoncu@cu.edu.tr

Agriculture Faculty, Çukurova Üniversity, Adana, Turkey

**Author details**

**References**

**11. Conclusions**

## **10. Barn environment control**

Animal production starts at environment which is cow lived in. Many factors affect the sensitivity of cows to their surrounding environmental conditions. Latest technologies involve the use of sensors to collect data, followed by data analyses with the objective of enhancing the understanding of the system interactions, and developing control systems [91]. Latest technologies aim to provide adequate data for producers and farmers to optimize the efficiency of their agricultural system, thus increasing the overall performance of the animals. There are many sensors for use at dairy barn environment control automation. Temperature and relative humidity sensors; airspeed sensors, carbon dioxide sensors, ammonia sensors and light sensors etc. When ambient temperature gets warmer than 25°C cow begins use their energies to cool themselves down rather than to produce milk. The effects of heat stress on dairy cattle physiology and productivity have been well established. Milk yield can decrease by about 10 percent. At the same time, if the environmental factors for example air quality are poor, milk production and quality can be affected adversely. However high producing dairy cows need an optimal indoor climate throughout the year, to maintain high production levels. Barn environment is also important for the farm worker. While the thermoneutral zone for cattle ranges from −5 to 25°C [91]; the thermoneutral zone for people is shifted to higher air temperature ranges. Modern technology also helps to control barn environment which is many sensor installations to measure factors such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and luminosity over a large cultivated surface. These sensor and automation systems planned as a capable of recording and adapting to environmental conditions inside the barn. The variety of sensors monitors a wide-ranging range of parameters of interest. Automation systems not only can automate for temperature, but also have wind and rain sensors. The wind sensors feed wind speed data into the controller, which then adjusts curtain height to compensate for higher air transfer rates. The rain sensor can be programmed to close the curtain to a predetermined height when it rains to keep moisture off cows and stalls. Cows likes bright environments. For this reason, equal illumination in barn improves milk yield. This is especially important during short winter days. For this reason the right kind of illumination planning, dimensioned to the size of barn, orientation of barn and roof material is very important for good illumination in barn.

Lighting is the most obvious change with the shift to automatize barn. Digitally controlled LEDs can extend the day, supplementing sun in autumn and winter. LEDs use less energy than traditional lamps, making artificial lighting economical. The availability of specialist barn luminaires makes it possible to tune the color. New technology provided is a self-regulating, micro-climate controlled environment for optimal animal growth and production. New technologic tools can monitor nearly every aspect of animal barn indoor environment. Incorporating the environment-sensing capability of wireless sensor networks into mobile monitoring systems can provide convenient control of the barn microclimate anywhere, anytime for more productive animal production. Environmental sensors and other control facilities of the barn is first component of the barn automation. Secondly computerize system for monitoring and controlling for barn environment. And thirdly supports the communication between this two component.

## **11. Conclusions**

was designed to measure many characteristics of cows is also developed to detect early stage

Animal production starts at environment which is cow lived in. Many factors affect the sensitivity of cows to their surrounding environmental conditions. Latest technologies involve the use of sensors to collect data, followed by data analyses with the objective of enhancing the understanding of the system interactions, and developing control systems [91]. Latest technologies aim to provide adequate data for producers and farmers to optimize the efficiency of their agricultural system, thus increasing the overall performance of the animals. There are many sensors for use at dairy barn environment control automation. Temperature and relative humidity sensors; airspeed sensors, carbon dioxide sensors, ammonia sensors and light sensors etc. When ambient temperature gets warmer than 25°C cow begins use their energies to cool themselves down rather than to produce milk. The effects of heat stress on dairy cattle physiology and productivity have been well established. Milk yield can decrease by about 10 percent. At the same time, if the environmental factors for example air quality are poor, milk production and quality can be affected adversely. However high producing dairy cows need an optimal indoor climate throughout the year, to maintain high production levels. Barn environment is also important for the farm worker. While the thermoneutral zone for cattle ranges from −5 to 25°C [91]; the thermoneutral zone for people is shifted to higher air temperature ranges. Modern technology also helps to control barn environment which is many sensor installations to measure factors such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and luminosity over a large cultivated surface. These sensor and automation systems planned as a capable of recording and adapting to environmental conditions inside the barn. The variety of sensors monitors a wide-ranging range of parameters of interest. Automation systems not only can automate for temperature, but also have wind and rain sensors. The wind sensors feed wind speed data into the controller, which then adjusts curtain height to compensate for higher air transfer rates. The rain sensor can be programmed to close the curtain to a predetermined height when it rains to keep moisture off cows and stalls. Cows likes bright environments. For this reason, equal illumination in barn improves milk yield. This is especially important during short winter days. For this reason the right kind of illumination planning, dimensioned to the size of barn, orientation of barn and roof material is very important for

Lighting is the most obvious change with the shift to automatize barn. Digitally controlled LEDs can extend the day, supplementing sun in autumn and winter. LEDs use less energy than traditional lamps, making artificial lighting economical. The availability of specialist barn luminaires makes it possible to tune the color. New technology provided is a self-regulating, micro-climate controlled environment for optimal animal growth and production. New technologic tools can monitor nearly every aspect of animal barn indoor environment. Incorporating the environment-sensing capability of wireless sensor networks into mobile monitoring systems can provide convenient control of the barn microclimate anywhere,

of pregnancy in multiple cows.

14 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

good illumination in barn.

**10. Barn environment control**

The industrial revolution has made a radical change in the production method and systems throughout the world. The net result has been the more comfortable animal, higher production, and decreased labor. The rapid penetration of these new age technologies will provide a further layer of sophistication of farm work and new strategies in animal production. Some of the technologies are already available on the market for framers but most are at the research stage in labs for new applications. Each new technology can enable productivity, growth and other benefits at farm level for animal and farmers as well as at the level of the country where productivity acceleration is sorely needed. Within countries, technology potential will be affected by their sector, and these activities will be affected within sectors. Although some of these technologies are already available, most are at the research stage in labs. Taking all of the factors into account, someone estimate it will take times for technology effect on current farm activities. Animal farming is to big market for technologic applications for more convenient production. While most of the farmers are reliant on new technologic applications to improve their productivity and competitiveness, technology plays a major role in achieving many critical tasks in many animal farms. In today's dynamic competitive market, it does not matter where they operate and where they operate for farmers that the use of technology is not an option is a solution for their problems.

## **Author details**

Serap Göncü\* and Cahit Güngör

\*Address all correspondence to: sgoncu@cu.edu.tr

Agriculture Faculty, Çukurova Üniversity, Adana, Turkey

## **References**


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R\_cPD7lRI-IJ:ars.sdstate.edu/facilities/ccu/-Beef\_2005-24\_Perry.pdf+Accuracy+ of+visual-+estrus+detection,+a+penile+deviated+bull+(20.02.2008)

**Chapter 2**

Provisional chapter

**Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72821

Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot

Existing knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity in a hot environment for housed pigs and poultry is reviewed and synthesized in an effective temperature (ET) equation. The suggested unit has an easily perceivable scale where ET is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50% and the air velocity

ture and humidity is similar to the way it is done in the Temperature Humidity Index. Several authors have suggested different Thermal Humidity Indices for different categories of animals, but this chapter found no evidence that the relative importance of temperature and humidity is different for pigs than for poultry or for large than small ones. The suggested ET equation includes a separate velocity term, which assumes that the chill effect is proportional to the air velocity or to the square root of the air velocity and that the chill effect declines linearly with increased air temperature until it becomes

insignificant as the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature.

Keywords: effective temperature, heat stress, thermal humidity index, air velocity,

Hot climate has a direct negative effect on productivity and animal welfare in livestock production. Addressing these negative consequences requires access to a variety of technical solutions that can influence one or more of the air physical parameters in the animal zone. The technical solutions involve approaches such as increased ventilation, air conditioning, air recirculation and insulation and may influence climate parameters such as air temperature, velocity, humidity, and conditions for radiation heat exchange. Optimal use of the available approaches presumes

> © The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

. The included method to determine the relative significance of air tempera-

Bjarne Bjerg, Guoqiang Zhang, Poul Pedersen and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Bjarne Bjerg, Guoqiang Zhang, Poul Pedersen

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72821

poultry and pig production

**Climate**

Climate

Svend Morsing

and Svend Morsing

Abstract

is 0.2 ms<sup>1</sup>

1. Introduction


Provisional chapter

## **Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot Climate** Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72821

Climate

R\_cPD7lRI-IJ:ars.sdstate.edu/facilities/ccu/-Beef\_2005-24\_Perry.pdf+Accuracy+

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S0007-1935(17)34584-0

[PubMed] [Cross Ref]

1999;**82**(Suppl. 2):10-20

2002;**30**:75-78

[Cross Ref]

Bjarne Bjerg, Guoqiang Zhang, Poul Pedersen and Svend Morsing Bjarne Bjerg, Guoqiang Zhang, Poul Pedersen

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter and Svend Morsing

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72821 Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

#### Abstract

Existing knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity in a hot environment for housed pigs and poultry is reviewed and synthesized in an effective temperature (ET) equation. The suggested unit has an easily perceivable scale where ET is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50% and the air velocity is 0.2 ms<sup>1</sup> . The included method to determine the relative significance of air temperature and humidity is similar to the way it is done in the Temperature Humidity Index. Several authors have suggested different Thermal Humidity Indices for different categories of animals, but this chapter found no evidence that the relative importance of temperature and humidity is different for pigs than for poultry or for large than small ones. The suggested ET equation includes a separate velocity term, which assumes that the chill effect is proportional to the air velocity or to the square root of the air velocity and that the chill effect declines linearly with increased air temperature until it becomes insignificant as the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature.

Keywords: effective temperature, heat stress, thermal humidity index, air velocity, poultry and pig production

#### 1. Introduction

Hot climate has a direct negative effect on productivity and animal welfare in livestock production. Addressing these negative consequences requires access to a variety of technical solutions that can influence one or more of the air physical parameters in the animal zone. The technical solutions involve approaches such as increased ventilation, air conditioning, air recirculation and insulation and may influence climate parameters such as air temperature, velocity, humidity, and conditions for radiation heat exchange. Optimal use of the available approaches presumes

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

knowledge on how the animals respond to changed thermal environment and how the different air physical parameters contribute to protect animals from heat stress.

Fifty years ago, Beckett [1] suggested an effective temperature (ET) for swine to express the combined influence of air temperature and humidity and defined the effective temperature to be equal to room temperature if the relative humidity was 50%. An air velocity of 0.2 m/s is often used as a reference level for draught-free condition, and therefore, we assess that it will be relatively easy to relate to an effective temperature (ET) that is equal to air temperature if the air velocity is equal to 0.2 m/s.

A long tradition exists for using a combination of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature to calculate indices expressing the combined effect of air temperature and air humidity [2]. These indices are given different names but can generally be written in the form of Eq. (1). The Temperature Humidity Index, THI (�C), is the most frequently used name for these indices when they are applied to farm animals, and numerous authors [3–9] have suggested the use of THI to express the relative significance of air temperature and humidity on heat stress among confined pigs and poultry

$$THI = at\_{db} + (1 - a)t\_{wb} \tag{1}$$

At a = 0.75, the constants b and f in Eq. (2) was calculated to be 0.042 and 0.70, respectively, and

Tao and Xin [9] developed a Temperature-Humidity-Velocity-Index (THVI) for market-size broilers based on measured body temperature increase for 90 min of exposure to 18 different heat-stress conditions. The conditions include three levels of air temperatures (35, 38, and 41�C), two levels of dew-point temperatures (19.4 and 26.1�C), and three levels of air velocities

The equation predicts the effect of an increased air velocity at an increased air temperature without considering the animal body temperature, and therefore it does not reflect that the convective chill effect of an increased air velocity must decline as air temperature approaches

Our preliminary examination of the data reported by Tao and Xin [9] indicated that it would be more adequate to assume a decreased influence of the air velocity when the air temperature approaches the animal body core temperature. This relationship prompted us to suggest an equation structure that treats the influence of the air velocity as an additional term to Eq. (2) as

where c is a constant that may depend on animal species, sizes, and animal density; d is the temperature where ET no longer can be reduced by increased air velocity (�C); e is a constant

In the study, the data presented by Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [12] indicate a linear influence of velocity corresponding to e = 1 in Eq. (6). An alternative assumption of a square-root relationship of velocity is supported by results reported by Uwagawa et al. [13] and by heat transfer theory where the Nusselts number is frequently assumed to be proportional to the square root of the Reynolds number [14]. The aim of this chapter is to review literature to identify data that can be used for parameter estimation and for validation of Eq. (6) and to uncover the limitations for the equations and the need for using different parameters for different species,

After the insertion of Eq. (1) in Eq. (2), ET(v = 0.2) can be calculated as

ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup> ¼ THI þ 0:042tdb þ 0:70 (3)

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ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup> ¼ 0:794tdb þ 0:25twb þ 0:70 (4)

THVI <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ <sup>0</sup>:85tdb <sup>þ</sup> <sup>0</sup>:15twb <sup>v</sup>�0:<sup>058</sup>ð Þ <sup>0</sup>:<sup>2</sup> <sup>≤</sup> <sup>v</sup> <sup>≥</sup> <sup>1</sup>:<sup>2</sup> (5)

ET <sup>¼</sup> ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup> � c dð Þ � tdb ve � <sup>0</sup>:2<sup>e</sup> ð Þ (6)

Eq. (2) can then be rewritten as

(0.2, 0.7, and 1.2 m/s).

where v is the air velocity, m/s.

the animal body temperature.

that controls the influence of velocity.

animal density, or body weights.

it appears in Eq. (6)

The authors defined THVI as shown in Eq. (5)

where a is the weighting of dry-bulb temperature; tdb is the dry-bulb temperature (�C); twb is the wet-bulb temperature (�C).

The sole difference between THI and the effective temperature [1] is that THI is equal to the air temperature if the relative humidity in air is equal to 100%, where the effective temperature is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50%. For certain value of a (in Eq. (1)), the effective temperature at the air velocity of 0.2 m/s ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup> � C with approximation can be calculated as THI plus a linear function of air temperature as it appears in Eq. (2)

$$ET\_{v=0.2} = THI + bt\_{db} + f \tag{2}$$

where b and f are constants depending on a in Eq. (1).

The general procedure used to determine the a-value in Eq. (1) is to expose animals to different combinations of air temperature and humidity and determine which a-value results in the best correlation between THI and measured response variables, which can be physiological parameters [3–9] or production parameters [10]. The resulting a-values differ from study to study, and if more response variables are included in the same study, the a-value may be different for the different response variables [4–6, 8]. Most frequently, reported a-values lie in the interval between 0.6 and 0.9, and normally it appears that the a-values have to differ considerably from the value that resulted in the best correlation before it significantly degrades the correlation between the parameters used and THI. From a practical point of view, it is naturally most convenient to use the same a-value for all of the categories of animals included, and therefore in this study we investigate to which extent the use of a common a-value agrees with reported studies. An initial review of reported studies led us to the assumption that 0.75 would be an appropriate level for a common a-value. In this study, we inquire the validity of using a common a-value of 0.75 by comparing the correlation coefficient at the a-value that best reflects data with the correlation coefficient at a = 0.75. At a = 0.75, the constants b and f in Eq. (2) was calculated to be 0.042 and 0.70, respectively, and Eq. (2) can then be rewritten as

$$ET\_{v=0.2} = THI + 0.042t\_{db} + 0.70\tag{3}$$

After the insertion of Eq. (1) in Eq. (2), ET(v = 0.2) can be calculated as

$$ET\_{v=0.2} = 0.794t\_{db} + 0.25t\_{wb} + 0.70 \tag{4}$$

Tao and Xin [9] developed a Temperature-Humidity-Velocity-Index (THVI) for market-size broilers based on measured body temperature increase for 90 min of exposure to 18 different heat-stress conditions. The conditions include three levels of air temperatures (35, 38, and 41�C), two levels of dew-point temperatures (19.4 and 26.1�C), and three levels of air velocities (0.2, 0.7, and 1.2 m/s).

The authors defined THVI as shown in Eq. (5)

$$THIV = (0.85t\_{db} + 0.15t\_{wb})v^{-0.058}(0.2 \le v \ge 1.2) \tag{5}$$

where v is the air velocity, m/s.

knowledge on how the animals respond to changed thermal environment and how the different

Fifty years ago, Beckett [1] suggested an effective temperature (ET) for swine to express the combined influence of air temperature and humidity and defined the effective temperature to be equal to room temperature if the relative humidity was 50%. An air velocity of 0.2 m/s is often used as a reference level for draught-free condition, and therefore, we assess that it will be relatively easy to relate to an effective temperature (ET) that is equal to air temperature if the

A long tradition exists for using a combination of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature to calculate indices expressing the combined effect of air temperature and air humidity [2]. These indices are given different names but can generally be written in the form of Eq. (1). The Temperature Humidity Index, THI (�C), is the most frequently used name for these indices when they are applied to farm animals, and numerous authors [3–9] have suggested the use of THI to express the relative significance of air temperature and humidity on heat stress among

where a is the weighting of dry-bulb temperature; tdb is the dry-bulb temperature (�C); twb is

The sole difference between THI and the effective temperature [1] is that THI is equal to the air temperature if the relative humidity in air is equal to 100%, where the effective temperature is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50%. For certain value of a (in Eq. (1)), the

The general procedure used to determine the a-value in Eq. (1) is to expose animals to different combinations of air temperature and humidity and determine which a-value results in the best correlation between THI and measured response variables, which can be physiological parameters [3–9] or production parameters [10]. The resulting a-values differ from study to study, and if more response variables are included in the same study, the a-value may be different for the different response variables [4–6, 8]. Most frequently, reported a-values lie in the interval between 0.6 and 0.9, and normally it appears that the a-values have to differ considerably from the value that resulted in the best correlation before it significantly degrades the correlation between the parameters used and THI. From a practical point of view, it is naturally most convenient to use the same a-value for all of the categories of animals included, and therefore in this study we investigate to which extent the use of a common a-value agrees with reported studies. An initial review of reported studies led us to the assumption that 0.75 would be an appropriate level for a common a-value. In this study, we inquire the validity of using a common a-value of 0.75 by comparing the correlation coefficient at the a-value that best reflects data with the correlation coefficient at a = 0.75.

calculated as THI plus a linear function of air temperature as it appears in Eq. (2)

THI ¼ atdb þ ð Þ 1 � a twb (1)

�

ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup> ¼ THI þ btdb þ f (2)

C with approximation can be

air physical parameters contribute to protect animals from heat stress.

air velocity is equal to 0.2 m/s.

24 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

confined pigs and poultry

the wet-bulb temperature (�C).

effective temperature at the air velocity of 0.2 m/s ETv¼0:<sup>2</sup>

where b and f are constants depending on a in Eq. (1).

The equation predicts the effect of an increased air velocity at an increased air temperature without considering the animal body temperature, and therefore it does not reflect that the convective chill effect of an increased air velocity must decline as air temperature approaches the animal body temperature.

Our preliminary examination of the data reported by Tao and Xin [9] indicated that it would be more adequate to assume a decreased influence of the air velocity when the air temperature approaches the animal body core temperature. This relationship prompted us to suggest an equation structure that treats the influence of the air velocity as an additional term to Eq. (2) as it appears in Eq. (6)

$$ET = ET\_{v=0.2} - c(d - t\_{db})(v^{\varepsilon} - 0.2^{\varepsilon}) \tag{6}$$

where c is a constant that may depend on animal species, sizes, and animal density; d is the temperature where ET no longer can be reduced by increased air velocity (�C); e is a constant that controls the influence of velocity.

In the study, the data presented by Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [12] indicate a linear influence of velocity corresponding to e = 1 in Eq. (6). An alternative assumption of a square-root relationship of velocity is supported by results reported by Uwagawa et al. [13] and by heat transfer theory where the Nusselts number is frequently assumed to be proportional to the square root of the Reynolds number [14]. The aim of this chapter is to review literature to identify data that can be used for parameter estimation and for validation of Eq. (6) and to uncover the limitations for the equations and the need for using different parameters for different species, animal density, or body weights.

## 2. Methods and results

The suggested effective temperature equation was developed from a review of published studies on how pigs and poultry react when exposed to various combinations of air temperature, humidity, and air velocity.

graph presented in their article indicates a very limited influence of "a" in the interval from 0.7 to 1.0. Purswell et al. [10] presented similar relationships. Their study concerned live performance of broilers maintained at three different dry-bulb temperatures (15, 21, and 27C) and three different relative humidities (50, 65, and 80% RH) from days 49 to 63 of age. The authors used regression analysis to demonstrate a quadratic relationship between THI and live performance parameters, where THI was based on a = 0.85. Successively, we used their reported data to determine the significance of varying the a-value in these analyses. The result was a very

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Egbunike [5] conducted a study using 68 Harco birds that were 10 months old at natural humid tropical environmental conditions. The daily dry and wet temperatures during the study period ranged from 25.4 to 33.3C and from 20.6 to 22.2C, respectively. The respiratory rates and rectal temperatures were measured at 2-h levels from 08:00 to 16:00. The correlation coefficients between measurements and Eq. (1) were calculated for each of eleven 0.1 interval of "a" between 0.0 and 1.0 in Eq. (1). The best agreement (correlation coefficient = 0.71) was found for respiratory rate at a = 0.6. The correlation coefficient would be reduced from 0.71 to 0.69 if "a" was increased from 0.6 to 0.75. For rectal temperature, the best agreement (correlation coefficient = 0.69) was found for a = 0.5, and using a = 0.75, the correlation coefficient was

Zulowich [6] measured 10 different physiological parameters (mainly related to respiration rate and rectal temperature) for laying hens individually exposed for 5 h to five different air temperatures (30, 32, 34, 36, and 38C) at two different relative air humidities (50 and 90% RH). The author used the measurement to calculate the correlation coefficient for the linear relationship between the physical parameters and THI at a-values between 0.1 and 0.9. The result showed that the highest correlation coefficient was at very different a-values for the included physiological parameters; however, the a-value had a limited influence on the correlation

Xin et al. [7] subjected 15–16-week-old turkeys to acute heat exposures of three different drybulb temperatures (32, 36, and 40C) and two different wet-bulb temperatures at each of the dry-bulb temperatures. The authors found a significant increase in the total heat production

Brown-Brandl et al. [8] determined the a-value in Eq. (1) for tom turkeys at 6, 10, 15, and 20 weeks of ages based on the measurement of four different physiological responses (body temperature, CO2 production, moisture production, and heart rate). Thirteen birds in each age group were individually exposed to temperatures between 23 and 40C in combination with relative humidities between 40 and 90%, and response surface methodology was applied to use fewer birds than a conventional design would demand. The resulting weighting of dry-

0.004 to 0.81. In addition, the result did not indicate any systematic influence of bird ages, and


with heat load which correlated best (r = 0.98) with THI at a = 0.74.

bulb temperature (a) was between 0.10 and 0.99 and the belonging R<sup>2</sup>

limited influence of a in the interval from a = 0.6 to 1.0.

2.1.3. Laying hens

reduced to 0.66.

coefficient.

2.1.4. Turkeys

#### 2.1. Combined effect of air temperature and air humidity

#### 2.1.1. Pigs

Beckett [1] based the "swine-effective temperature" on a partitional heat loss diagram for a 67-kg growing pig and presented a graph to illustrate the combined influences of air temperature and humidity. From the mentioned graph, we read the swine-effective temperature for nine combinations of air temperature (29.4, 32.2, and 35.0C) and relative humidities (25, 50, and 75%) and tested which a-value in Eq. (1) resulted in the best correlation between the effective temperature and Eq. (1). The best correlation was found for a = 0.88, and the correlation coefficient was as high as 0.995. Unfortunately, the author did not indicate how well heat loss data were reflected in the presented graphs.

Ingram [3] exposed four pigs aged 10–12 weeks to each of six different combinations of dryand wet-bulb temperatures (tdb, C/twb, C: 32/22, 32/27, 36/23, 36/32, 40/26, and 40/36) and measured the rectal temperature every 5 min for up to 70 min after the exposure began. The author plotted the results against an effective temperature equivalent to THI in Eq. (1) for a = 0.15, 0.35, and 0.65. The visual results were that the correlation was best in the graph where a = 0.65, but no correlation coefficients were mentioned. A comparison of the included three graphs indicates that an increase in the a-value from 0.65 to 0.75 would have only a limited influence on the correlation between the rectal temperature increase and THI.

Roller and Goldman [4] exposed 26 barrows weighing 76–119 kg to heat exposure for 3 h. Two pigs were tested at one of 13 combinations of dry-bulb temperatures (34.4–42.8C) and dewpoint temperatures (17.7–31.1C), and rectal temperature, respiration rate, pulse rate, and ambient temperatures (dry-bulb and wet-bulb) were measured. Data were examined to determine which relative influence of wet-bulb temperature (1-a) in Eq. (1) resulted in the best correlation with results. According to a graph presented by the authors, the best correlation coefficient (r = 0.88) was found when the rectal temperature increase after 3 h of heat exposure was used as the response variable, and this correlation coefficient was found at a-value of 0.68. Including the effect of respiration rate increase and the results after 2 h of exposure, the authors concluded that THI using a = 0.75 would be the most precise for a single indicator of thermal environment imposed.

#### 2.1.2. Broilers

As mentioned in Section 1, Tao and Xin [9] develop a Temperature-Humidity-Velocity-Index (THVI) based on body temperature increase at broilers exposed to warm conditions at different dew points and air velocities. The authors used Eq. (1) to state the relative significance of air temperature and humidity and found that a = 0.85 best represented their data. However, a graph presented in their article indicates a very limited influence of "a" in the interval from 0.7 to 1.0. Purswell et al. [10] presented similar relationships. Their study concerned live performance of broilers maintained at three different dry-bulb temperatures (15, 21, and 27C) and three different relative humidities (50, 65, and 80% RH) from days 49 to 63 of age. The authors used regression analysis to demonstrate a quadratic relationship between THI and live performance parameters, where THI was based on a = 0.85. Successively, we used their reported data to determine the significance of varying the a-value in these analyses. The result was a very limited influence of a in the interval from a = 0.6 to 1.0.

#### 2.1.3. Laying hens

2. Methods and results

26 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

ture, humidity, and air velocity.

2.1.1. Pigs

presented graphs.

environment imposed.

2.1.2. Broilers

2.1. Combined effect of air temperature and air humidity

The suggested effective temperature equation was developed from a review of published studies on how pigs and poultry react when exposed to various combinations of air tempera-

Beckett [1] based the "swine-effective temperature" on a partitional heat loss diagram for a 67-kg growing pig and presented a graph to illustrate the combined influences of air temperature and humidity. From the mentioned graph, we read the swine-effective temperature for nine combinations of air temperature (29.4, 32.2, and 35.0C) and relative humidities (25, 50, and 75%) and tested which a-value in Eq. (1) resulted in the best correlation between the effective temperature and Eq. (1). The best correlation was found for a = 0.88, and the correlation coefficient was as high as 0.995. Unfortunately, the author did not indicate how well heat loss data were reflected in the

Ingram [3] exposed four pigs aged 10–12 weeks to each of six different combinations of dryand wet-bulb temperatures (tdb, C/twb, C: 32/22, 32/27, 36/23, 36/32, 40/26, and 40/36) and measured the rectal temperature every 5 min for up to 70 min after the exposure began. The author plotted the results against an effective temperature equivalent to THI in Eq. (1) for a = 0.15, 0.35, and 0.65. The visual results were that the correlation was best in the graph where a = 0.65, but no correlation coefficients were mentioned. A comparison of the included three graphs indicates that an increase in the a-value from 0.65 to 0.75 would have only a limited

Roller and Goldman [4] exposed 26 barrows weighing 76–119 kg to heat exposure for 3 h. Two pigs were tested at one of 13 combinations of dry-bulb temperatures (34.4–42.8C) and dewpoint temperatures (17.7–31.1C), and rectal temperature, respiration rate, pulse rate, and ambient temperatures (dry-bulb and wet-bulb) were measured. Data were examined to determine which relative influence of wet-bulb temperature (1-a) in Eq. (1) resulted in the best correlation with results. According to a graph presented by the authors, the best correlation coefficient (r = 0.88) was found when the rectal temperature increase after 3 h of heat exposure was used as the response variable, and this correlation coefficient was found at a-value of 0.68. Including the effect of respiration rate increase and the results after 2 h of exposure, the authors concluded that THI using a = 0.75 would be the most precise for a single indicator of thermal

As mentioned in Section 1, Tao and Xin [9] develop a Temperature-Humidity-Velocity-Index (THVI) based on body temperature increase at broilers exposed to warm conditions at different dew points and air velocities. The authors used Eq. (1) to state the relative significance of air temperature and humidity and found that a = 0.85 best represented their data. However, a

influence on the correlation between the rectal temperature increase and THI.

Egbunike [5] conducted a study using 68 Harco birds that were 10 months old at natural humid tropical environmental conditions. The daily dry and wet temperatures during the study period ranged from 25.4 to 33.3C and from 20.6 to 22.2C, respectively. The respiratory rates and rectal temperatures were measured at 2-h levels from 08:00 to 16:00. The correlation coefficients between measurements and Eq. (1) were calculated for each of eleven 0.1 interval of "a" between 0.0 and 1.0 in Eq. (1). The best agreement (correlation coefficient = 0.71) was found for respiratory rate at a = 0.6. The correlation coefficient would be reduced from 0.71 to 0.69 if "a" was increased from 0.6 to 0.75. For rectal temperature, the best agreement (correlation coefficient = 0.69) was found for a = 0.5, and using a = 0.75, the correlation coefficient was reduced to 0.66.

Zulowich [6] measured 10 different physiological parameters (mainly related to respiration rate and rectal temperature) for laying hens individually exposed for 5 h to five different air temperatures (30, 32, 34, 36, and 38C) at two different relative air humidities (50 and 90% RH). The author used the measurement to calculate the correlation coefficient for the linear relationship between the physical parameters and THI at a-values between 0.1 and 0.9. The result showed that the highest correlation coefficient was at very different a-values for the included physiological parameters; however, the a-value had a limited influence on the correlation coefficient.

#### 2.1.4. Turkeys

Xin et al. [7] subjected 15–16-week-old turkeys to acute heat exposures of three different drybulb temperatures (32, 36, and 40C) and two different wet-bulb temperatures at each of the dry-bulb temperatures. The authors found a significant increase in the total heat production with heat load which correlated best (r = 0.98) with THI at a = 0.74.

Brown-Brandl et al. [8] determined the a-value in Eq. (1) for tom turkeys at 6, 10, 15, and 20 weeks of ages based on the measurement of four different physiological responses (body temperature, CO2 production, moisture production, and heart rate). Thirteen birds in each age group were individually exposed to temperatures between 23 and 40C in combination with relative humidities between 40 and 90%, and response surface methodology was applied to use fewer birds than a conventional design would demand. The resulting weighting of drybulb temperature (a) was between 0.10 and 0.99 and the belonging R<sup>2</sup> -values ranged from 0.004 to 0.81. In addition, the result did not indicate any systematic influence of bird ages, and the large difference between the values indicates that the results have a limited utility in the assessment of using a common a-value in Eq. (1).

dependency with velocity (e = 1 or 0.5). The best quadratic correlation (r-square value of 0.97)

Figure 1 compares the measured body temperature rise with prediction by the equation presented by Tao and Xin [9] (Eq. (5)) or by Eq. (7), at c = 0.7, d = 43�C, and e = 0.5. It shows that Eq. (7) significantly improves the agreement compared to Eq. (5), especially at high heat

As it appears from Figure 1, the body temperature for broilers exposed to the warmest conditions was elevated by approximately 4�C during the experiment which may explain why the parameter d (in Eq. (7)) is found to be a few degrees above the normal body temper-

In order to determine the maximum body temperature increase, Tao and Xin [9] continued the 18 treatments for at least 3 h or until at least one of the four broilers included in each treatment died. Circles in Figure 1 indicate treatments where at least one of the four birds died. Using Eq. (7), no animals died unless they were exposed to an ET above 35�C, and at least one of the

If the assumed dependence of velocity is changed from a square-root relationship (e = 0.5) to a linear relationship (e = 1), then the best reflection of the data presented by Tao and Xin [9] will be at c = 0.31 and d = 44�C, and the R-square value is reduced from 0.97 to 0.96. This small reduction indicates that an assumed linear relationship with velocity reflects the data almost as

Simmons et al. [11] measured heat loss from groups of broiler chickens subjected to various air speeds (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 m/s) and ambient temperatures (29, 32, and 35�C). The measurements

Figure 1. Comparison of measured and predicted body temperature rise for broilers exposed to 18 different combinations of dry-bulb temperature, dew-point temperature, and air velocity as a function of (a) THVI (Eq. (5)) and (b) ET (Eq. (7)).

four birds used in each treatment died if they were exposed to ET above 35�C.

ET <sup>¼</sup> <sup>0</sup>:794tdb <sup>þ</sup> <sup>0</sup>:25twb <sup>þ</sup> <sup>0</sup>:<sup>70</sup> � c dð Þ � tdb ve � <sup>0</sup>:2<sup>e</sup> ð Þ (7)

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was obtained at c = 0.7, d = 43�C, and e = 0.5

well as an assumed square-root relationship.

load.

ature for broilers.

#### 2.1.5. Overview over a-values and correlation coefficients

Table 1 shows an overview of cases where it was possible to state a-values that best reflected the used data and the correlation coefficient for how well the data were reflected at that a-value and at a = 0.75. The table is organized, so the investigations that resulted in the highest correlation coefficient are mentioned first, and the investigations where the correlation coefficient was below 0.6 are not included. It appears that the a-value that best reflected data was between 0.50 and 0.90 and that the correlation coefficient at a = 0.75 was nearly as high as for the a-value that reflected the data best.


Table 1. Overview of studies where it is possible to state the a-value (in Eq. (1)) that best reflects the used data and the correlation coefficient for how well the data are reflected at that a-value and at a = 0.75.

#### 2.2. Combined effect of air temperature, humidity and velocity

#### 2.2.1. Broilers

Tao and Xin [9] provided data on the average body temperature rise for the four broilers included in each of the 18 temperature treatments mentioned in Section 1. We used these 18 observations to determine which values for the parameters c and d in Eq. (7) resulted in the best agreement between predicted values and data assuming either a linear or a square-root dependency with velocity (e = 1 or 0.5). The best quadratic correlation (r-square value of 0.97) was obtained at c = 0.7, d = 43�C, and e = 0.5

the large difference between the values indicates that the results have a limited utility in the

Table 1 shows an overview of cases where it was possible to state a-values that best reflected the used data and the correlation coefficient for how well the data were reflected at that a-value and at a = 0.75. The table is organized, so the investigations that resulted in the highest correlation coefficient are mentioned first, and the investigations where the correlation coefficient was below 0.6 are not included. It appears that the a-value that best reflected data was between 0.50 and 0.90 and that the correlation coefficient at a = 0.75 was nearly as high as for

[Ref] Species Response variable a-Value Correlation coefficient

Body weight gain 0.80 0.97 (0.97) Feed conversion 0.75 0.90 (0.90)

Respiratory rate after 5 h heat exposure 0.85 0.79 (0.79) Time with heat exposure before rectal temperature reaches 44.5�C 0.70 0.73(0.73)

Body temperature increase at exposure to natural warm condition 0.50 0.69 (0.66)

Time for hen to reach her maximum respiratory rate at heat exp. 0.62 0.62 (0.61)

Table 1. Overview of studies where it is possible to state the a-value (in Eq. (1)) that best reflects the used data and the

[9] Broiler Body temperature increase after 1.5 h of heat exposure 0.85 0.99 (0.99) [7] Turkeys Total heat production after 3.5 h of heat exp. 0.74 0.98 (0.98) [10] Broilers Feed intake 0.90 0.98 (0.98)

[4] Pigs Rectal temp. increase after 3 h heat exposure 0.68 0.88 (0.86) [6] Hens Maximum rectal temp. after 5 h heat exp. 0.55 0.83 (0.83)

[4] Pigs Rectal temp. increase after 2 h of heat exp. 0.80 0.72 (0.71) [6] Hens Respiration rate increase at exposure to natural warm condition 0.60 0.71 (0.69)

[4] Pigs Respiration rate increase after 3 h heat exp. 0.70 0.63 (0.63) [6] Hens Number of times the resp. rate crossed 100 m�<sup>1</sup> at 5 h heat exp. 0.90 0.63 (0.63)

assessment of using a common a-value in Eq. (1).

28 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

the a-value that reflected the data best.

2.1.5. Overview over a-values and correlation coefficients

2.2. Combined effect of air temperature, humidity and velocity

correlation coefficient for how well the data are reflected at that a-value and at a = 0.75.

The figures in brackets show the correlation coefficient at a = 0.75.

Tao and Xin [9] provided data on the average body temperature rise for the four broilers included in each of the 18 temperature treatments mentioned in Section 1. We used these 18 observations to determine which values for the parameters c and d in Eq. (7) resulted in the best agreement between predicted values and data assuming either a linear or a square-root

2.2.1. Broilers

$$ET = 0.794t\_{db} + 0.25t\_{wb} + 0.70 - c(d - t\_{db})(\upsilon^\epsilon - 0.2^\epsilon) \tag{7}$$

Figure 1 compares the measured body temperature rise with prediction by the equation presented by Tao and Xin [9] (Eq. (5)) or by Eq. (7), at c = 0.7, d = 43�C, and e = 0.5. It shows that Eq. (7) significantly improves the agreement compared to Eq. (5), especially at high heat load.

As it appears from Figure 1, the body temperature for broilers exposed to the warmest conditions was elevated by approximately 4�C during the experiment which may explain why the parameter d (in Eq. (7)) is found to be a few degrees above the normal body temperature for broilers.

In order to determine the maximum body temperature increase, Tao and Xin [9] continued the 18 treatments for at least 3 h or until at least one of the four broilers included in each treatment died. Circles in Figure 1 indicate treatments where at least one of the four birds died. Using Eq. (7), no animals died unless they were exposed to an ET above 35�C, and at least one of the four birds used in each treatment died if they were exposed to ET above 35�C.

If the assumed dependence of velocity is changed from a square-root relationship (e = 0.5) to a linear relationship (e = 1), then the best reflection of the data presented by Tao and Xin [9] will be at c = 0.31 and d = 44�C, and the R-square value is reduced from 0.97 to 0.96. This small reduction indicates that an assumed linear relationship with velocity reflects the data almost as well as an assumed square-root relationship.

Figure 1. Comparison of measured and predicted body temperature rise for broilers exposed to 18 different combinations of dry-bulb temperature, dew-point temperature, and air velocity as a function of (a) THVI (Eq. (5)) and (b) ET (Eq. (7)).

Simmons et al. [11] measured heat loss from groups of broiler chickens subjected to various air speeds (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 m/s) and ambient temperatures (29, 32, and 35�C). The measurements were conducted in a wind tunnel where groups of either 500 five weeks old birds or 400 six weeks old birds, were exposed to each of the 15 treatments for 60 min including a 30-min period permitting the broilers to react to the air speed setting and a 30-min measurement period. The air velocity was measured in an unobstructed section at the exit of the wind tunnel. The sensible heat loss was measured as the heat increase across the bird section, and similarly, the latent heat estimation was based on the measured increase of air humidity across the bird section. The authors modeled the measured heat losses as a second-order polynomial of the air velocity for each ambient temperature level, each heat loss type (sensible and latent), and each bird age, and found R<sup>2</sup> -values of 0.73–0.96 for the agreements between data and the models. The estimated values generated by the models show a negative sensible heat loss at an ambient temperature of 35C at air velocities up to 2.5 m/s. This is an unlikely result because it would require that the surface temperature should have been below the ambient temperature and that disagree with Uwagawe et al. [13], that for laying hens and the same ambient temperature measured skin temperatures between 37.4 and 40.2C. The negative sensible heat loss at 35C found by Simmons et al. [11] may be due to evaporation of water from litter in the wind tunnel and consequently the underestimation of sensible heat loss and corresponding overestimation of latent heat loss. The estimated negative sensible heat loss at relatively low temperatures makes values predicted by the models unsuitable for estimations of the parameters in Eq. (7).

For both body weight gain and feed conversion ratio, Figure 2 indicates a tendency to a reduced influence of the air velocity at an increased air velocity for birds at 5 and 6 weeks of age, but this tendency is not seen for birds at 7 weeks. A possible explanation can be that the younger birds already are close to their optimal production condition at an air velocity of 2 m/s and therefore they will experience a minor benefit due to further increase in the air velocity.

Figure 2. Body weight gain and feed conversion ratio during weeks 5–7 for broilers maintained at different air velocities at air temperatures controlled between 25 and 30C in a 24-h sine curve and at a constant dew point of 23C (based on the

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Dozier et al. [17] used a more extreme diurnal cyclic air temperature of 25–35–25C (dew-point temperature still at 23C) and reported measured body weight gain and feed conversion rate

The results consistently show that a linear influence of the air velocity may be valid for flocks

Figure 3. Body weight gain and feed conversion ratio during weeks 5–7 for broilers maintained at different air velocities

at air temperatures controlled between 25 and 35C in a 24-h cycle and at a constant dew point of 23C [17].

In the absence of further data sets suitable for validation of Eq. (7), we tried to model the relative body weight gain reduction as a function of ET using data from different studies. This

during weeks 5–7 as shown in Figure 3.

data by Simmons et al. [11]).

of broilers at least up to an air velocity of 3 m/s.

The two studies of Yahav et al. [15, 16] report the growth performance for fast-growing male Cobb chickens raised for 4 weeks in battery brooders in a temperature-controlled room at 26C. From 5–7 weeks, the birds were housed in individual cages and subjected to air temperature of 35C and 60% relative humidity. Each trial included four groups of 60 birds exposed to different air velocities. The authors mentioned that the air velocities were maintained at 0.25 m/s, but did not provide further information on how the velocities were measured. Reported results show that both the body weight and feed intake increased with the air velocity until the air velocity reached 1.5 or 2 m/s; however, above 2 m/s both parameters decreased with the air velocity. Yahav et al. [16] also measured body temperature and found a significantly higher body temperature among the birds exposed to the air velocity of 3 m/s than among those exposed to 2 m/s. The authors suggested that the body water balance is the main reason for the deterioration in the bird performance at an increased air velocity and that broilers might be unable to drink sufficient amount of water under extreme hot conditions.

For individually kept chickens, these results indicate that the assumption of the influence of the air velocity used in Eq. (7) fails for the air velocity larger than 1.5 or 2.0 m/s. Yahav et al. [15] mentions that the bird density may play a role for the found influence of an increasing air velocity from 2 to 3 m/s. For animals kept in pens at higher density, "radiation and conductance among the birds may increase heat load, and the high density may prevent ventilation of unfeathered areas such as the shanks, which are major structures for sensible heat loss, and thus efficient convection may be prevented" [15].

Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [12, 17] measured the growth performance of male broiler chickens kept in flocks of 53 birds at a diurnal temperature cycle. Simmons et al. [11] exposed the birds to air temperatures of 25–30–25C over 24 h (sine curve) with dew point maintained at a constant temperature of 23C at different air velocities. The reported results for the birds from the 5th to the 7th week of life are reproduced in Figure 2.

were conducted in a wind tunnel where groups of either 500 five weeks old birds or 400 six weeks old birds, were exposed to each of the 15 treatments for 60 min including a 30-min period permitting the broilers to react to the air speed setting and a 30-min measurement period. The air velocity was measured in an unobstructed section at the exit of the wind tunnel. The sensible heat loss was measured as the heat increase across the bird section, and similarly, the latent heat estimation was based on the measured increase of air humidity across the bird section. The authors modeled the measured heat losses as a second-order polynomial of the air velocity for each ambient temperature level, each heat loss type (sensible and latent), and each bird age, and


values generated by the models show a negative sensible heat loss at an ambient temperature of 35C at air velocities up to 2.5 m/s. This is an unlikely result because it would require that the surface temperature should have been below the ambient temperature and that disagree with Uwagawe et al. [13], that for laying hens and the same ambient temperature measured skin temperatures between 37.4 and 40.2C. The negative sensible heat loss at 35C found by Simmons et al. [11] may be due to evaporation of water from litter in the wind tunnel and consequently the underestimation of sensible heat loss and corresponding overestimation of latent heat loss. The estimated negative sensible heat loss at relatively low temperatures makes

values predicted by the models unsuitable for estimations of the parameters in Eq. (7).

The two studies of Yahav et al. [15, 16] report the growth performance for fast-growing male Cobb chickens raised for 4 weeks in battery brooders in a temperature-controlled room at 26C. From 5–7 weeks, the birds were housed in individual cages and subjected to air temperature of 35C and 60% relative humidity. Each trial included four groups of 60 birds exposed to different air velocities. The authors mentioned that the air velocities were maintained at 0.25 m/s, but did not provide further information on how the velocities were measured. Reported results show that both the body weight and feed intake increased with the air velocity until the air velocity reached 1.5 or 2 m/s; however, above 2 m/s both parameters decreased with the air velocity. Yahav et al. [16] also measured body temperature and found a significantly higher body temperature among the birds exposed to the air velocity of 3 m/s than among those exposed to 2 m/s. The authors suggested that the body water balance is the main reason for the deterioration in the bird performance at an increased air velocity and that broilers might be unable to drink sufficient amount of water under extreme hot conditions.

For individually kept chickens, these results indicate that the assumption of the influence of the air velocity used in Eq. (7) fails for the air velocity larger than 1.5 or 2.0 m/s. Yahav et al. [15] mentions that the bird density may play a role for the found influence of an increasing air velocity from 2 to 3 m/s. For animals kept in pens at higher density, "radiation and conductance among the birds may increase heat load, and the high density may prevent ventilation of unfeathered areas such as the shanks, which are major structures for sensible heat loss, and

Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [12, 17] measured the growth performance of male broiler chickens kept in flocks of 53 birds at a diurnal temperature cycle. Simmons et al. [11] exposed the birds to air temperatures of 25–30–25C over 24 h (sine curve) with dew point maintained at a constant temperature of 23C at different air velocities. The reported results for the birds

thus efficient convection may be prevented" [15].

from the 5th to the 7th week of life are reproduced in Figure 2.

found R<sup>2</sup>

30 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

Figure 2. Body weight gain and feed conversion ratio during weeks 5–7 for broilers maintained at different air velocities at air temperatures controlled between 25 and 30C in a 24-h sine curve and at a constant dew point of 23C (based on the data by Simmons et al. [11]).

For both body weight gain and feed conversion ratio, Figure 2 indicates a tendency to a reduced influence of the air velocity at an increased air velocity for birds at 5 and 6 weeks of age, but this tendency is not seen for birds at 7 weeks. A possible explanation can be that the younger birds already are close to their optimal production condition at an air velocity of 2 m/s and therefore they will experience a minor benefit due to further increase in the air velocity.

Dozier et al. [17] used a more extreme diurnal cyclic air temperature of 25–35–25C (dew-point temperature still at 23C) and reported measured body weight gain and feed conversion rate during weeks 5–7 as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Body weight gain and feed conversion ratio during weeks 5–7 for broilers maintained at different air velocities at air temperatures controlled between 25 and 35C in a 24-h cycle and at a constant dew point of 23C [17].

The results consistently show that a linear influence of the air velocity may be valid for flocks of broilers at least up to an air velocity of 3 m/s.

In the absence of further data sets suitable for validation of Eq. (7), we tried to model the relative body weight gain reduction as a function of ET using data from different studies. This includes measurements in groups maintained at different air velocities and the same air temperature or maintained at different temperatures and the same air velocity. In that effort, we defined the relative body weight gain reduction (RBWR, % �C�<sup>1</sup> ) at a certain ET (�C) as

$$\text{RBWR} = \frac{\left(\text{BWG}\_{\text{Low\\_ET}} - \text{BWG}\_{\text{High\\_ET}}\right) \times 100}{0.5 \left(\text{BWG}\_{\text{Low\\_ET}} + \text{BWG}\_{\text{High\\_ET}}\right) 0.5 \left(\text{Low\\_ET} + \text{High\\_ET}\right)} \tag{8}$$

for the two parameters, and therefore, we assessed that both assumptions would be acceptable and decided to use the relative humidity of 50%, for the data presented by Howlider and Rose [18]. The authors provided separate weight gain data for male and female chickens, and it shows that males grew 20% faster than females, but a temperature increase from 17 to 29C reduced the weight gain by 15% for both genders. This similar effect of increased temperature justifies that

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The study by Plavnik and Yahav [19] included four groups of six male Cobb chickens exposed to each of four different temperature treatments during 6–8 weeks of age. The temperature treatment included three constant temperature levels (25, 30, and 35C) and one treatment where the chickens were exposed to a diurnal cyclic temperature of 12 h at 25C and 12 h at 35C. Compared with the cyclic temperature treatment, the body weight gain was increased to 63% at the constant 25C treatment and decreased to 6% at the constant 35C treatment. This indicates that the cyclic temperature treatment is comparable with a constant temperature that is only marginally lower than the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle. We utilized this relationship to assume that other studies involving cyclic temperatures [11, 12, 17] could be treated as studies where temperature was 1C below the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle.

Dozier et al. [12] measured the growth of male broilers exposed to either still air or air velocity of 2 m/s from 28 to 49 days of age at a 25:30C diurnal cyclic temperature conditions corresponding to those used by Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [17]. To investigate the significance of the abovementioned temperature assumption, we conducted additional calculations assuming temperatures either 0 or 2C below the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle. This calculation did not change the parameters that resulted in the best agreement, but using the same temperature as in the warmest period resulted in slightly better agreement. The articles that included different air velocities [11, 12, 17] do not provide detailed information on how the stated air velocities were measured, but apparently they are all conducted in the same wind tunnel facility and there is no indications of differences in velocity measure-

The same articles report weekly weight gain data showing that the influence of velocity increases with age. Therefore, it is a source of uncertainty that has been necessary to incorporate studies that include different age intervals as shown in Figure 4, but no measurements

If the assumed dependency of velocity is changed from a linear relationship (e = 1) to a squareroot relationship (e = 0.5), then the R-square value for the best agreement between RBWR and

Uwagawa et al. [13] measured the effect of the air velocity and temperature on skin temperatures (at comb, shank, and wattle) for 78-week-old laying hens exposed to different air temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35C) and different air velocities (0, 1, 2, and 4 m/s), but no information about the air humidity was provided. The birds were individually exposed to the environment for 1.5 h before a 30-min measure period. We used the average of reported skin temperatures measured at comp, shank, and wattle to determine the values of c and d in Eq. (7)

indicate that the relative influence of temperature and velocity is affected by age.

Figure 4 includes studies with both genders as well as studies with males only.

ment procedures between the three studies.

ET is reduced from 0.92 to 0.72.

2.2.2. Laying hens

where Low ET is the ET at the condition for measurement with low heat load (�C); High ET is the ET at the condition for measurement with high heat load (�C); BWGLow ET is the body weight gain at low ET (g day�<sup>1</sup> bird�<sup>1</sup> ); BWGHigh ET is the body weight gain at high ET (g day�<sup>1</sup> bird�<sup>1</sup> ).

In addition, we assumed that the calculated RBWR was valid for ET = 0.5 (Low ET + High ET) and calculated relations between ET and RBWR for different values of c and d in Eq. (7) assuming either a linear or a square-root relationship with velocity. The best agreement with a quadratic model was found for a linear relationship with velocity (e = 1) and c = 0.15, d = 41, see Figure 4.

Figure 4. Relative body weight gain reduction (RBWR) for flocks of 22–56-day-old broilers maintained at different ETs calculated by Eq. (7).

The figure includes data from two studies [18, 19] comparing the body weight gain for flocks of broilers exposed to different air temperature treatments at the same air velocity and three studies [11, 12, 17] comparing the body weight gain for flocks of broilers exposed to different air velocities at the same air temperature treatment.

The study conducted by Howlider and Rose [18] included broiler chickens kept in 12 pens of 40 birds at each of four constant temperature levels (17, 21, 25, and 29�C) in the period from 22 to 49 days of age. Unfortunately, the authors did not report air velocity and air humidity during the study period. To identify a possible assumption for humidity to calculate ET, we investigated how the parameters c and d depended on two widely different assumptions—either a relative humidity of 50% or a dew point of 10�C. The two assumptions resulted in nearly identical values for the two parameters, and therefore, we assessed that both assumptions would be acceptable and decided to use the relative humidity of 50%, for the data presented by Howlider and Rose [18]. The authors provided separate weight gain data for male and female chickens, and it shows that males grew 20% faster than females, but a temperature increase from 17 to 29C reduced the weight gain by 15% for both genders. This similar effect of increased temperature justifies that Figure 4 includes studies with both genders as well as studies with males only.

The study by Plavnik and Yahav [19] included four groups of six male Cobb chickens exposed to each of four different temperature treatments during 6–8 weeks of age. The temperature treatment included three constant temperature levels (25, 30, and 35C) and one treatment where the chickens were exposed to a diurnal cyclic temperature of 12 h at 25C and 12 h at 35C. Compared with the cyclic temperature treatment, the body weight gain was increased to 63% at the constant 25C treatment and decreased to 6% at the constant 35C treatment. This indicates that the cyclic temperature treatment is comparable with a constant temperature that is only marginally lower than the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle. We utilized this relationship to assume that other studies involving cyclic temperatures [11, 12, 17] could be treated as studies where temperature was 1C below the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle.

Dozier et al. [12] measured the growth of male broilers exposed to either still air or air velocity of 2 m/s from 28 to 49 days of age at a 25:30C diurnal cyclic temperature conditions corresponding to those used by Simmons et al. [11] and Dozier et al. [17]. To investigate the significance of the abovementioned temperature assumption, we conducted additional calculations assuming temperatures either 0 or 2C below the temperature in the warmest part of the cycle. This calculation did not change the parameters that resulted in the best agreement, but using the same temperature as in the warmest period resulted in slightly better agreement.

The articles that included different air velocities [11, 12, 17] do not provide detailed information on how the stated air velocities were measured, but apparently they are all conducted in the same wind tunnel facility and there is no indications of differences in velocity measurement procedures between the three studies.

The same articles report weekly weight gain data showing that the influence of velocity increases with age. Therefore, it is a source of uncertainty that has been necessary to incorporate studies that include different age intervals as shown in Figure 4, but no measurements indicate that the relative influence of temperature and velocity is affected by age.

If the assumed dependency of velocity is changed from a linear relationship (e = 1) to a squareroot relationship (e = 0.5), then the R-square value for the best agreement between RBWR and ET is reduced from 0.92 to 0.72.

#### 2.2.2. Laying hens

includes measurements in groups maintained at different air velocities and the same air temperature or maintained at different temperatures and the same air velocity. In that effort,

where Low ET is the ET at the condition for measurement with low heat load (�C); High ET is the ET at the condition for measurement with high heat load (�C); BWGLow ET is the body

In addition, we assumed that the calculated RBWR was valid for ET = 0.5 (Low ET + High ET) and calculated relations between ET and RBWR for different values of c and d in Eq. (7) assuming either a linear or a square-root relationship with velocity. The best agreement with a quadratic model was found for a linear relationship with velocity (e = 1) and c = 0.15, d = 41,

The figure includes data from two studies [18, 19] comparing the body weight gain for flocks of broilers exposed to different air temperature treatments at the same air velocity and three studies [11, 12, 17] comparing the body weight gain for flocks of broilers exposed to different

Figure 4. Relative body weight gain reduction (RBWR) for flocks of 22–56-day-old broilers maintained at different ETs

The study conducted by Howlider and Rose [18] included broiler chickens kept in 12 pens of 40 birds at each of four constant temperature levels (17, 21, 25, and 29�C) in the period from 22 to 49 days of age. Unfortunately, the authors did not report air velocity and air humidity during the study period. To identify a possible assumption for humidity to calculate ET, we investigated how the parameters c and d depended on two widely different assumptions—either a relative humidity of 50% or a dew point of 10�C. The two assumptions resulted in nearly identical values

air velocities at the same air temperature treatment.

� <sup>100</sup>

<sup>0</sup>:5ð Þ Low ET <sup>þ</sup> High ET (8)

); BWGHigh ET is the body weight gain at high ET (g

) at a certain ET (�C) as

we defined the relative body weight gain reduction (RBWR, % �C�<sup>1</sup>

weight gain at low ET (g day�<sup>1</sup> bird�<sup>1</sup>

).

32 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

day�<sup>1</sup> bird�<sup>1</sup>

see Figure 4.

calculated by Eq. (7).

RBWR <sup>¼</sup> BWGLow ET � BWGHigh ET

0:5 BWGLow ET þ BWGHigh ET

Uwagawa et al. [13] measured the effect of the air velocity and temperature on skin temperatures (at comb, shank, and wattle) for 78-week-old laying hens exposed to different air temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35C) and different air velocities (0, 1, 2, and 4 m/s), but no information about the air humidity was provided. The birds were individually exposed to the environment for 1.5 h before a 30-min measure period. We used the average of reported skin temperatures measured at comp, shank, and wattle to determine the values of c and d in Eq. (7) that resulted in the best quadratic relationship with ET assuming either a linear or a squareroot relationship with velocity. To investigate the significance of the lack of information on the air humidity, we made the calculation with two widely different assumptions, either that all measurements were conducted at 50% RH or that they all were conducted at dew-point temperature of 8C. The latter causes a decrease in relative humidity from 87 to 18% for the temperature increase from 10 to 35C. For both assumptions, the best correlation was found for a square-root relationship with velocity (r-square values of 0.99) at c = 0.15 and d = 44 (Figure 5).

the relative humidity or the dew point was assumed to be constant. For all three weight ranges, the best correlations were found for a square-root relationship with velocity (R<sup>2</sup> between 0.91 and 0.98) at c = 1.0 and d = 42) (Figure 6). A linear relationship with velocity resulted in the best agreement with measurements at c = 0.8 and d = 42 and the r-square value was between 0.89

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Massabie and Granier [22] measured production performance for finishing pigs kept in groups

Figure 6. Sensible heat loss for pigs at different ETs calculated by Eq. (7) assuming c = 1, d = 42�C, 50% RH, and a squareroot relationship with measurement. Data originate from mount and Ingram [20] and include exposure to different ambient temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35�C) at different air speeds (close to 0.08, 0.35, 0.60, and 1.00 m/s). The three

ceiling fans located above the partitions between each second pen generating downward air streams to increase the air velocity. The authors inform that the air velocity was increased from 0.56 to 1.3 ms�<sup>1</sup> during the growth period, but provides no information on how the air velocity was measured. A time-weighted average velocity of 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup> can be calculated from a step curve reported by the authors. Reported results illustrated in Figure 7 show that the ceiling fan increased the daily weight gain, but simultaneously it increased the feed conversion ratio.

The results presented in Figure 7 indicate that the negative influence of increased temperature on daily gain begins at approximately 20�C without the air velocity and at a higher temperature if the pigs are exposed to the air velocity. At 28�C, the effect of the air velocity (an increase

velocity. For the feed conversion ratio, the effect of velocity is equivalent to an approximately 3� lower temperature without the air velocity. These figures can be compared with the estimated influence of the air velocity on ET. Using Eq. (7) and assuming tdb = 28�C and twb = 23�C, we calculated that an increase of an air velocity from 0.2 to 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup> can reduce the ET by approximately 4�C if c = 0.42 and d = 39�C. This calculation was based on an assumed linear relationship with velocity, but since data included only two levels of velocity it is equally

/animal) at air temperatures of 20, 24, and 28�C, with and without

) is equivalent to an approximately 5�C lower temperature without the air

and 0.96 for the three weight ranges.

of six animals (0.67 m<sup>2</sup>

graphs represent different weight ranges.

from 0.2 to 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup>

Figure 5. Skin temperature at different ETs calculated by Eq. (7) assuming c = 0.15, d = 44C, and e = 0.5. Data originate from the study by Uwagawa et al. [13] and include exposure to different ambient temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35C) and different air velocities (0, 1, 2, and 4 m/s). The left-hand graph assumes a constant air humidity of 50% RH and the right-hand graph assumes a constant dew-point temperature of 8C.

If the assumed dependency of velocity is changed from a square-root relationship (e = 0.5) to a linear relationship (e = 1), then the R-square value for best reflection of the data presented by Uwagawe et al. [13] is reduced from 0.99 to 0.97.

#### 2.2.3. Pigs

Mount and Ingram [20] measured the effect of ambient temperature and air velocity on sensible heat loss from two pigs in each of three different weight ranges (3.4–5.8, 20–25, and 60–70 kg). The measurements were conducted with a heat flow disc [21] strapped to the dorsal thorax of the pigs, while they were individually kept in a cage with closed sides. Above the cage, a variable speed fan directed a stream of air vertically into the cage and the air speed was measured at 5–10 cm above the heat flow disc. Body temperatures, environmental temperatures, and heat loss were measured every 5 min, until four readings had indicated that a steady state had been reached. The measurements were conducted at air speed close to 0.08, 0.35, 0.60, and 1.00 m/s for each of five ambient temperatures (35, 30, 25, 20, and 15C). Unfortunately, the authors did not provide information about air humidity and, therefore, we also in this case investigated the significance of different humidity assumptions. As in the former case, the parameters c and d in Eq. (7) that best reflected the measurements were unaffected of whether

the relative humidity or the dew point was assumed to be constant. For all three weight ranges, the best correlations were found for a square-root relationship with velocity (R<sup>2</sup> between 0.91 and 0.98) at c = 1.0 and d = 42) (Figure 6). A linear relationship with velocity resulted in the best agreement with measurements at c = 0.8 and d = 42 and the r-square value was between 0.89 and 0.96 for the three weight ranges.

that resulted in the best quadratic relationship with ET assuming either a linear or a squareroot relationship with velocity. To investigate the significance of the lack of information on the air humidity, we made the calculation with two widely different assumptions, either that all measurements were conducted at 50% RH or that they all were conducted at dew-point temperature of 8C. The latter causes a decrease in relative humidity from 87 to 18% for the temperature increase from 10 to 35C. For both assumptions, the best correlation was found for a square-root relationship with velocity (r-square values of 0.99) at c = 0.15 and d = 44 (Figure 5).

If the assumed dependency of velocity is changed from a square-root relationship (e = 0.5) to a linear relationship (e = 1), then the R-square value for best reflection of the data presented by

Figure 5. Skin temperature at different ETs calculated by Eq. (7) assuming c = 0.15, d = 44C, and e = 0.5. Data originate from the study by Uwagawa et al. [13] and include exposure to different ambient temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35C) and different air velocities (0, 1, 2, and 4 m/s). The left-hand graph assumes a constant air humidity of 50% RH and

Mount and Ingram [20] measured the effect of ambient temperature and air velocity on sensible heat loss from two pigs in each of three different weight ranges (3.4–5.8, 20–25, and 60–70 kg). The measurements were conducted with a heat flow disc [21] strapped to the dorsal thorax of the pigs, while they were individually kept in a cage with closed sides. Above the cage, a variable speed fan directed a stream of air vertically into the cage and the air speed was measured at 5–10 cm above the heat flow disc. Body temperatures, environmental temperatures, and heat loss were measured every 5 min, until four readings had indicated that a steady state had been reached. The measurements were conducted at air speed close to 0.08, 0.35, 0.60, and 1.00 m/s for each of five ambient temperatures (35, 30, 25, 20, and 15C). Unfortunately, the authors did not provide information about air humidity and, therefore, we also in this case investigated the significance of different humidity assumptions. As in the former case, the parameters c and d in Eq. (7) that best reflected the measurements were unaffected of whether

Uwagawe et al. [13] is reduced from 0.99 to 0.97.

the right-hand graph assumes a constant dew-point temperature of 8C.

2.2.3. Pigs

34 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

Figure 6. Sensible heat loss for pigs at different ETs calculated by Eq. (7) assuming c = 1, d = 42�C, 50% RH, and a squareroot relationship with measurement. Data originate from mount and Ingram [20] and include exposure to different ambient temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35�C) at different air speeds (close to 0.08, 0.35, 0.60, and 1.00 m/s). The three graphs represent different weight ranges.

Massabie and Granier [22] measured production performance for finishing pigs kept in groups of six animals (0.67 m<sup>2</sup> /animal) at air temperatures of 20, 24, and 28�C, with and without ceiling fans located above the partitions between each second pen generating downward air streams to increase the air velocity. The authors inform that the air velocity was increased from 0.56 to 1.3 ms�<sup>1</sup> during the growth period, but provides no information on how the air velocity was measured. A time-weighted average velocity of 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup> can be calculated from a step curve reported by the authors. Reported results illustrated in Figure 7 show that the ceiling fan increased the daily weight gain, but simultaneously it increased the feed conversion ratio.

The results presented in Figure 7 indicate that the negative influence of increased temperature on daily gain begins at approximately 20�C without the air velocity and at a higher temperature if the pigs are exposed to the air velocity. At 28�C, the effect of the air velocity (an increase from 0.2 to 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup> ) is equivalent to an approximately 5�C lower temperature without the air velocity. For the feed conversion ratio, the effect of velocity is equivalent to an approximately 3� lower temperature without the air velocity. These figures can be compared with the estimated influence of the air velocity on ET. Using Eq. (7) and assuming tdb = 28�C and twb = 23�C, we calculated that an increase of an air velocity from 0.2 to 1.07 ms�<sup>1</sup> can reduce the ET by approximately 4�C if c = 0.42 and d = 39�C. This calculation was based on an assumed linear relationship with velocity, but since data included only two levels of velocity it is equally

pigs or poultry, for large or for small animals, for different animal density, or for mild or severe

Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot Climate

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37

The study by Tao and Xin [1] was the sole work found in this chapter that systematically investigated the combined influence of air temperature, air humidity, and air velocity. They proposed a THVI equation (Eq. 5) by extending the THI model with a correction factor (v0.058) to include the influence of the air velocity. Analyses in this chapter show that THVI overpredicts the influence of the air velocity if the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature. The data provided by Tao and Xin [1], however, support the assumption that the effect of increased velocity declines if the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature, which is the case in Eq. (7), and analyses in this study showed that the data provided by Tao

Unfortunately, the article on skin temperature in laying hens [13] and the article on sensible heat loss from pigs [20] provide no information on air humidity. However, analyses in this study showed that data from both Uwagawa et al. [13] and Mount and Ingram [20] correlated

For all three [9, 13, 20] a square-root relationship with velocity (e = 0.5) correlated slightly better with Eq. (7) than a linear relationship with velocity (e = 1). These studies all concern short-term

For broilers in flocks, other studies [11, 12, 18] indicate that it might be valid to assume a linear influence of the air velocity up to at least 3.0 m/s. The difference might be because the animals give shelter to each other and, therefore, reduce the effect of the air velocity. This hypothesis also explains why we found smaller influence of velocity (c = 0.15 instead of c = 0.31 at e = 1) in the analyses of body weight gain reduction for flocks of broilers. Provided that the velocity represents the velocity above the animals, the increase in animal density will increase the sheltering and consequently decrease the velocity among the animals, and an adjustment of

The study by Uwagawa et al. [13] on skin temperatures in laying hens indicated that Eq. (7) might be valid in a range of temperature of 10–35C and air velocity of 0.2–4 m/s. As it was the case for the data presented by Tao and Xin [9] and by Mount and Ingram [20], a square-root relationship with velocity reflected the data slightly better than a linear dependency, which supports the choice of the square-root dependency in the estimation of ET for individually kept animals.

Tao and Xin [9] exposed the animals to thermal condition that increased their body temperature with up to about 4C and that may explain why calculated parameter d was above the normal temperature for broilers. Correspondingly, the data by Uwagawa et al. [13] and by Mount and Ingram [20] included treatments with high temperatures and low air velocities that may have increased the animal body temperature and therefore explains why the parameter d also calculated from these data was above the normal temperature for the included animals. The data used for broilers in flock resulted in a d-value similar to the normal body temperature for broilers (40.6–43.0C [23]) which matches the milder thermal load the animals in the

the c-values appears to be an appropriate way to compensate for this relationship.

very well with Eq. (7) at widely different assumptions for the air humidity.

exposure of individual animals to different thermal environments.

heat load. We assess that an a-value of 0.75 is valid as a common applicable value.

and Xin [1] correlated remarkably well with Eq. (7).

included studies were exposed to.

Figure 7. Daily weight gain (left-hand graph) and feed conversion ratio (right-hand graph) for finishing pigs maintained at different air temperatures with and without a ceiling fan to increase the air velocity from 0.56 to 1.3 ms�<sup>1</sup> during the growth period (results reported by Massabie and Granier [22]).

relevant to assume a square-root relationship with velocity and that the assumption would change the parameter c to 0.62.

#### 3. Discussion

Data from several studies [4, 6, 7, 9, 10] confirm that the THI calculated as Eq. (1) is an operational way to express the relative significance of air temperature and air humidity. The relative significance of the two parameters has been determined by analyzing which value of "a" provides the best agreement between a response parameter and the THI. Table 1 includes 15 cases where a response variable was correlated to THI, and it appears that avalues between 0.55 and 0.90 best agreed with the used data. The cases include growing pigs, broilers, hens, and turkeys, and response variables included respiratory rate, body temperature, heat production, and performance results. As it appears from Table 1, the correlation coefficient in all 15 cases was nearly equally large at a = 0.75 as it was at the avalue that best reflected the data. Generally, the chapter shows that an a-value needs to differ relatively much from the value that best reflects the data before the correlation significantly degrades.

The work by Brown-Brandl et al. [8] regarding tom turkeys is the sole study that includes data systematically divided into animals at different ages, but the results are ambiguous and, therefore, not suitable to indicate how practical a-values should depend on the age of the animals. It is notable that Egbunike [5] found an a-value of equal magnitude in natural humid tropical environmental condition at relatively low heat load (tdb range from 25 to 33�C) as Roller and Goldman [4], Ingram [3], Tao and Xin [9], and Xin et al. [7] found at acute exposure to severe heat load (tdb range from 32 to 43�C). Based on this, our assessment is that the works we have reviewed do not include results that require or justify the use of different a-values for pigs or poultry, for large or for small animals, for different animal density, or for mild or severe heat load. We assess that an a-value of 0.75 is valid as a common applicable value.

The study by Tao and Xin [1] was the sole work found in this chapter that systematically investigated the combined influence of air temperature, air humidity, and air velocity. They proposed a THVI equation (Eq. 5) by extending the THI model with a correction factor (v0.058) to include the influence of the air velocity. Analyses in this chapter show that THVI overpredicts the influence of the air velocity if the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature. The data provided by Tao and Xin [1], however, support the assumption that the effect of increased velocity declines if the air temperature approaches the animal body temperature, which is the case in Eq. (7), and analyses in this study showed that the data provided by Tao and Xin [1] correlated remarkably well with Eq. (7).

Unfortunately, the article on skin temperature in laying hens [13] and the article on sensible heat loss from pigs [20] provide no information on air humidity. However, analyses in this study showed that data from both Uwagawa et al. [13] and Mount and Ingram [20] correlated very well with Eq. (7) at widely different assumptions for the air humidity.

For all three [9, 13, 20] a square-root relationship with velocity (e = 0.5) correlated slightly better with Eq. (7) than a linear relationship with velocity (e = 1). These studies all concern short-term exposure of individual animals to different thermal environments.

relevant to assume a square-root relationship with velocity and that the assumption would

Figure 7. Daily weight gain (left-hand graph) and feed conversion ratio (right-hand graph) for finishing pigs maintained at different air temperatures with and without a ceiling fan to increase the air velocity from 0.56 to 1.3 ms�<sup>1</sup> during the

Data from several studies [4, 6, 7, 9, 10] confirm that the THI calculated as Eq. (1) is an operational way to express the relative significance of air temperature and air humidity. The relative significance of the two parameters has been determined by analyzing which value of "a" provides the best agreement between a response parameter and the THI. Table 1 includes 15 cases where a response variable was correlated to THI, and it appears that avalues between 0.55 and 0.90 best agreed with the used data. The cases include growing pigs, broilers, hens, and turkeys, and response variables included respiratory rate, body temperature, heat production, and performance results. As it appears from Table 1, the correlation coefficient in all 15 cases was nearly equally large at a = 0.75 as it was at the avalue that best reflected the data. Generally, the chapter shows that an a-value needs to differ relatively much from the value that best reflects the data before the correlation significantly

The work by Brown-Brandl et al. [8] regarding tom turkeys is the sole study that includes data systematically divided into animals at different ages, but the results are ambiguous and, therefore, not suitable to indicate how practical a-values should depend on the age of the animals. It is notable that Egbunike [5] found an a-value of equal magnitude in natural humid tropical environmental condition at relatively low heat load (tdb range from 25 to 33�C) as Roller and Goldman [4], Ingram [3], Tao and Xin [9], and Xin et al. [7] found at acute exposure to severe heat load (tdb range from 32 to 43�C). Based on this, our assessment is that the works we have reviewed do not include results that require or justify the use of different a-values for

change the parameter c to 0.62.

36 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

growth period (results reported by Massabie and Granier [22]).

3. Discussion

degrades.

For broilers in flocks, other studies [11, 12, 18] indicate that it might be valid to assume a linear influence of the air velocity up to at least 3.0 m/s. The difference might be because the animals give shelter to each other and, therefore, reduce the effect of the air velocity. This hypothesis also explains why we found smaller influence of velocity (c = 0.15 instead of c = 0.31 at e = 1) in the analyses of body weight gain reduction for flocks of broilers. Provided that the velocity represents the velocity above the animals, the increase in animal density will increase the sheltering and consequently decrease the velocity among the animals, and an adjustment of the c-values appears to be an appropriate way to compensate for this relationship.

The study by Uwagawa et al. [13] on skin temperatures in laying hens indicated that Eq. (7) might be valid in a range of temperature of 10–35C and air velocity of 0.2–4 m/s. As it was the case for the data presented by Tao and Xin [9] and by Mount and Ingram [20], a square-root relationship with velocity reflected the data slightly better than a linear dependency, which supports the choice of the square-root dependency in the estimation of ET for individually kept animals.

Tao and Xin [9] exposed the animals to thermal condition that increased their body temperature with up to about 4C and that may explain why calculated parameter d was above the normal temperature for broilers. Correspondingly, the data by Uwagawa et al. [13] and by Mount and Ingram [20] included treatments with high temperatures and low air velocities that may have increased the animal body temperature and therefore explains why the parameter d also calculated from these data was above the normal temperature for the included animals. The data used for broilers in flock resulted in a d-value similar to the normal body temperature for broilers (40.6–43.0C [23]) which matches the milder thermal load the animals in the included studies were exposed to.

As for broilers, the studies on pigs [20, 22] indicated a larger influence of velocity for individually kept animals than those kept in groups, which as mentioned for broilers can be explained by those group-housed animals that give shelter to each other.

the room air temperature, and reported data were analyzed to determine whether a linear or a square-root relationship with velocity best reflected the data. Data from studies on body temperature increase of broilers [9], on skin temperature of laying hens [13], and on sensible heat loss of pigs [20] individually exposed to different thermal environment agreed well with the ET equation, and the agreement was slightly better with a square-root dependence of

Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot Climate

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72821

39

The data from studies of animal groups are less clear, but indicated that the wind shading among the animals reduces the effect of the air velocity (the parameter c in Eq. (7)). For broilers in flocks, a linear dependency of velocity reflected data better than a square-root dependency. Future studies on the influence of the air velocity may generate results that enable improvements of the ET equation and possibly generate different versions of the equation to deal with different species, age groups, and production levels. However, presently the proposed model and parameters might be useful in the assessment of the relative influence of air temperature,

, Poul Pedersen<sup>3</sup> and Svend Morsing<sup>3</sup>

1 Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen,

[1] Beckett FE. Effective temperature for evaluating or designing hog environments. Trans-

[2] Epstein Y, Moran DS. Thermal comfort and the heat stress indices. Industrial Health.

[3] Ingram DL. The effect of humidity on temperature regulation and cutaneous water loss in

[4] Roller WL, Goldman RF. Response of swine to acute heat exposure. Transactions of

[5] Egbunike GN. The relative importance of dry– and wet–bulb temperatures in the thermorespiratory function in the chickens. Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. 1979;26A(7):573-579

the young pig. Research in Veterinary Science. 1965;6:9-17

air humidity, and air velocity for groups of broilers or finishing pigs.

velocity than with a linear dependence.

\*, Guoqiang Zhang<sup>2</sup>

2 Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

actions of ASAE. 1965;8(2):163-166

3 Skov A/S, Roslev, Denmark

2006;44:388-398

ASAE. 1969;12(2):164-169

\*Address all correspondence to: bsb@sund.ku.dk

Author details

Bjarne Bjerg<sup>1</sup>

Denmark

References

The estimated influence of velocity (parameter c in Eq. (7)) was generally larger for pigs than for broilers, but these results may possibly be explained by the difference in used test facilities and methods to determine the air velocity.

The studies on individually kept animals [9, 13, 20] confirm the validity of the velocity term in Eq. (7), but, unfortunately, the used experimental conditions were widely different from animal production. Determinations of the parameters c, d, and e for practical use require data obtained from conditions corresponding to animal production. The included studies on broilers in flocks [11, 12, 17] are all conducted in an experimental wind tunnel, which, to some extent, are similar to commercial tunnel-ventilated broiler houses, although there are large differences in the tunnel scale and in the number of animals. The experimental condition used in the study on group-housed pigs [22] could possibly be implemented in pig production, but the uncertainty on how the air velocity was determined in this study limits the possibilities of exploiting the results.

Unfortunately, we did not find other studies to validate Eq. (7) or to estimate the parameters c, d, and e for other categories of pigs and poultry than broilers and finishing pigs kept in groups. But nevertheless, we assess that Eq. (7) is a valid way to express knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity at high heat load for pigs and poultry. However, it is acknowledged that the influence of the air velocity is determined based on a very limited amount of data. Therefore, it is likely that future studies will generate more knowledge that improves estimations of the parameter in—and possibly also the structure of —the model for ET estimation and furthermore establishes parameters adapted to different species, different age groups, or different production levels.

## 4. Conclusions

Existing knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity in the thermal environment for housed pigs and poultry is reviewed and synthesized in an ET equation (Eq. (7)) with an easily understandable scale, where ET is equal to air temperature if the relative humidity is 50% and the air velocity is 0.2 ms<sup>1</sup> . The suggested ET equation treats the relative significance of air temperature and humidity in the same way as the frequently used THI equation (Eq. (1)). Analyses of reported data suitable to determine the relative weighting of the dry-bulb temperature (a in Eq. (1)) in poultry and pigs show that the weighting with the best correlation with data differs a great deal, but the correlations are in all cases nearly equally good if a weighting corresponding to a = 0.75 is used. Consequently, a common a-value of 0.75 is used in the further development of the ET equation for broilers and pigs.

The dependence of velocity is treated as an additional term in the suggested ET equation. This term is assumed to be proportional to the difference between the animal body temperature and the room air temperature, and reported data were analyzed to determine whether a linear or a square-root relationship with velocity best reflected the data. Data from studies on body temperature increase of broilers [9], on skin temperature of laying hens [13], and on sensible heat loss of pigs [20] individually exposed to different thermal environment agreed well with the ET equation, and the agreement was slightly better with a square-root dependence of velocity than with a linear dependence.

The data from studies of animal groups are less clear, but indicated that the wind shading among the animals reduces the effect of the air velocity (the parameter c in Eq. (7)). For broilers in flocks, a linear dependency of velocity reflected data better than a square-root dependency.

Future studies on the influence of the air velocity may generate results that enable improvements of the ET equation and possibly generate different versions of the equation to deal with different species, age groups, and production levels. However, presently the proposed model and parameters might be useful in the assessment of the relative influence of air temperature, air humidity, and air velocity for groups of broilers or finishing pigs.

## Author details

As for broilers, the studies on pigs [20, 22] indicated a larger influence of velocity for individually kept animals than those kept in groups, which as mentioned for broilers can be explained

The estimated influence of velocity (parameter c in Eq. (7)) was generally larger for pigs than for broilers, but these results may possibly be explained by the difference in used test facilities

The studies on individually kept animals [9, 13, 20] confirm the validity of the velocity term in Eq. (7), but, unfortunately, the used experimental conditions were widely different from animal production. Determinations of the parameters c, d, and e for practical use require data obtained from conditions corresponding to animal production. The included studies on broilers in flocks [11, 12, 17] are all conducted in an experimental wind tunnel, which, to some extent, are similar to commercial tunnel-ventilated broiler houses, although there are large differences in the tunnel scale and in the number of animals. The experimental condition used in the study on group-housed pigs [22] could possibly be implemented in pig production, but the uncertainty on how the air velocity was determined in this study limits the possibilities of

Unfortunately, we did not find other studies to validate Eq. (7) or to estimate the parameters c, d, and e for other categories of pigs and poultry than broilers and finishing pigs kept in groups. But nevertheless, we assess that Eq. (7) is a valid way to express knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity at high heat load for pigs and poultry. However, it is acknowledged that the influence of the air velocity is determined based on a very limited amount of data. Therefore, it is likely that future studies will generate more knowledge that improves estimations of the parameter in—and possibly also the structure of —the model for ET estimation and furthermore establishes parameters adapted to different

Existing knowledge on the relative significance of air temperature, humidity, and velocity in the thermal environment for housed pigs and poultry is reviewed and synthesized in an ET equation (Eq. (7)) with an easily understandable scale, where ET is equal to air temperature

treats the relative significance of air temperature and humidity in the same way as the frequently used THI equation (Eq. (1)). Analyses of reported data suitable to determine the relative weighting of the dry-bulb temperature (a in Eq. (1)) in poultry and pigs show that the weighting with the best correlation with data differs a great deal, but the correlations are in all cases nearly equally good if a weighting corresponding to a = 0.75 is used. Consequently, a common a-value of 0.75 is used in the further development of the ET equation for broilers

The dependence of velocity is treated as an additional term in the suggested ET equation. This term is assumed to be proportional to the difference between the animal body temperature and

. The suggested ET equation

by those group-housed animals that give shelter to each other.

species, different age groups, or different production levels.

if the relative humidity is 50% and the air velocity is 0.2 ms<sup>1</sup>

and methods to determine the air velocity.

exploiting the results.

38 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

4. Conclusions

and pigs.

Bjarne Bjerg<sup>1</sup> \*, Guoqiang Zhang<sup>2</sup> , Poul Pedersen<sup>3</sup> and Svend Morsing<sup>3</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: bsb@sund.ku.dk

1 Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark


## References


[6] Zulowich JM. Response of the laying hen to aerial moisture and ammonia concentrations at high environmental temperatures [Ph.D. thesis]. University of Nebraska; 1979

[21] Hatfield HS. A heat-flow meter. Journal of Physiology 111. In: Proceedings of the Physi-

Effective Temperature for Poultry and Pigs in Hot Climate

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41

[22] Massabie P, Granier R. Effect of air movement and ambient temperature on the zootechnical performance and behavior of growing-finishing pigs. Paper number 014028, ASAE

[23] Robertshaw D. Temperature regulation and thermal environment. In: Dukes' Physiology

of Domestic Animals. 12th ed. New York: Cornell University; 2004

ological Society; December 16–17, 1949. 1950

Annual Meeting; 2001


[21] Hatfield HS. A heat-flow meter. Journal of Physiology 111. In: Proceedings of the Physiological Society; December 16–17, 1949. 1950

[6] Zulowich JM. Response of the laying hen to aerial moisture and ammonia concentrations at high environmental temperatures [Ph.D. thesis]. University of Nebraska; 1979

[7] Xin H, DeShazer JA, Beck MM. Responses of prefasted growing turkeys to acute heat

[8] Brown-Brandl TM, Beck MM, Schulte DD, Parkhurst AM, DeShazer JA. Temperature humidity index for growing tom turkeys. Transactions of ASAE. 1997;40(1):203-209 [9] Tao A, Xin H. Acute synergistic effects of air temperature, humidity and velocity on homeostasis of market-size broilers. Transaction of the ASAE. 2003;46(2):491-497

[10] Purswell JL, Dozier WA, III, Olanrewaju HA, Davis JD, Xin H, Gates, RS. Performance in broiler chickens grown from 49 to 63 days of age. In: Ninth International Livestock

[11] Simmons JD, Lott BD, May JD. Heat loss from broiler chickens subjected to various air speeds and ambient temperatures. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 1997;13:665-669

[12] Dozier WA III, Lott BD, Branton SL. Live performance of male broilers subjected to constant or increasing air velocities at moderate temperatures with a high dew point. Poultry

[13] Uwagawa S, Ito T, Yamamoto S. Influence of air velocity and ambient temperature on physiological responses of laying hens. Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science. 1980;51(7):

[14] Cengel YA. Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2003. 896 p [15] Yahav S, Straschnow A, Vax E, Razpakovski V, Shinder D. Air velocity alters broiler performance under harsh environmental conditions. Poultry Science. 2001;80:724-726 [16] Yahav S, Straschnow A, Luger E, Shinder D, Tanny J, Cohen S. Ventilation, sensible heat loss, broiler energy and water balance under harsh environmental conditions. Poultry

[17] Dozier WA III, Lott BD, Branton SL. Growth responses of male broilers subjected to increasing air velocities at high ambient temperatures and a high dew point. Poultry

[18] Howlider MAR, Rose SP. The response of growing male and female broiler chickens kept at different temperatures to dietary energy concentration and feed form. Animal Feed

[19] Plavnik IY. Effect of environmental temperature on broiler chickens subjected to growth

[20] Mount LE, Ingram DL. The effect of ambient temperature and air movement on localized

sensible heat-loss from the pig. Research in Veterinary Science. 1965;6:84-90

exposure. Transactions of ASAE. 1992;35(1):315-318

Environment Symposium; 8–12 July 2012; Valencia

Science. 2005;84(8):1328-1331

Science. 2004;83:253-258

Science. 2005;84(6):962-966

Science and Technology. 1992;39(7):1-78

restriction at an early age. Poultry Science. 1998;77:870-872

471-477

40 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition


**Chapter 3**

**Provisional chapter**

**Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in**

**Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74966

Air emissions from feeding operations and manure management in chicken production are among the major sources of environmental concerns globally. Nitrogen emissions in chicken production occur in several forms but mainly ammonia can contribute directly or indirectly to several environmental and public health hazards. Chicken production also contributes to some extent to climate change through the emissions of nitrous oxide, fine particulate matters, and methane. Emissions and nutrient losses take place in different systems and at every stage of chicken production operations. To effectively reduce the environmental impact of chicken production, appropriate measures should be taken across the chicken supply and manure management chain. Nutritional and manure management strategies for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production are discussed. Challenges associated with the adoption of some of the mitigation strategies are identified and measures to address them are suggested. Co-benefits of mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production to the planet, the people and the producers are

Chicken production is an important source of nutrition and livelihood all over the world. Over the years, significant improvement has been achieved in chicken production, and it is one of the fastest growing sub-sectors of the livestock industry. Chicken production therefore holds great potentials in meeting the increasing demand for animal protein, such as meat and egg,

**Keywords:** nitrogen, emissions, chicken, manure, feeding strategies

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Gabriel Adebayo Malomo, Stephen Abiodun Bolu, Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu and Zainab Suleiman Usman

Gabriel Adebayo Malomo, Stephen Abiodun Bolu, Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu and Zainab Suleiman Usman

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74966

**Abstract**

numerous.

**1. Introduction**

**Chicken Production**

**Chicken Production**

#### **Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74966

Gabriel Adebayo Malomo, Stephen Abiodun Bolu, Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu and Zainab Suleiman Usman Gabriel Adebayo Malomo, Stephen Abiodun Bolu, Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu and Zainab Suleiman Usman

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74966

#### **Abstract**

Air emissions from feeding operations and manure management in chicken production are among the major sources of environmental concerns globally. Nitrogen emissions in chicken production occur in several forms but mainly ammonia can contribute directly or indirectly to several environmental and public health hazards. Chicken production also contributes to some extent to climate change through the emissions of nitrous oxide, fine particulate matters, and methane. Emissions and nutrient losses take place in different systems and at every stage of chicken production operations. To effectively reduce the environmental impact of chicken production, appropriate measures should be taken across the chicken supply and manure management chain. Nutritional and manure management strategies for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production are discussed. Challenges associated with the adoption of some of the mitigation strategies are identified and measures to address them are suggested. Co-benefits of mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production to the planet, the people and the producers are numerous.

**Keywords:** nitrogen, emissions, chicken, manure, feeding strategies

#### **1. Introduction**

Chicken production is an important source of nutrition and livelihood all over the world. Over the years, significant improvement has been achieved in chicken production, and it is one of the fastest growing sub-sectors of the livestock industry. Chicken production therefore holds great potentials in meeting the increasing demand for animal protein, such as meat and egg,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

arising from population growth and changing consumer preferences. However, in addition to the production objectives of ensuring profitability and quality, environmental sustainability must be given paramount consideration so as to ensure that production practices benefit the people, the planet, and the business without jeopardizing future utilization of resources.

the chicken value chain must be taken into account. Nutrient losses from chicken supply chains

Agricultural sector ammonia emission is mainly from livestock operations manure management and chemical fertilizers. Globally, chickens are among the most important contributors to ammonia emissions. Significant portions of nitrogen excreted in chicken production are emitted into the atmosphere in the form of ammonia, which is formed as a result of microbial activities, although

tration of uric acid which is transformed into urea through aerobic decomposition. When mixed with urease present in the fecal material, urea N can quickly be transformed into highly volatile ammonia and easily diffused into the surrounding air. High temperatures, pH, wind velocity, and urease activity, as well as large surface area for emissions, enhance the volatilization of ammonia in chicken manure [7]. Without taking measures to modify nutrient excretion, as much as 18–41% of

Concentrations of ammonia are usually considerably high near the animal facilities due to increased deposition. However, ammonia concentration in the atmosphere reduces as the distance away from the animal facilities increases. Reduction in atmospheric ammonia concentration can be up to 50–70% at a distance of 0.4–4 km away from the animal facility [9]. Accordingly, the mass of ammonia nitrogen expected to be deposited in the soil around sources such as chicken and manure storage facility decreases as the distance increases.

also emitted in chicken production, although the contributions are significantly lower than

) This is a combustible greenhouse gas, and it is 28 times more powerful than CO2

This is a greenhouse gas, and it is 265 times more powerful than CO2

+ into NO3 −

applied to soils low in oxygen (e.g. waterlogged areas)

from the decaying organic matter in manure stored under oxygen-free conditions

) An aggressive and acidifying gas, which is a product from urea degradation in manure (and urine). It causes respiratory problems in humans and animals and acidification of soils when

> + /NH3

ion which is prone to leaching. Concentration in high quantity in potable water may lead to nitrite

) causing an oxygen deficit in the blood of humans and animals

) It is from superficial run-off of manure and/or from leaching of the water-soluble form. It causes eutrophication of open waters (dense growth of algae and death of fish from subsequent lack of

), methane (CH4

; and during the denitrification of NO<sup>3</sup>

through the soil and by run-off (including intended discharge) [5], and some of these

or to water sources by leaching of e.g. NO3

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74966

Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production

and other nitrogenous compounds [8].

), and nitrous oxide (N2

O) are

. It is produced

. It is an intermediate product

− in manure

after manure application. It is a water-soluble

also occur [6]. Poultry excretions contain high concen-

−

45

O, and NH3

, N2

O and NO3

fecal N could be lost into the atmosphere in the form of NH3

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2

during the nitrification of NH<sup>4</sup>

) It is formed in the soil by nitrification of NH<sup>4</sup>

−

**Table 1.** Some important gaseous emissions in chicken supply chain.

deposited

oxygen)

poisoning (NO2

can be air emissions such as CH4

limited losses in form of N2

**Emissions Remarks**

Methane (CH4

Nitrous oxide

Ammonia (NH3

Nitrate (NO3

Phosphate (P2

*Source*: [5].

−

O5

(N2 O)

important emissions are briefly discussed (**Table 1**).

and P2 O5

Air emissions and manure handling in chicken production are among the major sources of environmental concerns globally. Ammonia, nitrous oxide (N2 O), and other oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) are nitrogenous emissions of concern in broiler and layer production systems, while methane, particulate matters, and black carbon emissions also occur. The potential sources of environmental footprint (particularly relating to carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, particulate matters and micro-organisms) in the animal feeding operations include the animal, type of feed, manure, and housing accessories including bedding and heating materials [1]. Although poultry supply chain is not the main source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions, emissions intensity or emissions per unit of output is significant and needs to be mitigated through adequate measures. This is because the growth forecast in global demand for chicken meat and egg between 2005 and 2030 is 61 and 31%, respectively [2]. This means if appropriate measures are not taken to reduce the emission intensities of these products, production increases required to meet the risen demand will be proportionate to GHGs emissions growth, and this kind of trend is not desirable.

Improved feeding practices, utilization of specific agents, long-term management practices, and animal breeding strategies are some categories of measures that could be employed to mitigate emissions from animal production operations, including chickens [3]. Feed management practices including those that reduce the oversupply of protein and amino acids in the diets are perhaps the most important measure to mitigate nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Reduction of dietary supply of protein and amino acids to chicken is possible because birds have been selected and bred for improved feed conversion efficiency and growth over the years. Also, feeding feed supplements that could enhance the utilization of the diets thereby reducing nutrient excretions by the chicken is also an effective emission mitigation strategy. Enzymes can also contribute to nutrient excretion reduction in chickens. Enzymes reduced the variability in the nutritive values between feedstuffs and improved the accuracy of feed formulation, thereby aiding management and profitability of poultry feeding operation [4]. Specific agents could also be used for manure amendments in order to reduce the volatilization of already excreted nutrients, particularly nitrogen in from of NH3 and N2 O. This chapter discusses nitrogenous emissions, associated hazards, and some emissions mitigation strategies, particularly feeding and manure management approaches, in chicken production. Some reported undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets, and measures taken to correct them are also presented.

## **2. Emissions in poultry supply chain**

Emissions of different types and magnitude take place throughout the entire chicken supply chain. Therefore, for emission mitigation strategies to be effective, the important sources across the chicken value chain must be taken into account. Nutrient losses from chicken supply chains can be air emissions such as CH4 , N2 O, and NH3 or to water sources by leaching of e.g. NO3 − and P2 O5 through the soil and by run-off (including intended discharge) [5], and some of these important emissions are briefly discussed (**Table 1**).

arising from population growth and changing consumer preferences. However, in addition to the production objectives of ensuring profitability and quality, environmental sustainability must be given paramount consideration so as to ensure that production practices benefit the people, the planet, and the business without jeopardizing future utilization of resources.

Air emissions and manure handling in chicken production are among the major sources of

methane, particulate matters, and black carbon emissions also occur. The potential sources of environmental footprint (particularly relating to carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, particulate matters and micro-organisms) in the animal feeding operations include the animal, type of feed, manure, and housing accessories including bedding and heating materials [1]. Although poultry supply chain is not the main source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions, emissions intensity or emissions per unit of output is significant and needs to be mitigated through adequate measures. This is because the growth forecast in global demand for chicken meat and egg between 2005 and 2030 is 61 and 31%, respectively [2]. This means if appropriate measures are not taken to reduce the emission intensities of these products, production increases required to meet the risen demand will be proportionate to GHGs emissions growth, and this

Improved feeding practices, utilization of specific agents, long-term management practices, and animal breeding strategies are some categories of measures that could be employed to mitigate emissions from animal production operations, including chickens [3]. Feed management practices including those that reduce the oversupply of protein and amino acids in the diets are perhaps the most important measure to mitigate nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Reduction of dietary supply of protein and amino acids to chicken is possible because birds have been selected and bred for improved feed conversion efficiency and growth over the years. Also, feeding feed supplements that could enhance the utilization of the diets thereby reducing nutrient excretions by the chicken is also an effective emission mitigation strategy. Enzymes can also contribute to nutrient excretion reduction in chickens. Enzymes reduced the variability in the nutritive values between feedstuffs and improved the accuracy of feed formulation, thereby aiding management and profitability of poultry feeding operation [4]. Specific agents could also be used for manure amendments in order to reduce the volatilization of already excreted nutrients, particularly nitrogen in from of

O. This chapter discusses nitrogenous emissions, associated hazards, and some

emissions mitigation strategies, particularly feeding and manure management approaches, in chicken production. Some reported undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets, and

Emissions of different types and magnitude take place throughout the entire chicken supply chain. Therefore, for emission mitigation strategies to be effective, the important sources across

) are nitrogenous emissions of concern in broiler and layer production systems, while

O), and other oxides of nitro-

environmental concerns globally. Ammonia, nitrous oxide (N2

gen (NOx

44 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

NH3

and N2

measures taken to correct them are also presented.

**2. Emissions in poultry supply chain**

kind of trend is not desirable.

Agricultural sector ammonia emission is mainly from livestock operations manure management and chemical fertilizers. Globally, chickens are among the most important contributors to ammonia emissions. Significant portions of nitrogen excreted in chicken production are emitted into the atmosphere in the form of ammonia, which is formed as a result of microbial activities, although limited losses in form of N2 O and NO3 also occur [6]. Poultry excretions contain high concentration of uric acid which is transformed into urea through aerobic decomposition. When mixed with urease present in the fecal material, urea N can quickly be transformed into highly volatile ammonia and easily diffused into the surrounding air. High temperatures, pH, wind velocity, and urease activity, as well as large surface area for emissions, enhance the volatilization of ammonia in chicken manure [7]. Without taking measures to modify nutrient excretion, as much as 18–41% of fecal N could be lost into the atmosphere in the form of NH3 and other nitrogenous compounds [8].

Concentrations of ammonia are usually considerably high near the animal facilities due to increased deposition. However, ammonia concentration in the atmosphere reduces as the distance away from the animal facilities increases. Reduction in atmospheric ammonia concentration can be up to 50–70% at a distance of 0.4–4 km away from the animal facility [9]. Accordingly, the mass of ammonia nitrogen expected to be deposited in the soil around sources such as chicken and manure storage facility decreases as the distance increases.

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) are also emitted in chicken production, although the contributions are significantly lower than


**Table 1.** Some important gaseous emissions in chicken supply chain.

#### those of ruminants. The Global Life Cycle Assessment of emissions from chicken supply chain revealed some important information that could contribute to the effective mitigation of emissions and reduction of emissions intensities (**Table 2**). The chicken supply chain is responsible for about 606 million tonnes CO2 -eq of GHG emissions, representing about 8% of the total emissions from livestock sector [10]. Thus, chicken supply chains account for a quantity of GHGs emissions that warrant giving attention to its mitigation. Therefore, to be effective, mitigation strategies should target major emission sources along the chicken meat and eggs value chains. By emission category in the chicken supply chains, major sources of proportion are CO2 (meat, 59.4%; eggs, 48.9%) and N2 O (meat, 36.5%; eggs, 40.1%) (**Table 3**).

emissions [1]. Similarly, manure handling and environmental conditions would affect chemical and physical properties of the manure, that is, its chemical composition, biodegradability,

Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production

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47

Annual manure excretions by species show that chicken production ranks in terms of manure turnout. It is evident that when compared with other categories of livestock, either on an individual basis or as a group, each chicken type animal unit is a major contributor to manure excretions (**Table 4**). The quantity of manure excreted by the animal also has far-reaching implications for the overall nutrients excreted into the environment. Depending on the efficiency of nutrient utilization, 50–80% of the nitrogen supplied in animal diets may be excreted [12] and more than 70% of the total nitrogen excreted in poultry is uric acid, which is rapidly converted to ammonia through the process of hydrolysis [13]. Therefore, chicken feces with higher proportion of total

ammoniacal nitrogen will tend to emit ammonia more quickly and in higher quantities.

Nitrogen excretion in chicken production is largely influenced by over supply of protein and/ or amino acids in the diets, although there may be other factors, and it is a major contributor to other nitrogenous emissions emanating from manure handling and production. Oversupply of dietary protein and some amino acids is a common practice which stems from the attempts to meet the requirements of the birds at various stages of growth, that is, starter, grower, and finisher phase [15]. A typical 23% crude protein diet contains significant quantity of amino acids in excess of requirement [8]. The requirement for protein in chicken is essentially the requirements for amino acids. Protein fed to chickens is absorbed for various metabolic functions in

> **Annual manure production in tons per animal unit**

**Rank in terms of manure production per animal unit**

microbial populations, oxygen content, moisture content, and pH [11].

**3. Nitrogen excretions in chicken production**

**Species of animal Number of animals** 

Pullets (over 3 months)

Pullets (under 3 months)

Based on [14].

**1000 lbs)**

**per animal unit (AU) (an AU** 

Beef cattle 1.00 11.50 4th Dairy cattle 0.74 15.24 1st Swine (breeders) 2.67 6.11 9th Swine (others) 9.09 14.69 3rd Hen (laying) 250.00 11.45 5th

Broilers 455.00 14.97 2nd Turkey (slaughter) 67.00 8.18 8th

**Table 4.** Annual manure production estimates from livestock species per animal unit.

250.00 8.32 6th

455.00 8.32 6th

Emission of N<sup>2</sup> O from chicken manure management depends on the composition of the feces, microbes, and enzymes involved and the conditions of the feces after excretion. Mostly, N2 O are emitted as an intermediate product during nitrification and denitrification reactions, leading to nitrate reduction in some litter system. However, it is possible to store manure in a way that minimizes nitrogenous emissions. There is a trade-off between methane and nitrous oxide emissions because while handling of chicken manure under anaerobic conditions leads to the production of methane, management under aerobic conditions with pockets of anaerobic conditions encourages N2 O volatilization.

The composition of diets and the efficiency of its conversions to meat and/or egg affect the quantity, physical, and chemical properties of chicken manure and in turn the potential


**Table 2.** Global production, GHG emissions, and emission intensity for chickens.


**Table 3.** Global emissions from chicken meat and egg supply chain by category of emissions (%).

emissions [1]. Similarly, manure handling and environmental conditions would affect chemical and physical properties of the manure, that is, its chemical composition, biodegradability, microbial populations, oxygen content, moisture content, and pH [11].

## **3. Nitrogen excretions in chicken production**

those of ruminants. The Global Life Cycle Assessment of emissions from chicken supply chain revealed some important information that could contribute to the effective mitigation of emissions and reduction of emissions intensities (**Table 2**). The chicken supply chain is responsible

emissions from livestock sector [10]. Thus, chicken supply chains account for a quantity of GHGs emissions that warrant giving attention to its mitigation. Therefore, to be effective, mitigation strategies should target major emission sources along the chicken meat and eggs value chains. By emission category in the chicken supply chains, major sources of proportion

microbes, and enzymes involved and the conditions of the feces after excretion. Mostly, N2

O volatilization.

**CO2 -eq)**

Backyard 8.3 (14.3%) 2.7 (3.7%) 35.0 (16.1%) 17.5 (4.5%) 4.2 6.6 Layers 49.7 (85.7%) 4.1 (3.8%) 182.1 (83.9%) 28.2 (7.2%) 3.7 6.9 Broilers 64.8 (90.5%) 343.3 (88.3%) 5.3 Total 58.0 (100%) 71.6 (100%) 217.0 (100%) 389.0 (100%) 3.7 5.4

**System Production (million tonnes) Emissions (million tonnes** 

emissions 59.4 48.9 Feeds, LUC soy bean, direct energy, postfarm

**Table 2.** Global production, GHG emissions, and emission intensity for chickens.

management

**Table 3.** Global emissions from chicken meat and egg supply chain by category of emissions (%).

O emissions 36.5 41.0 Applied and deposited manure, fertilizer and crops residue, manure

and indirect energy CO2

are emitted as an intermediate product during nitrification and denitrification reactions, leading to nitrate reduction in some litter system. However, it is possible to store manure in a way that minimizes nitrogenous emissions. There is a trade-off between methane and nitrous oxide emissions because while handling of chicken manure under anaerobic conditions leads to the production of methane, management under aerobic conditions with pockets of anaero-

The composition of diets and the efficiency of its conversions to meat and/or egg affect the quantity, physical, and chemical properties of chicken manure and in turn the potential

**Eggs Meat Eggs Meat Eggs Meat**


O (meat, 36.5%; eggs, 40.1%) (**Table 3**).

**Emission intensity (kg CO2**

**product)**

O

**-eq/kg** 

O from chicken manure management depends on the composition of the feces,

for about 606 million tonnes CO2

46 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

bic conditions encourages N2

**Class of emission Meat Eggs Sources**

emissions 1.6 9.0 Manure management

Others 1.4 1.1 Feeds, rice CH4

CO2

*Source*: [10].

CH4

N2

*Source*: Based on [10].

(meat, 59.4%; eggs, 48.9%) and N2

are CO2

Emission of N<sup>2</sup>

Annual manure excretions by species show that chicken production ranks in terms of manure turnout. It is evident that when compared with other categories of livestock, either on an individual basis or as a group, each chicken type animal unit is a major contributor to manure excretions (**Table 4**). The quantity of manure excreted by the animal also has far-reaching implications for the overall nutrients excreted into the environment. Depending on the efficiency of nutrient utilization, 50–80% of the nitrogen supplied in animal diets may be excreted [12] and more than 70% of the total nitrogen excreted in poultry is uric acid, which is rapidly converted to ammonia through the process of hydrolysis [13]. Therefore, chicken feces with higher proportion of total ammoniacal nitrogen will tend to emit ammonia more quickly and in higher quantities.

Nitrogen excretion in chicken production is largely influenced by over supply of protein and/ or amino acids in the diets, although there may be other factors, and it is a major contributor to other nitrogenous emissions emanating from manure handling and production. Oversupply of dietary protein and some amino acids is a common practice which stems from the attempts to meet the requirements of the birds at various stages of growth, that is, starter, grower, and finisher phase [15]. A typical 23% crude protein diet contains significant quantity of amino acids in excess of requirement [8]. The requirement for protein in chicken is essentially the requirements for amino acids. Protein fed to chickens is absorbed for various metabolic functions in


**Table 4.** Annual manure production estimates from livestock species per animal unit.

the body in the form of amino acids. Excess protein consumed is stored in the form of glucose or fat. In the event that amino acid is converted to glucose or fat, nitrogen is first removed in the liver and converted to urea. The urea is transported to kidney for elimination from the body in the form uric acid in the case of chickens. Such oversupply of nutrients is not necessary as it amounts to increased production costs, constitutes a drain on profitability, wastage of scarce and expensive resources, and reduced production efficiency, and contributes to environmental challenges associated with chicken production. A significant amount of protein fed to chicken is excreted in diverse forms of nitrogen, and this could be volatilized into the atmosphere through some biological processes (**Table 5**). It is possible to exceed the threshold concentration of both oxidized and reduced forms of nitrogen and these have consequences for the planet, the people and the chickens (which translates to negative effect on the profitability of the chicken enterprise). Some of such consequences include respiratory diseases caused by exposure to high concentrations of fine particulate matters, contamination of drinking water by nitrates, eutrophication of surface water bodies leading to harmful algal blooms and decreased water quality, changes in vegetation or ecosystems as a result of higher concentration of nitrogen, climatic change associated with increases in nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, nitrogen saturation in forest soils, and soil acidification through nitrification and leaching.

**4. Challenges associated with nitrogen emissions in chicken** 


**Application method Semisolid manure Liquid** 

Injection 5 5

Irrigation without incorporation 80 50

Broadcast with immediate incorporation 25 25 10 10 Incorporated after 2 days 35 35 20 20 Incorporated after 4 days 60 60 40 35 Incorporated after 7 days or never incorporated 75 75 55 50

release of nitrogenous and other emissions into the environment.

**4.1. Some potential hazards associated with nitrogen excretions**

Several challenges are associated with nitrogen excretions and/or emissions in chicken production. Air emissions and fecal minerals emanating from intensive chicken operations could have serious environmental consequences when poorly managed. Frequent complaints against animal-based industries are mainly associated with dust, odors, and bio-aerosols. For example, microbes, endotoxins, and mycotoxins are suspended in air, which are generated in production and manure storage facilities, as well as during land spreading of poultry litter [19]. An efficient handling of nutrients at all the stages of production is critical to reducing the

**slurry**

Nitrogen Emissions and Mitigation Strategies in Chicken Production

+ -N. **Lagoon liquid**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74966

**Dry litter**

49

Several hazards to personal safety are known to be associated with liquid manure storage facilities. Depending on the gas concentration and length of exposure, symptoms ranging from headaches and eye irritation to death can be caused by gases such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia in such facilities. It is therefore advisable to wear appropriate protective respiratory equipment when entering an enclosed area that contains manure. However, nitrogenous emissions are also of considerable concerns outside the manure management and

Nitrogen excretions could also lead to degradation of ground and surface waters through contributions to nitrate runoff and nutrient loading. This is particularly important because chicken manure is also a rich source of several other elemental minerals/nutrients, which could find their ways into the ecosystem. Some of these nutrients rich in chicken manure include sodium (Na), potassium (K) phosphorous (P), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S). Therefore, the nutrient profile of chicken manure makes it valuable for use in crop and livestock production and at the same time a potential source of hazards (**Table 7**). About 30–50% of total N in chicken manure is readily available as a nutrient to plant [20]. However,

**production**

**Table 6.** Relative NH4

+

*Source*: [5, 18].

storage facilities.

On fresh basis, chicken raised under the extensive system excretes an estimated 4.5% of its body weight and 0.02–0.15 kg/bird/day [5]. Diets, housing system, manure handling method, and season of the year are among the factors affecting nitrogenous emissions in animal production [17]. In addition, available fecal nitrogen can determine the extent of ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Thus, the proportion of nitrogen volatilized into the atmosphere differs with manure type, manure management practices, and increases with the length of storage (**Tables 5** and **6**).


*Source*: [16]\*N forms are listed in order of the expected quantity lost, with most of the loss being in the form of NH<sup>3</sup> .

**Table 5.** Typical losses of long-term manure storage used in animal production expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen entering storage.


**Table 6.** Relative NH4 + -N losses of some field practices as percentage of the total NH<sup>4</sup> + -N.

the body in the form of amino acids. Excess protein consumed is stored in the form of glucose or fat. In the event that amino acid is converted to glucose or fat, nitrogen is first removed in the liver and converted to urea. The urea is transported to kidney for elimination from the body in the form uric acid in the case of chickens. Such oversupply of nutrients is not necessary as it amounts to increased production costs, constitutes a drain on profitability, wastage of scarce and expensive resources, and reduced production efficiency, and contributes to environmental challenges associated with chicken production. A significant amount of protein fed to chicken is excreted in diverse forms of nitrogen, and this could be volatilized into the atmosphere through some biological processes (**Table 5**). It is possible to exceed the threshold concentration of both oxidized and reduced forms of nitrogen and these have consequences for the planet, the people and the chickens (which translates to negative effect on the profitability of the chicken enterprise). Some of such consequences include respiratory diseases caused by exposure to high concentrations of fine particulate matters, contamination of drinking water by nitrates, eutrophication of surface water bodies leading to harmful algal blooms and decreased water quality, changes in vegetation or ecosystems as a result of higher concentration of nitrogen, climatic change associated with increases in nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, nitrogen saturation in for-

On fresh basis, chicken raised under the extensive system excretes an estimated 4.5% of its body weight and 0.02–0.15 kg/bird/day [5]. Diets, housing system, manure handling method, and season of the year are among the factors affecting nitrogenous emissions in animal production [17]. In addition, available fecal nitrogen can determine the extent of ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Thus, the proportion of nitrogen volatilized into the atmosphere differs with manure type, manure management practices, and increases with the

**Manure type DM content (%) Typical loss % total N Range % total N N form lost\***

, N2 O, N2

, N2 O

, NO3 , N2 O

, NO3 , N2 O

, N2 , N2 O

.

Poultry, high rise — 50 40–70 NH3 Poultry, deep litter — 40 20–70 NH3

Poultry, cage and belt — 10 4–25 NH3 Poultry, aviary — 30 15–35 NH3

Solid heap, poultry 50 10 5–15 NH3

Solid compost 40 40 20–50 NH3

Slurry tank, top loaded 10 30 20–35 NH3 Slurry tank, bottom loaded 10 8 5–10 NH3 Slurry tank, enclosed 10 4 2–8 NH3 Anaerobic lagoon 5 70 50–99 NH3

*Source*: [16]\*N forms are listed in order of the expected quantity lost, with most of the loss being in the form of NH<sup>3</sup>

**Table 5.** Typical losses of long-term manure storage used in animal production expressed as a percentage of total

est soils, and soil acidification through nitrification and leaching.

length of storage (**Tables 5** and **6**).

*Type of poultry housing*

48 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

*Long term storage system*

nitrogen entering storage.

## **4. Challenges associated with nitrogen emissions in chicken production**

Several challenges are associated with nitrogen excretions and/or emissions in chicken production. Air emissions and fecal minerals emanating from intensive chicken operations could have serious environmental consequences when poorly managed. Frequent complaints against animal-based industries are mainly associated with dust, odors, and bio-aerosols. For example, microbes, endotoxins, and mycotoxins are suspended in air, which are generated in production and manure storage facilities, as well as during land spreading of poultry litter [19]. An efficient handling of nutrients at all the stages of production is critical to reducing the release of nitrogenous and other emissions into the environment.

#### **4.1. Some potential hazards associated with nitrogen excretions**

Several hazards to personal safety are known to be associated with liquid manure storage facilities. Depending on the gas concentration and length of exposure, symptoms ranging from headaches and eye irritation to death can be caused by gases such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia in such facilities. It is therefore advisable to wear appropriate protective respiratory equipment when entering an enclosed area that contains manure. However, nitrogenous emissions are also of considerable concerns outside the manure management and storage facilities.

Nitrogen excretions could also lead to degradation of ground and surface waters through contributions to nitrate runoff and nutrient loading. This is particularly important because chicken manure is also a rich source of several other elemental minerals/nutrients, which could find their ways into the ecosystem. Some of these nutrients rich in chicken manure include sodium (Na), potassium (K) phosphorous (P), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S). Therefore, the nutrient profile of chicken manure makes it valuable for use in crop and livestock production and at the same time a potential source of hazards (**Table 7**). About 30–50% of total N in chicken manure is readily available as a nutrient to plant [20]. However, due to limited availability of land and lack of nutrient test to determine requirements before applications, soils applied with chicken manure could have excess N and P [21]. Consequently, mineral nutrients from chicken manure are potential environmental risk factor, especially in soil and water pollution. Risks of nutrients, organic material, and pathogens contaminating water bodies are common with increased manure spread.

**5. Strategies for reducing emissions**

sures to reduce nitrogen emissions are also presented.

**production**

in chicken production.

**5.1. Nutrition approaches for mitigation of nitrogen excretions in chicken** 

*5.1.1. Effects of feeding low-protein diets on nitrogen excretions in chicken production*

Dietary protein manipulation could be an effective way of reducing nitrogen excretion in chicken production. Dietary amino acids in excess of the requirements cannot be stored in the body; instead, they are transaminated and/or deaminated, with the majority of the excess nitrogen excreted as uric acid in poultry. Accordingly, the excess dietary protein could be described as wasteful and represents an economic loss to the farmer. In addition, challenges involved with disposal of excreted nitrogen include offensive odors and environmental pollution. Therefore, to address the growing concern of increased nitrogen emissions from livestock, a combination of adjustment in dietary content of amino acids to animals' requirements at a given age and lowering the amount of dietary crude protein with the use of crystalline amino acids. It is possible to lower the CP content of the chicken diet and still meet established amino acid requirements by replacing part of the intact protein with crystalline amino acids

This section discusses some nutritional and manure management strategies for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Several evidences are available to demonstrate that feeding low-protein diets is an effective approach for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production by contributing to a significant reduction in nitrogen excretions. However, feeding low-protein diets may present some undesirable challenges which must be addressed to ensure sustainability of chicken production. Some manure handling and management mea-

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51

In view of its effects on costs, performance and profitability of chicken production, emphasis is placed on protein in feed formulation. Dietary protein level has major effects on growth and overall cost of the finished poultry product and affects the carcass composition of the birds [24], while recent advances and progress in animal breeding has resulted in highly efficient breeds in terms of feed conversion and growth, it is important to seriously consider the pros and cons that may be associated with the dietary protein levels to be adopted in chicken production in a bid to ensure sustainability. This is because of the need to take adequate measures to balance the effects of dietary protein levels for more beneficial chicken production outcomes. For example, excess dietary protein results in lean birds but reduces feed efficiency thereby resulting in elevated nitrogen excretions, whereas less than optimal protein content increases fat retention [25]. This therefore underscores the need to maintain a balance in both dietary protein and amino acid contents of the diets for optimal production performance in chicken. Several research findings have demonstrated a wide range of effects of feeding and nutrition strategies for mitigation nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Nutritional strategies include feeding low dietary protein, formulating diets based on amino acids requirements while supplementing limiting amino acids with synthetic source, and use of enzymes

#### **4.2. Some potential hazards associated with ammonia emissions**

Ammonia is a major harmful gas associated with chicken production. Poultry production has the potential to be a large contributor of ammonia, which plays critical role in the formation of particulate matter emissions to the atmospheric environment [23]. Elevated concentrations of ammonia in chicken houses have negative effects on the health of the workers exposed to them and also on the chicken through reduced feed intake and impeded growth rate. Ammonia plays critical roles in the environment, and its control could be of immense benefits, particularly through the reduction of excessive loading of nutrients and acidification. In view of the nutrient profile of chicken manure, ammonia volatilization from the resource can be considered a loss of its fertilizer value. Ammonia is also a nutrient source to microbiological and plant communities; however, its excessive deposition in the ecosystem could have detrimental effects causing eutrophication and degradation of water bodies.


**Table 7.** Chemical properties of broiler litter and chicken manure.

## **5. Strategies for reducing emissions**

due to limited availability of land and lack of nutrient test to determine requirements before applications, soils applied with chicken manure could have excess N and P [21]. Consequently, mineral nutrients from chicken manure are potential environmental risk factor, especially in soil and water pollution. Risks of nutrients, organic material, and pathogens contaminating

Ammonia is a major harmful gas associated with chicken production. Poultry production has the potential to be a large contributor of ammonia, which plays critical role in the formation of particulate matter emissions to the atmospheric environment [23]. Elevated concentrations of ammonia in chicken houses have negative effects on the health of the workers exposed to them and also on the chicken through reduced feed intake and impeded growth rate. Ammonia plays critical roles in the environment, and its control could be of immense benefits, particularly through the reduction of excessive loading of nutrients and acidification. In view of the nutrient profile of chicken manure, ammonia volatilization from the resource can be considered a loss of its fertilizer value. Ammonia is also a nutrient source to microbiological and plant communities; however, its excessive deposition in the ecosystem could have

water bodies are common with increased manure spread.

50 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

NH4

NO3

*Source*: [22].

**4.2. Some potential hazards associated with ammonia emissions**

detrimental effects causing eutrophication and degradation of water bodies.

**Component Broiler litter Chicken manure**

Moisture 245 20–291 657 369–770 Total C 376 277–414 289 224–328 Total N 41 17–68 46 18–72



Mn 268 175–321 304 259–600 Fe 842 526–1000 320 80–560 Cu 56 25–127 53 36–68 Zn 188 105–272 354 298–388

**Table 7.** Chemical properties of broiler litter and chicken manure.

**Mean Range Mean Range g kg−1 material g kg−1 material**

**mg kg−1 material mg kg−1 material**

This section discusses some nutritional and manure management strategies for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Several evidences are available to demonstrate that feeding low-protein diets is an effective approach for mitigating nitrogen emissions in chicken production by contributing to a significant reduction in nitrogen excretions. However, feeding low-protein diets may present some undesirable challenges which must be addressed to ensure sustainability of chicken production. Some manure handling and management measures to reduce nitrogen emissions are also presented.

## **5.1. Nutrition approaches for mitigation of nitrogen excretions in chicken production**

In view of its effects on costs, performance and profitability of chicken production, emphasis is placed on protein in feed formulation. Dietary protein level has major effects on growth and overall cost of the finished poultry product and affects the carcass composition of the birds [24], while recent advances and progress in animal breeding has resulted in highly efficient breeds in terms of feed conversion and growth, it is important to seriously consider the pros and cons that may be associated with the dietary protein levels to be adopted in chicken production in a bid to ensure sustainability. This is because of the need to take adequate measures to balance the effects of dietary protein levels for more beneficial chicken production outcomes. For example, excess dietary protein results in lean birds but reduces feed efficiency thereby resulting in elevated nitrogen excretions, whereas less than optimal protein content increases fat retention [25]. This therefore underscores the need to maintain a balance in both dietary protein and amino acid contents of the diets for optimal production performance in chicken. Several research findings have demonstrated a wide range of effects of feeding and nutrition strategies for mitigation nitrogen emissions in chicken production. Nutritional strategies include feeding low dietary protein, formulating diets based on amino acids requirements while supplementing limiting amino acids with synthetic source, and use of enzymes in chicken production.

#### *5.1.1. Effects of feeding low-protein diets on nitrogen excretions in chicken production*

Dietary protein manipulation could be an effective way of reducing nitrogen excretion in chicken production. Dietary amino acids in excess of the requirements cannot be stored in the body; instead, they are transaminated and/or deaminated, with the majority of the excess nitrogen excreted as uric acid in poultry. Accordingly, the excess dietary protein could be described as wasteful and represents an economic loss to the farmer. In addition, challenges involved with disposal of excreted nitrogen include offensive odors and environmental pollution. Therefore, to address the growing concern of increased nitrogen emissions from livestock, a combination of adjustment in dietary content of amino acids to animals' requirements at a given age and lowering the amount of dietary crude protein with the use of crystalline amino acids. It is possible to lower the CP content of the chicken diet and still meet established amino acid requirements by replacing part of the intact protein with crystalline amino acids [26]. This helps to obtain a balance of dietary amino acids closer to the animal's requirements. Feeding low-protein diets may therefore enable a farmer to cut down on the cost of the diet depending on the constituents of the feed while at the same time reducing nitrogen loss and its attendant environmental challenges. Formulating complete diets for specific amino acids rather than crude protein content can reduce the oversupply of amino acids provided in most protein-rich feedstuffs, thereby reducing nitrogen excretion (**Table 8**). Reduced nitrogen excretion and anthropogenic propensity without compromising animal performance have been demonstrated for this approach [27].

*5.1.2. Undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets to watch out for in chicken production*

ratios to minimize amino acid imbalance [34–36].

mance, profit, and the environment.

any observed adverse effect.

*in chicken production*

Feed intake is one of the areas in which some marked differences in the response of birds to low dietary protein has been observed when compared with those on higher dietary protein regime. Effects of low dietary protein levels on feed intake of birds have some degree of variation which could range from no effects on consumption to higher or depressed feed intake. Reduced or increased feed intake in chickens fed low-protein diets is desirable if accompanied with similar or improved performance per unit input when compared with birds fed high protein diets. However, it calls for concern if it leads to poor performance in the birds. Suspected factors contributing to cases of lower feed intake in birds fed low-protein diets have been identified. These include increased methionine level, ambient temperatures, extent of reduction of CP contents, change in dietary net energy concentration and protein ratio, the class and age of birds, and the extent to which the intact protein sources are kept at constant

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Feeding low-protein diets could result in a wide range of response on different production and economic performance parameters. These could range from lowering, neutral, and/or raising effect on some critical parameters such as growth, feeding intake, carcass yield, egg production, egg weight, and feed efficiency. A similar performance between birds fed lowprotein diets and those fed higher levels may be considered a desirable development particularly if it translates to lower cost of production and lower feed conversion ratio [28]. However, there is a limit to which dietary protein could be reduced without any adverse effects on the performance of the birds. This means that dietary protein should not be increased or lowered arbitrarily but care must be taken to ensure that the physiological and other requirements of the birds are met by the adopted feed regime to guide against negative impact on perfor-

*5.1.3. Some issues of and corrective measures for undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets* 

level of insights for providing corrective measures for sustainability. This includes:

Some reasons alluded for poor performances of birds fed low-protein diets, which provides a

**i.** There are some potential toxic effects of supplying amino acids in excess of requirements, reduced level of potassium or altered ionic balance, and lack of sufficient nitrogen pool to provide nonessential or dispensable amino acids [24]. Therefore, when supplying amino acids in excess of recommended requirements, care must be taken to ensure that it is kept within permissible limits. For example, [29] observed that supplementing low-protein diet (20% CP) with methionine and lysine at 10% level higher than levels recommended by [37] corrected the performance of the birds to be at par with those fed 22% CP without

**ii.** The dietary regime that does not match the age/stage of growth of broilers and layers may negatively affect some performance the characteristics of the birds [38]. This means that lowering dietary protein beyond reasonable levels in broilers and layers will negate production performances and even some environmental benefits. Therefore, the supplied

In layers, a direct relationship between dietary protein level and nitrogen excretion, as well as better utilization of protein, has been reported, when hens were fed diets with lower protein concentrations than the requirements [31]. However, a reduction in the dietary concentration of protein may result in imbalance of amino acid concentrations and may also change the optimal requirements of the limiting amino acids (lysine and methionine) at lower dietary protein levels. Taking steps to correct factors that may have triggered poor performance measured in terms of some parameters in layers may yield encouraging results. There are indications that the resultant lowering effect of nitrogen output in broilers fed low-protein diets appeared to be less effective as the quantum of reduction in dietary protein increased [30]. Therefore, to minimize performance losses of broilers fed low-CP diets while at the same time maintaining a significant reduction in environmental risks resulting from nitrogen excretions, there is a limit to which dietary protein could be reduced [32, 33].


**Table 8.** Effects of feeding low-CP diets on nitrogen output of chickens.

#### *5.1.2. Undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets to watch out for in chicken production*

[26]. This helps to obtain a balance of dietary amino acids closer to the animal's requirements. Feeding low-protein diets may therefore enable a farmer to cut down on the cost of the diet depending on the constituents of the feed while at the same time reducing nitrogen loss and its attendant environmental challenges. Formulating complete diets for specific amino acids rather than crude protein content can reduce the oversupply of amino acids provided in most protein-rich feedstuffs, thereby reducing nitrogen excretion (**Table 8**). Reduced nitrogen excretion and anthropogenic propensity without compromising animal performance have

In layers, a direct relationship between dietary protein level and nitrogen excretion, as well as better utilization of protein, has been reported, when hens were fed diets with lower protein concentrations than the requirements [31]. However, a reduction in the dietary concentration of protein may result in imbalance of amino acid concentrations and may also change the optimal requirements of the limiting amino acids (lysine and methionine) at lower dietary protein levels. Taking steps to correct factors that may have triggered poor performance measured in terms of some parameters in layers may yield encouraging results. There are indications that the resultant lowering effect of nitrogen output in broilers fed low-protein diets appeared to be less effective as the quantum of reduction in dietary protein increased [30]. Therefore, to minimize performance losses of broilers fed low-CP diets while at the same time maintaining a significant reduction in environmental risks resulting from nitrogen excretions, there is a limit to which dietary protein could be

**Protein level N-related parameter Level of reduction in N-related** 

Nitrogen output intensity

Nitrogen output intensity

Nitrogen output intensity

Nitrogen output intensity

Nitrogen output intensity

Broiler 16–20% Nitrogen output 49.2–65.6%

Broiler 20–22% with met. + Lys. Nitrogen output 16–38%

Broiler 20% + enzymes supplementation Nitrogen output 25.8–35.1%

Laying hens 11.5–17.5% Nitrogen output 26.6–36.3%

Laying hens 13.5% + enzymes supplementation Nitrogen output Similar

**Table 8.** Effects of feeding low-CP diets on nitrogen output of chickens.

**parameters**

12.50–45.83%

18.75–40.63%

37.5–43.8%

20.0–33.3%

12.5–43.7%

been demonstrated for this approach [27].

52 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

reduced [32, 33].

*Sources*: Based on [28–30].

**Type of chicken**

Feed intake is one of the areas in which some marked differences in the response of birds to low dietary protein has been observed when compared with those on higher dietary protein regime. Effects of low dietary protein levels on feed intake of birds have some degree of variation which could range from no effects on consumption to higher or depressed feed intake. Reduced or increased feed intake in chickens fed low-protein diets is desirable if accompanied with similar or improved performance per unit input when compared with birds fed high protein diets. However, it calls for concern if it leads to poor performance in the birds. Suspected factors contributing to cases of lower feed intake in birds fed low-protein diets have been identified. These include increased methionine level, ambient temperatures, extent of reduction of CP contents, change in dietary net energy concentration and protein ratio, the class and age of birds, and the extent to which the intact protein sources are kept at constant ratios to minimize amino acid imbalance [34–36].

Feeding low-protein diets could result in a wide range of response on different production and economic performance parameters. These could range from lowering, neutral, and/or raising effect on some critical parameters such as growth, feeding intake, carcass yield, egg production, egg weight, and feed efficiency. A similar performance between birds fed lowprotein diets and those fed higher levels may be considered a desirable development particularly if it translates to lower cost of production and lower feed conversion ratio [28]. However, there is a limit to which dietary protein could be reduced without any adverse effects on the performance of the birds. This means that dietary protein should not be increased or lowered arbitrarily but care must be taken to ensure that the physiological and other requirements of the birds are met by the adopted feed regime to guide against negative impact on performance, profit, and the environment.

#### *5.1.3. Some issues of and corrective measures for undesirable effects of feeding low-protein diets in chicken production*

Some reasons alluded for poor performances of birds fed low-protein diets, which provides a level of insights for providing corrective measures for sustainability. This includes:


diets must match the requirements for the stage of growth of the birds in order to optimize the performance. In other words, reduction in crude protein must not be excessive but kept within reasonable limits that do not negate the performance of the birds while retaining the environmental benefits. Ref. [34] indicated that egg weight increased when dietary protein level was increased from 15 to 16.5% during the early laying phase. They reported that on the basis of egg weight, body weight, and feed efficiency data, 15% CP is adequate for layers during the entire laying cycle of 21–72 weeks of age.

**5.2. Manure management strategies for reducing nitrogen emissions in chicken** 

One of the most important aims of manure management is possibly ensuring the loss of nutrients is prevented or kept at the minimum in the manure chain. The manure chain is the period from collection to storage, treatment, and application for feed production. Handling chicken manure in an environmentally sustainable way would help realize its value as a nutrient resource for crops and as a feedstock for renewable energy. Emissions at the various stages of manure management could be tackled in animal house, during storage, processing, and application/discharge. Thus, instead of losing nutrients into the environment, efforts should be directed at keeping them in the food and/or feed chain where they could enhance crop growths and contribute to significant reduction in the use of inorganic fertilizers. Sustainable manure management will contribute to household food security and income, improvement in agricultural production, reduction in public health risks, reduction in environmental pollution and greenhouse gases emissions, and decelerate global warming. Although several approaches and technologies are available to achieve this goal, unsustainable manure management practices are still very prevalent in some countries. Some of these unsustainable manure management practices include direct application and indiscriminate disposal of manure such discharge into water bodies, burning or open dumping and indiscriminate land application. Lack of relevant policies and/or regulations, as well as nonenforcement of some of the relevant available policies or regulations, are among the major contributor to unsustainable manure management practices. Ref. [5] provided some valuable information or tips that would contribute to handling and managing manure in such a way that keeps the nutrients intact as much as practicable. Some of these are highlighted

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*Collection point*: This could be in the barn or the house of the animal. The type of chicken management system affects the form in which the manure is handled. While manure is mostly in solid state in chickens raised on floor, it is in the wet form in layers raised in cages. It is critical to ensure that the animal housing allows for ease of manure collection and prevents losses. Consequently, the floor should be waterproof and covered against the rain to prevent losses

*Manure storage*: Manure storage could be indoor or outdoor, and it is essential to ensure the nutrients are intact from the period of collection to application. Manure could also be stored either in dry or liquid form. Liquid storage could be in lagoons which can be covered or open. More nitrogen losses occur in open than in covered lagoon. It is important to store manure properly to ensure optimal application. It is therefore advisable to provide cover for the manure in outdoor storage. Storage roofing will prevent losses into the soil and water through leaching, run-off. Providing a storage facility that is air-tight will also prevent losses through volatilization. There are some marked differences in the major gaseous losses depending on the state in which the manure is stored. Nitrogen volatilization from chicken manure occurs mainly in the form of ammonia, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas in dry storage. However, nitrogen could be lost to the environment through leaching when there is contact with water. Apart from nitrogen, other nutrients in the manure could also find their way

through nutrient volatilization, run-off, and leaching.

**production**

below:


#### *5.1.4. Cobenefits of feeding low-protein diets to chickens*

Some co-benefits have been observed when reductions in dietary protein are kept within the limits that do not adversely affect the performance of the chicken. One of the cobenefits of feeding low-CP diets to chicken is perhaps better utilization of protein.

Another cobenefit of feeding low dietary protein is reduced cost of production per unit of product (egg or meat) especially when reduction in offered protein level is kept within limits that will not adversely affect performance. Economic returns of chickens during the starter phase could be improved by increasing the amino acid density of the diets.

Significant reduction in excretion of nutrients other than nitrogen in chickens fed low dietary proteins could be of immense benefits to the environment and the producers [43]. Lowprotein diets are also a potential means of reducing mineral excretions, such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, manganese, zinc, and copper, and lead in poultry production [43, 44].

Lowered amount of excreted nitrogen (including NH3 ) contributes to reductions in potentially offensive odor and pollution from broiler production facility [45]. Quantitative reduction in nitrogen output with lower dietary protein could imply reduction in risk for the environment due to significant reduction in the amount of fecal nitrogen available for conversion to ammonia and nitrous oxide and eventual release into the atmosphere.

#### **5.2. Manure management strategies for reducing nitrogen emissions in chicken production**

diets must match the requirements for the stage of growth of the birds in order to optimize the performance. In other words, reduction in crude protein must not be excessive but kept within reasonable limits that do not negate the performance of the birds while retaining the environmental benefits. Ref. [34] indicated that egg weight increased when dietary protein level was increased from 15 to 16.5% during the early laying phase. They reported that on the basis of egg weight, body weight, and feed efficiency data, 15% CP is

**iii.** Altered ionic imbalance owing to lower potassium levels in the diets particularly when soybean meal is reduced in the diet [39]. Ref. [40] reported that FCR and egg production were significantly improved in the low-protein diet group with high electrolyte balance. This suggests that correcting some of the factors responsible for inferior performance of low-protein diets in hens could lead to additional benefits in form of improvement in

**iv.** Deficiencies or Inadequate intake of some amino acids has been implicated for poor performance in terms of egg weight and/or egg mass and body weight gain in chickens fed low-protein diets [41]. There are cases of recovery or better performance of the birds with

**v.** Use of low-quality feedstuffs and/or inadequate utilization of some components of the supplied diets. A wide range of enzymes have been used to correct some of the performance deficiencies and/or even lead to some superior performance in chicken supplied

Some co-benefits have been observed when reductions in dietary protein are kept within the limits that do not adversely affect the performance of the chicken. One of the cobenefits of

Another cobenefit of feeding low dietary protein is reduced cost of production per unit of product (egg or meat) especially when reduction in offered protein level is kept within limits that will not adversely affect performance. Economic returns of chickens during the starter

Significant reduction in excretion of nutrients other than nitrogen in chickens fed low dietary proteins could be of immense benefits to the environment and the producers [43]. Lowprotein diets are also a potential means of reducing mineral excretions, such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, manganese, zinc, and copper, and lead in poultry

offensive odor and pollution from broiler production facility [45]. Quantitative reduction in nitrogen output with lower dietary protein could imply reduction in risk for the environment due to significant reduction in the amount of fecal nitrogen available for conversion to ammo-

) contributes to reductions in potentially

adequate for layers during the entire laying cycle of 21–72 weeks of age.

the supplementation of the diets with the limiting amino acids [42, 43].

with low-protein diets compared with those on higher levels (**Table 8**).

feeding low-CP diets to chicken is perhaps better utilization of protein.

phase could be improved by increasing the amino acid density of the diets.

performance parameters.

54 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

production [43, 44].

*5.1.4. Cobenefits of feeding low-protein diets to chickens*

Lowered amount of excreted nitrogen (including NH3

nia and nitrous oxide and eventual release into the atmosphere.

One of the most important aims of manure management is possibly ensuring the loss of nutrients is prevented or kept at the minimum in the manure chain. The manure chain is the period from collection to storage, treatment, and application for feed production. Handling chicken manure in an environmentally sustainable way would help realize its value as a nutrient resource for crops and as a feedstock for renewable energy. Emissions at the various stages of manure management could be tackled in animal house, during storage, processing, and application/discharge. Thus, instead of losing nutrients into the environment, efforts should be directed at keeping them in the food and/or feed chain where they could enhance crop growths and contribute to significant reduction in the use of inorganic fertilizers. Sustainable manure management will contribute to household food security and income, improvement in agricultural production, reduction in public health risks, reduction in environmental pollution and greenhouse gases emissions, and decelerate global warming. Although several approaches and technologies are available to achieve this goal, unsustainable manure management practices are still very prevalent in some countries. Some of these unsustainable manure management practices include direct application and indiscriminate disposal of manure such discharge into water bodies, burning or open dumping and indiscriminate land application. Lack of relevant policies and/or regulations, as well as nonenforcement of some of the relevant available policies or regulations, are among the major contributor to unsustainable manure management practices. Ref. [5] provided some valuable information or tips that would contribute to handling and managing manure in such a way that keeps the nutrients intact as much as practicable. Some of these are highlighted below:

*Collection point*: This could be in the barn or the house of the animal. The type of chicken management system affects the form in which the manure is handled. While manure is mostly in solid state in chickens raised on floor, it is in the wet form in layers raised in cages. It is critical to ensure that the animal housing allows for ease of manure collection and prevents losses. Consequently, the floor should be waterproof and covered against the rain to prevent losses through nutrient volatilization, run-off, and leaching.

*Manure storage*: Manure storage could be indoor or outdoor, and it is essential to ensure the nutrients are intact from the period of collection to application. Manure could also be stored either in dry or liquid form. Liquid storage could be in lagoons which can be covered or open. More nitrogen losses occur in open than in covered lagoon. It is important to store manure properly to ensure optimal application. It is therefore advisable to provide cover for the manure in outdoor storage. Storage roofing will prevent losses into the soil and water through leaching, run-off. Providing a storage facility that is air-tight will also prevent losses through volatilization. There are some marked differences in the major gaseous losses depending on the state in which the manure is stored. Nitrogen volatilization from chicken manure occurs mainly in the form of ammonia, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas in dry storage. However, nitrogen could be lost to the environment through leaching when there is contact with water. Apart from nitrogen, other nutrients in the manure could also find their way into the environment and cause some damages if excessive. In liquid storage, the main form of gaseous emission is methane, a greenhouse gas which is classified as a short-lived climate pollutant. To ensure proper capture of methane and prevent its losses to the atmosphere, anaerobic digesters could be used for storage. Anaerobic bio-digester technologies are relatively simple and adoptable at any level and scale, industrial, village, and farm level. The bio-digester must be recharged daily after biogas production commences. Manure used for biogas production is mixed with water in equal ratio (that is, 1 kg manure: 1 L of water) and fed into the bio-digester. The captured methane could be used as bio-energy, while the bioslurry could be used as fertilizer as the nutrients are still intact. This could be a direct or an indirect source of additional income to farmers. Although chicken manure can yield considerable amount of biogas (310 m3 /ton DM), comparable to other feedstock materials, a major challenge with the use of chicken manure for biogas production is that it is high in ammonium, which could inhibit the process of methanogenesis or biomethanation. Therefore, it is advisable to use chicken manure in small quantity. Biogas is composed of 50–70% methane, 30–45% carbon dioxide, 0–3% nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and hydrogen sulfide and therefore could be purified and used to power generators. When used for household cooking, caution must be exercised because of the highly inflammable characteristic of methane which is the main component of biogas.

Composting could be carried out using heap or pit method. Composting could be done in small and in large scale, and solid or liquid manure could be used. A major disadvantage of composting is that it could be labor intensive. Air drying could practically lead to the loss of manure nitrogen into the atmosphere. Air drying manure should only be done on waterproof

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57

*Manure application as organic fertilizer*: Manure could be used as a valuable fertilizer resource. It is however critical to carry out both soil and manure tests to establish the nutrient levels and needs to avoid nutrient overload. Manure applications as fertilizer must be strictly need-based. It is advised that manure be incorporated into the soil during

Environmental approach to chicken production is an increasingly important consideration all over the world. Major emissions in chicken production include ammonia, nitrous oxide, and other oxides of nitrogen and methane produced through the poultry supply chain. Uncontrolled emissions of deleterious gases into the environment could pose serious challenges and negatively impact the future use of resources. Sustainability approaches to chicken production hold immense benefits for the planet and the people while at the same time guaranteeing profitability. Several technologies are available for use in reducing the environmental footprint of chicken. To minimize the loss of nutrients, appropriate knowledge of various emissions/losses is required, and appropriate measures are taken across the entire chicken and manure management chain. Enactment and enforcement of relevant policies, laws, regulations, and creating enabling environments will considerably promote sustainable practices

\*, Stephen Abiodun Bolu2

1 Livestock Research Division, Coordination of Technical Research Programme,

2 Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Production Department, University of Ilorin,

3 Burreau of Gender and Youth in Agricultural Research, Office of the Executive

Secretary, Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: digabby1@gmail.com

Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

, Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu1

and

floor. Air dried manure are easy to handle as they be bulked.

application.

**6. Conclusions**

in chicken production.

Gabriel Adebayo Malomo1

Zainab Suleiman Usman3

**Author details**

Ilorin, Nigeria

*Manure treatment and processing*: There are several reasons for treating manure, namely; to reduce the volume, to improve handling as well as increase its value, applicability, reduce health related risks, and to prevent nutrient losses to safeguard the environment. There are several available methods of manure treatments, ranging from simple to highly complex one. These include air drying, anaerobic digestion, separation, adding solid materials to liquid manure, refining, composting, and amendment with alum or use of acidifying agents, and so on.

Manure treatment could begin from the animal house. For example, treatment of poultry litter with alum is a practice that is known to reduce manure nitrogen losses and commonly carried out during chicken production operations. Several types of alum used for water treatments could also be used effectively for chicken manure amendment. Ref. [46] compared poultry litters treated with salt solution, alum, and air exclusion and reported that alum treated feces had significantly higher percentage nitrogen retention and lower nitrogen depletion rate than salt and air-tight treatments. Ref. [46] also observed that maize seeds planted on alum treated and air excluded litter soils had an average germination percentage (GP) range of 65–75% and 54–75%, respectively, which were comparable to the average GP of 75% recorded for soil treated with the control manure. Sorghum plots also recorded a mean value of 99% GP on alum treated soil within 2 weeks of planting, surpassing airtight treated soil with mean value of 89% GP; however, seeds planted on salt treated litter soil recorded 0% germination. Ref. [30] suggested that ammonium alum was the least effective in preventing nitrogen losses in stored chicken manure compared with other forms of alum. Some of the benefits of using alum in chicken manure amendment include decreases in chicken house ammonia level, reduction in energy usage, improvement in birds' performance, precipitation of soluble phosphorus, reduction of phosphorus and heavy metals runoff, and imposition of drying effect that reduces litter moisture.

Composting could be carried out using heap or pit method. Composting could be done in small and in large scale, and solid or liquid manure could be used. A major disadvantage of composting is that it could be labor intensive. Air drying could practically lead to the loss of manure nitrogen into the atmosphere. Air drying manure should only be done on waterproof floor. Air dried manure are easy to handle as they be bulked.

*Manure application as organic fertilizer*: Manure could be used as a valuable fertilizer resource. It is however critical to carry out both soil and manure tests to establish the nutrient levels and needs to avoid nutrient overload. Manure applications as fertilizer must be strictly need-based. It is advised that manure be incorporated into the soil during application.

## **6. Conclusions**

into the environment and cause some damages if excessive. In liquid storage, the main form of gaseous emission is methane, a greenhouse gas which is classified as a short-lived climate pollutant. To ensure proper capture of methane and prevent its losses to the atmosphere, anaerobic digesters could be used for storage. Anaerobic bio-digester technologies are relatively simple and adoptable at any level and scale, industrial, village, and farm level. The bio-digester must be recharged daily after biogas production commences. Manure used for biogas production is mixed with water in equal ratio (that is, 1 kg manure: 1 L of water) and fed into the bio-digester. The captured methane could be used as bio-energy, while the bioslurry could be used as fertilizer as the nutrients are still intact. This could be a direct or an indirect source of additional income to farmers. Although chicken manure can yield consid-

challenge with the use of chicken manure for biogas production is that it is high in ammonium, which could inhibit the process of methanogenesis or biomethanation. Therefore, it is advisable to use chicken manure in small quantity. Biogas is composed of 50–70% methane, 30–45% carbon dioxide, 0–3% nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and hydrogen sulfide and therefore could be purified and used to power generators. When used for household cooking, caution must be exercised because of the highly inflammable characteristic of methane which is

*Manure treatment and processing*: There are several reasons for treating manure, namely; to reduce the volume, to improve handling as well as increase its value, applicability, reduce health related risks, and to prevent nutrient losses to safeguard the environment. There are several available methods of manure treatments, ranging from simple to highly complex one. These include air drying, anaerobic digestion, separation, adding solid materials to liquid manure, refining, composting, and amendment with alum or use of acidifying agents, and so on.

Manure treatment could begin from the animal house. For example, treatment of poultry litter with alum is a practice that is known to reduce manure nitrogen losses and commonly carried out during chicken production operations. Several types of alum used for water treatments could also be used effectively for chicken manure amendment. Ref. [46] compared poultry litters treated with salt solution, alum, and air exclusion and reported that alum treated feces had significantly higher percentage nitrogen retention and lower nitrogen depletion rate than salt and air-tight treatments. Ref. [46] also observed that maize seeds planted on alum treated and air excluded litter soils had an average germination percentage (GP) range of 65–75% and 54–75%, respectively, which were comparable to the average GP of 75% recorded for soil treated with the control manure. Sorghum plots also recorded a mean value of 99% GP on alum treated soil within 2 weeks of planting, surpassing airtight treated soil with mean value of 89% GP; however, seeds planted on salt treated litter soil recorded 0% germination. Ref. [30] suggested that ammonium alum was the least effective in preventing nitrogen losses in stored chicken manure compared with other forms of alum. Some of the benefits of using alum in chicken manure amendment include decreases in chicken house ammonia level, reduction in energy usage, improvement in birds' performance, precipitation of soluble phosphorus, reduction of phosphorus and heavy metals runoff, and imposition of drying

/ton DM), comparable to other feedstock materials, a major

erable amount of biogas (310 m3

56 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

the main component of biogas.

effect that reduces litter moisture.

Environmental approach to chicken production is an increasingly important consideration all over the world. Major emissions in chicken production include ammonia, nitrous oxide, and other oxides of nitrogen and methane produced through the poultry supply chain. Uncontrolled emissions of deleterious gases into the environment could pose serious challenges and negatively impact the future use of resources. Sustainability approaches to chicken production hold immense benefits for the planet and the people while at the same time guaranteeing profitability. Several technologies are available for use in reducing the environmental footprint of chicken. To minimize the loss of nutrients, appropriate knowledge of various emissions/losses is required, and appropriate measures are taken across the entire chicken and manure management chain. Enactment and enforcement of relevant policies, laws, regulations, and creating enabling environments will considerably promote sustainable practices in chicken production.

## **Author details**

Gabriel Adebayo Malomo1 \*, Stephen Abiodun Bolu2 , Aliyu Shuaibu Madugu1 and Zainab Suleiman Usman3

\*Address all correspondence to: digabby1@gmail.com

1 Livestock Research Division, Coordination of Technical Research Programme, Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

2 Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Production Department, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

3 Burreau of Gender and Youth in Agricultural Research, Office of the Executive Secretary, Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

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**Chapter 4**

**Provisional chapter**

**Quality of Chicken Meat**

**Quality of Chicken Meat**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72865

Danica Hanžek

**Abstract**

health benefit

**1. Introduction**

Danica Hanžek

Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and

Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72865

Chicken meat is considered as an easily available source of high-quality protein and other nutrients that are necessary for proper body functioning. In order to meet the consumers' growing demands for high-quality protein, the poultry industry focused on selection of fast-growing broilers, which reach a body mass of about 2.5 kg within 6-week-intensive fattening. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption. In addition, chicken meat is known by its nutritional quality, as it contains significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups. The technological parameters of chicken meat quality are related to various factors (keeping conditions, feeding treatment, feed composition, transport, stress before slaughter, etc.). Composition of chicken meat can be influenced through modification of chicken feed composition (addition of different types of oils, vitamins, microelements and amino acids), to produce meat enriched with functional ingredients (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium and vitamin E). By this way, chicken meat becomes a foodstuff with added value, which, in addition to high-quality nutritional composition, also contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health. **Keywords:** chicken meat, nutritive value, meat quality, n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium,

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Throughout the world, poultry meat consumption continues to grow, both in developed and in the developing countries. In 1999, global production of chickens reached 40 billion, and by 2020 this trend is expected to continue to grow, so that poultry meat will become the consumers' first choice [1]. Fresh chicken meat and chicken products are universally popular. This

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

## **Chapter 4**

**Provisional chapter**

## **Quality of Chicken Meat**

**Quality of Chicken Meat**

Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and Danica Hanžek Danica Hanžek Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72865

#### **Abstract**

Chicken meat is considered as an easily available source of high-quality protein and other nutrients that are necessary for proper body functioning. In order to meet the consumers' growing demands for high-quality protein, the poultry industry focused on selection of fast-growing broilers, which reach a body mass of about 2.5 kg within 6-week-intensive fattening. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption. In addition, chicken meat is known by its nutritional quality, as it contains significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups. The technological parameters of chicken meat quality are related to various factors (keeping conditions, feeding treatment, feed composition, transport, stress before slaughter, etc.). Composition of chicken meat can be influenced through modification of chicken feed composition (addition of different types of oils, vitamins, microelements and amino acids), to produce meat enriched with functional ingredients (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium and vitamin E). By this way, chicken meat becomes a foodstuff with added value, which, in addition to high-quality nutritional composition, also contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72865

**Keywords:** chicken meat, nutritive value, meat quality, n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium, health benefit

#### **1. Introduction**

Throughout the world, poultry meat consumption continues to grow, both in developed and in the developing countries. In 1999, global production of chickens reached 40 billion, and by 2020 this trend is expected to continue to grow, so that poultry meat will become the consumers' first choice [1]. Fresh chicken meat and chicken products are universally popular. This

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

occurrence can be explained by the fact that this meat is not a subject of culturally or religiously set limitations, and it is perceived as nutritionally valuable foodstuff with low content of fat, in which there are more desirable unsaturated fatty acids than in other types of meat [2, 3]. More importantly, quality poultry products are available at affordable prices, although their production costs may vary [4]. If referring to overall consumption of all types of meat, poultry meat consumption takes one of the leading places in all countries throughout the world [3]. Such good rating of poultry meat is influenced by many factors, such as short fattening duration, excellent space utilization, high reproductive ability of poultry, excellent feed conversion, satisfactory nutritional value of poultry meat and relatively low sales prices. The quality of broiler meat is affected by a number of factors, as follows: fattening system, duration of fattening, hybrid and sex, feeding treatment, handling before slaughter, freezing of carcasses, storage time, etc. [5–11]. It should be emphasized that nowadays poultry is fattened in an intensive way, so the stress is an inevitable factor, and the feed, with increased content of microalgae and vegetable and fish oils used to enrich poultry products with desirable fatty acids, is susceptible to oxidation [11–14]. The same as designed poultry feed mixtures with increased microalgae or oil content, poultry products (meat and eggs) enriched with omega-3 fatty acids are also subjected to oxidation. In order to reduce oxidation in poultry feed, it is necessary to supplement it with some antioxidants, such as selenium or vitamin E. Such chicken meat is considered as "functional food", as it has the increased content of bioactive substances, which positively influences consumers' health. The most common bioactive substances used to enrich chicken meat are conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), vitamins, microelements, amino acids, microalgae and oils rich in omega-3 PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) [14–19].

The aim of this research was to present the nutritive value of chicken meat, as well as to assess the influence of different fattening system factors that determine the meat quality. Furthermore, the aim was to elaborate the possibility of enriching the meat with omega-3 fatty acids, carnosine and selenium, and to point out the benefits that consumption of enriched chicken meat has on human health.

to people suffering from heart and coronary diseases. When compared to cholesterol content, white chicken meat does not differ much from other types of meat, however, if considering other benefits (more protein, less total fat, less saturated fat and less calories), it has better nutritional quality and therefore, it is recommended for consumption to anyone who takes care of diet and health. High protein content makes chicken meat an ideal foodstuff for all consumers who need high-quality, easily degradable protein (athletes, children, the elderly). Average daily requirement (AR—average requirements) of adults for protein is 0.66 g/kg body weight (BW), while young children and athletes' needs are twice as high (1.12 g/kg body weight). Pregnant women's needs for protein are considerably higher and they depend on the pregnancy trimester, by increasing to an additional 23 g/day for the third pregnancy trimester [21]. Because of all stated above, chicken meat is recommended as a rich source of high-quality protein in human nutrition. Chicken meat contains low collagen levels, which is another positive characteristic. Collagen is a structural protein that reduces meat digestibility,

**Nutrient Chicken1 Pork2 Beef3 Lamb4** Energy/kcal 165 165 185 180 Water/g 65.26 65.75 64.83 64.92 Protein/g 31.02 28.86 27.23 28.17 Total fat/g 3.57 4.62 7.63 6.67 Saturated fatty acids 1.010 1.451 2.661 2.380 Monounsaturated fatty acids 1.240 1.878 3.214 2.920 Polyunsaturated fatty acids 0.770 1.066 0.285 0.440 Cholesterol (mg) 85 86 78 87

Quality of Chicken Meat

65

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72865

Chicken meat is also a good source of some minerals and vitamins (**Table 2**). When compared to red meat (except for pork meat), it contains more calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium. Content of iron is almost the same as in pork. Iron is necessary for creation of hemoglobin, for prevention of anemia, as well as for normal muscle activity. Calcium and phosphorus are important for healthy bones and teeth. Sodium is an electrolyte, and magnesium is important for normal synthesis of protein and proper muscle activity. Out of the total content of vitamin in chicken meat, niacin (vitamin B3) is contained in highest portion, and content of vitamins A and B6 is also higher than in other types of meat. Niacin is very important for proper metabolism of carbohydrates and for energy creation. It is also important for healthy skin, hair and eyes, as well as for nervous system. It plays a role in the synthesis

so chicken meat is easier to digest than other types of meat [22].

Chicken, broilers or fryers, breast, meat only, cooked, roasted.

Beef, round, bottom round, roast, separable lean only, trimmed to 0″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

Lamb, domestic, leg, shank half, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

Pork, fresh, leg (ham), rump half, separable lean only, cooked, roasted.

**Table 1.** Nutritive content of different types of meat (per 100 g).

Source: [20].1

2

3

4

## **2. Nutritional value of chicken meat**

Chicken meat is appropriate for quick and simple preparation, yet it offers a variety of combinations with different foodstuffs, thus making itself as a usual choice of consumers faced with modern lifestyle. When compared to other types of meat (**Table 1**), it is proved that chicken meat (breasts) contains more protein and less fat than red meat, thus making it a dietetic product.

It is important to mention that chicken with skin contains 2–3 times more fat than chicken without skin, so it should be eaten without skin to ensure the intake of high-quality protein without extra calories and fat. When compared to red meat, the main advantage of white chicken meat is in its low caloric value and a low portion of saturated fat, so consumption of white chicken meat is recommended to people who want to reduce the fat intake, as well as


Source: [20].1 Chicken, broilers or fryers, breast, meat only, cooked, roasted.

2 Pork, fresh, leg (ham), rump half, separable lean only, cooked, roasted.

3 Beef, round, bottom round, roast, separable lean only, trimmed to 0″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

4 Lamb, domestic, leg, shank half, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

**Table 1.** Nutritive content of different types of meat (per 100 g).

occurrence can be explained by the fact that this meat is not a subject of culturally or religiously set limitations, and it is perceived as nutritionally valuable foodstuff with low content of fat, in which there are more desirable unsaturated fatty acids than in other types of meat [2, 3]. More importantly, quality poultry products are available at affordable prices, although their production costs may vary [4]. If referring to overall consumption of all types of meat, poultry meat consumption takes one of the leading places in all countries throughout the world [3]. Such good rating of poultry meat is influenced by many factors, such as short fattening duration, excellent space utilization, high reproductive ability of poultry, excellent feed conversion, satisfactory nutritional value of poultry meat and relatively low sales prices. The quality of broiler meat is affected by a number of factors, as follows: fattening system, duration of fattening, hybrid and sex, feeding treatment, handling before slaughter, freezing of carcasses, storage time, etc. [5–11]. It should be emphasized that nowadays poultry is fattened in an intensive way, so the stress is an inevitable factor, and the feed, with increased content of microalgae and vegetable and fish oils used to enrich poultry products with desirable fatty acids, is susceptible to oxidation [11–14]. The same as designed poultry feed mixtures with increased microalgae or oil content, poultry products (meat and eggs) enriched with omega-3 fatty acids are also subjected to oxidation. In order to reduce oxidation in poultry feed, it is necessary to supplement it with some antioxidants, such as selenium or vitamin E. Such chicken meat is considered as "functional food", as it has the increased content of bioactive substances, which positively influences consumers' health. The most common bioactive substances used to enrich chicken meat are conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), vitamins, microelements, amino

acids, microalgae and oils rich in omega-3 PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) [14–19].

chicken meat has on human health.

64 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

product.

**2. Nutritional value of chicken meat**

The aim of this research was to present the nutritive value of chicken meat, as well as to assess the influence of different fattening system factors that determine the meat quality. Furthermore, the aim was to elaborate the possibility of enriching the meat with omega-3 fatty acids, carnosine and selenium, and to point out the benefits that consumption of enriched

Chicken meat is appropriate for quick and simple preparation, yet it offers a variety of combinations with different foodstuffs, thus making itself as a usual choice of consumers faced with modern lifestyle. When compared to other types of meat (**Table 1**), it is proved that chicken meat (breasts) contains more protein and less fat than red meat, thus making it a dietetic

It is important to mention that chicken with skin contains 2–3 times more fat than chicken without skin, so it should be eaten without skin to ensure the intake of high-quality protein without extra calories and fat. When compared to red meat, the main advantage of white chicken meat is in its low caloric value and a low portion of saturated fat, so consumption of white chicken meat is recommended to people who want to reduce the fat intake, as well as to people suffering from heart and coronary diseases. When compared to cholesterol content, white chicken meat does not differ much from other types of meat, however, if considering other benefits (more protein, less total fat, less saturated fat and less calories), it has better nutritional quality and therefore, it is recommended for consumption to anyone who takes care of diet and health. High protein content makes chicken meat an ideal foodstuff for all consumers who need high-quality, easily degradable protein (athletes, children, the elderly). Average daily requirement (AR—average requirements) of adults for protein is 0.66 g/kg body weight (BW), while young children and athletes' needs are twice as high (1.12 g/kg body weight). Pregnant women's needs for protein are considerably higher and they depend on the pregnancy trimester, by increasing to an additional 23 g/day for the third pregnancy trimester [21]. Because of all stated above, chicken meat is recommended as a rich source of high-quality protein in human nutrition. Chicken meat contains low collagen levels, which is another positive characteristic. Collagen is a structural protein that reduces meat digestibility, so chicken meat is easier to digest than other types of meat [22].

Chicken meat is also a good source of some minerals and vitamins (**Table 2**). When compared to red meat (except for pork meat), it contains more calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium. Content of iron is almost the same as in pork. Iron is necessary for creation of hemoglobin, for prevention of anemia, as well as for normal muscle activity. Calcium and phosphorus are important for healthy bones and teeth. Sodium is an electrolyte, and magnesium is important for normal synthesis of protein and proper muscle activity. Out of the total content of vitamin in chicken meat, niacin (vitamin B3) is contained in highest portion, and content of vitamins A and B6 is also higher than in other types of meat. Niacin is very important for proper metabolism of carbohydrates and for energy creation. It is also important for healthy skin, hair and eyes, as well as for nervous system. It plays a role in the synthesis


By applying different feeding treatments, the nutritional profile of chicken meat, such as fat and cholesterol content and fatty acid profile, can be modified in order to produce a foodstuff of improved nutritional value. Furthermore, supplementation of various antioxidants (selenium and vitamin E) to chicken feed influences their deposition in chicken tissue, thus enabling production of enriched foodstuff. The possibilities of enriching chicken meat with

Quality of Chicken Meat

67

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72865

In present times, emphasis is put on importance of chicken meat consumption for maintaining and reducing body weight. It is known that the intake of dietary protein is effective in reducing body weight, so the chicken meat is often a part of the diet aimed to reduce body weight, because of its high protein and low fat content. The studies have shown that weight loss was higher in people who consumed low calorie meals rich in protein in comparison with low calorie meals with low protein content. This is due to the fact that protein provides a greater sense of satiety, so that people consume less calories during the day, thus reducing the intake

Chicken meat is considered as desirable foodstuff in prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Saturated fat, cholesterol and heme iron, which is more contained in red than in white meat, are very important factors in development of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and in increase of blood cholesterol [30]. According to the data of Bernstein et al., by replacing meals with red meat with white chicken meat, the risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence can be lowered by 19% [31]. The authors assumed that this was a consequence of less intake of heme iron and sodium, and of more polyunsaturated fatty acids in meals. Therefore, chicken meat, as a source of protein, could be a significant factor in reducing risks

There has been recently a lot of evidence on how the lifestyle has been influencing the increase or the decrease of disease risk occurrence, such as diabetes. Changes in our lifestyle and nutrition can significantly affect the decrease of that disease occurrence. The increased risk of developing diabetes is related to various factors, of which the intake of saturated animal fat is among the most significant ones [32]. The authors stated a positive correlation between the intake of saturated fat intake and the resistance to insulin. The research results of Pan et al. pointed out that consumption of red meat, especially of red meat products, was associated with increased risk of developing the type 2 diabetes [33]. Although the increased intake of protein of animal origin represents a risk of developing diabetes, consumption of chicken meat, as a part of balanced diet, is recommended for prevention of disease development and its control [34]. Healthy lifestyle, which includes consumption of chicken meat, fruit, legumes, nuts, whole grains and vegetable oils, is associated with reduced risk of death in patients suffering from diabetes [35]. The results of these studies encourage the change of lifestyle and dietary habits, within which white chicken meat with low content of saturated fat serves as a healthier alternative to animal

protein intake in daily meals, so it is recommended as a part of a healthy diet.

As stated above, excessive intake of proteins of animal origin is associated with the risk of developing diabetes. Still, some studies have also confirmed that excessive intake of meat, especially

favorable omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants are explored in the following text.

**2.1. Health benefit of chicken meat**

of carbohydrates [28, 29].

of cardiovascular disease development.

Source: [20].1 Chicken, broilers or fryers, breast, meat only, cooked, roasted.

2 Pork, fresh, leg (ham), rump half, separable lean only, cooked, roasted.

3 Beef, round, bottom round, roast, separable lean only, trimmed to 0″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

4 Lamb, domestic, leg, shank half, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

**Table 2.** Content of minerals and vitamins in different types of meat (per 100 g).

of sex hormones and in improving circulation and reducing cholesterol level. Niacin is often used as an additional therapy in patients that take drugs for lowering of blood lipids. In this case, it is scientifically proven that niacin affects the increase of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level, but it does not affect the improvement of cardiovascular disease state [23, 24]. When niacin is taken as an independent therapy, it reduces the development of cardiovascular diseases, and lowers the mortality associated with cardiac or cardiovascular diseases [25, 26]. The chronic lack of niacin in the organism causes pelagic disease, which is characterized by uneven skin pigmentation (skin redness), gastrointestinal disorders (diarrhea) and brain function disorder (dementia), [27]. In light of the abovementioned, chicken meat is considered as convenient, affordable and acceptable source of basic nutrients, vitamins and minerals necessary for proper body functioning.

By applying different feeding treatments, the nutritional profile of chicken meat, such as fat and cholesterol content and fatty acid profile, can be modified in order to produce a foodstuff of improved nutritional value. Furthermore, supplementation of various antioxidants (selenium and vitamin E) to chicken feed influences their deposition in chicken tissue, thus enabling production of enriched foodstuff. The possibilities of enriching chicken meat with favorable omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants are explored in the following text.

#### **2.1. Health benefit of chicken meat**

of sex hormones and in improving circulation and reducing cholesterol level. Niacin is often used as an additional therapy in patients that take drugs for lowering of blood lipids. In this case, it is scientifically proven that niacin affects the increase of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol level, but it does not affect the improvement of cardiovascular disease state [23, 24]. When niacin is taken as an independent therapy, it reduces the development of cardiovascular diseases, and lowers the mortality associated with cardiac or cardiovascular diseases [25, 26]. The chronic lack of niacin in the organism causes pelagic disease, which is characterized by uneven skin pigmentation (skin redness), gastrointestinal disorders (diarrhea) and brain function disorder (dementia), [27]. In light of the abovementioned, chicken meat is considered as convenient, affordable and acceptable source of basic nutrients, vitamins and minerals neces-

Chicken, broilers or fryers, breast, meat only, cooked, roasted.

Beef, round, bottom round, roast, separable lean only, trimmed to 0″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

Lamb, domestic, leg, shank half, separable lean only, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, cooked, roasted.

Pork, fresh, leg (ham), rump half, separable lean only, cooked, roasted.

**Table 2.** Content of minerals and vitamins in different types of meat (per 100 g).

**Chicken1 Pork2 Beef3 Lamb4**

Calcium (mg) 15 16 6 8 Iron (mg) 1.04 0.97 2.40 2.06 Magnesium (mg) 29 27 18 26 Phosphorus (mg) 228 273 172 208 Potassium (mg) 256 425 222 342 Sodium (mg) 74 80 36 66 Zinc (mg) 1.00 2.48 4.74 5.02

Vitamin C (mg) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 Thiamin (mg) 0.070 0.523 0.057 0.110 Riboflavin (mg) 0.114 0,408 0.170 0,280 Niacin (mg) 13.712 7.940 5.232 6.390 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.600 0.538 0.380 0.170 Folate (μg) 4 0 9 24 Vitamin B12 (μg) 0.34 0.67 1.61 2.71 Vitamin A (μg) 6 1 0 0 Vitamin E (mg) 0.27 0.26 0.37 0.18 Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (μg) 0.1 0.3 — — Vitamin K (μg) 0.3 0.0 1.3 —

sary for proper body functioning.

**Minerals**

66 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

**Vitamins**

Source: [20].1

2

3

4

In present times, emphasis is put on importance of chicken meat consumption for maintaining and reducing body weight. It is known that the intake of dietary protein is effective in reducing body weight, so the chicken meat is often a part of the diet aimed to reduce body weight, because of its high protein and low fat content. The studies have shown that weight loss was higher in people who consumed low calorie meals rich in protein in comparison with low calorie meals with low protein content. This is due to the fact that protein provides a greater sense of satiety, so that people consume less calories during the day, thus reducing the intake of carbohydrates [28, 29].

Chicken meat is considered as desirable foodstuff in prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Saturated fat, cholesterol and heme iron, which is more contained in red than in white meat, are very important factors in development of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and in increase of blood cholesterol [30]. According to the data of Bernstein et al., by replacing meals with red meat with white chicken meat, the risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence can be lowered by 19% [31]. The authors assumed that this was a consequence of less intake of heme iron and sodium, and of more polyunsaturated fatty acids in meals. Therefore, chicken meat, as a source of protein, could be a significant factor in reducing risks of cardiovascular disease development.

There has been recently a lot of evidence on how the lifestyle has been influencing the increase or the decrease of disease risk occurrence, such as diabetes. Changes in our lifestyle and nutrition can significantly affect the decrease of that disease occurrence. The increased risk of developing diabetes is related to various factors, of which the intake of saturated animal fat is among the most significant ones [32]. The authors stated a positive correlation between the intake of saturated fat intake and the resistance to insulin. The research results of Pan et al. pointed out that consumption of red meat, especially of red meat products, was associated with increased risk of developing the type 2 diabetes [33]. Although the increased intake of protein of animal origin represents a risk of developing diabetes, consumption of chicken meat, as a part of balanced diet, is recommended for prevention of disease development and its control [34]. Healthy lifestyle, which includes consumption of chicken meat, fruit, legumes, nuts, whole grains and vegetable oils, is associated with reduced risk of death in patients suffering from diabetes [35]. The results of these studies encourage the change of lifestyle and dietary habits, within which white chicken meat with low content of saturated fat serves as a healthier alternative to animal protein intake in daily meals, so it is recommended as a part of a healthy diet.

As stated above, excessive intake of proteins of animal origin is associated with the risk of developing diabetes. Still, some studies have also confirmed that excessive intake of meat, especially of red meat, is a potential risk factor for development of certain types of cancer. Red meat contains more potentially harmful ingredients than white meat. These potentially harmful ingredients are saturated fat, heme iron, sodium, N-nitroso compounds and aromatic amines produced by high temperature cooking, so the consumption of red meat represents a risk of developing cancers. Therefore, red meat is associated with a higher risk of cancers, while white meat shows neutral or moderately protective correlation to cancer occurrence [36, 37]. Cancers in digestive system are usually associated with consumption of animal products. This conclusion was confirmed by researches carried out among populations with significantly higher consumption of meat than recommended. It is assumed that myoglobin from red meat activates pre-cancerous damage by accelerating the heme iron influence on the formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds and by developing cytotoxic and genotoxic aldehydes through the lipid peroxidation process [38]. These facts are in favor of supporting consumption of white chicken meat. Zhu et al. carried out a comprehensive review of literature on the occurrence of esophageal cancer, and concluded that there was a reverse correlation between the number of chicken meat meals a week and the risk of developing esophageal cancer [39]. The authors stated researches showed the decreasing risk of developing esophageal cancer by about 53% in Europe in cases of increased consumption of chicken meat. Of course, such research conclusions should be interpreted cautiously, because it cannot be stated with full certainty that red meat causes cancers and white meat does not, yet there is a lot of evidence that consumption of white meat is more favorable than consumption of red meat.

appearance. Consumers connect the color of meat with its freshness. The color of meat can be determined visually or using instruments (colorimeters). For the visual evaluation of the meat color, it is necessary to have trained panelists, who evaluate the appearance of meat by using the hedonic scale. The instrumental determination of meat color is more efficient and the methods of reflection or extraction are used to quantify the amount of pigment. The color of foods can be defined as the interaction of a light, an object, an observer and the surroundings of the food. Recently, the International Commission on Illumination described how background can influence the appreciation of color. Instruments used for evaluation of meat color by reflection method are colorimeters, for example, CR Minolta 300 or 400 that work on the principle of meat color comparison in regard to standard color values. The International Commission on Illumination lists three values: CIE L\*, a\* and b\*. CIE L\* indicates lightness, where values range from 0 (black) to 100 (white). The value of CIE a\* shows redness while CIE b\* indicates yellowness. Negative a\* and b\* values indicate the appearance of green and blue color of the meat.

Quality of Chicken Meat

69

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Kralik et al. reported that the chicken genotype did not influence the CIE L\* (lightness) and CIE b\* (yellowness) values referring to meat color [45]. As of the results, the CIE L\* 49.93 and CIE b\* 10.17 was reported for chicken meat of Cobb 500 genotype, and for the Hubbard Classic, the values were CIE L\* 51.11 and CIE b\* 10.50 (P > 0.05). Furthermore, the authors stated that there was a negative correlation between pH and CIE L\* value r = −0.285 for Cobb 500 and r = −0.438 for Hubbard Classic genotypes. In the research into the influence of chicken sex on the quality of fresh and cooked meat, Salakova et al. also determined the negative correlation between pH and CIE L\* value measured in fresh and cooked breast meat of the Ross 308 chicken genotype (r = −0.41, P < 0.001 and r = −0.31, P < 0.05), [46]. The authors stated that male chickens of the Ross 308 genotype had statistically significantly higher pH values than female chickens (P < 0.05), which was not depending on the portion of crude protein in the finisher mixture (A = 22.6%, B = 20.1% and C = 18.7%). The highest pH values were measured in breast meat of male and female chickens of the group A (pH = 6.08 and pH = 5.97, respectively), while in feeding treatments with lower portion of crude protein in feeding mixture the value of pH in breast meat of both sexes decreased (♂ B = 5.99 and C ♂ =5.77 and ♀ B = 5.85 and ♀ C = 5.66). Female chickens had statistically significantly brighter meat color than male chickens in the A treatment (CIE L\* 54.90 and CIE L\* 52.24, respectively; P < 0.01). The same trend referring to the meat color was noticed in other feeding treatments, however, the differences were not statistically significant (♀ B=CIE L\* 59.43 C=CIE L\* 58.11 and ♂ B=CIE L\* 58.36 C=CIE L\*55.17). The research of Živković et al. describes the influence of extruded linseed in chicken feed on the physico-chemical and sensory traits of meat [47]. They fattened chicken separated by sex in control and experimental group. The control group (C) consumed the commercial mixture and the experimental group (E) had mixture supplemented with 6% of extruded linseed. The authors concluded that feeding treatment influenced the protein content in meat of thighs of females only (C = 19.27% E = 17.76%; P < 0.05). The feeding treatment had effect on the breast meat color (P < 0.05). Experimental group of chickens had lighter breast meat color than the control. Male chickens had statistically significantly lighter breast meat than females (P < 0.05). The value of CIE a\* (redness) reduced significantly in *m. pectoralis profundus*, and CIE b\* increased in *m. pectoralis superficialis* in both chicken sexes (P < 0.001). In thigh muscles

**3.1. Influence of genotype, sex and feeding on the chicken meat quality**

## **3. Parameters of chicken meat quality**

When considering nutritional aspects, poultry meat is good for consumers because it is rich in protein and minerals, and contains a small amount of fat with high portion of unsaturated fatty acids and a low cholesterol level [2]. Changes in consumers' lifestyle in developed countries have influenced the meat market by changing the demand and supply of certain types of meat, which the food industry used as an advantage to market so called "fast food" and more recently also "functional food". In both food groups, chicken meat is highly represented [3]. This growing demand for poultry meat influenced the scientists to create chickens of fast-growing genotypes, which have good feed conversion, better carcass formation (higher portion of breast meat and less abdominal fat), lower mortality, etc. However, all of these positive changes in new chicken genotypes cause greater stress, and many researchers point out that this fast growth of chickens resulted in histological and biochemical modifications of muscle tissue [40, 41, 42]. The researches proved that selection of fast-growing chickens had negative effects on some meat quality parameters: reduced water holding capacity of meat, poor cohesiveness in cooked meat, appearance of pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat, that is, of dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat [43, 44]. In addition to the mentioned factors, the available literature states that parameters of chicken meat quality are affected by the keeping system and duration of chicken fattening, feeding treatment and sex of chickens, pre-slaughter handling, transport to slaughterhouse, etc.

An important factor for consumers when deciding on the purchase of meat is its appearance, therefore, in this chapter are described some technological features such as color, pH value, drip loss, cooking loss and water holding capacity (WHC), that have a direct impact on meat appearance. Consumers connect the color of meat with its freshness. The color of meat can be determined visually or using instruments (colorimeters). For the visual evaluation of the meat color, it is necessary to have trained panelists, who evaluate the appearance of meat by using the hedonic scale. The instrumental determination of meat color is more efficient and the methods of reflection or extraction are used to quantify the amount of pigment. The color of foods can be defined as the interaction of a light, an object, an observer and the surroundings of the food. Recently, the International Commission on Illumination described how background can influence the appreciation of color. Instruments used for evaluation of meat color by reflection method are colorimeters, for example, CR Minolta 300 or 400 that work on the principle of meat color comparison in regard to standard color values. The International Commission on Illumination lists three values: CIE L\*, a\* and b\*. CIE L\* indicates lightness, where values range from 0 (black) to 100 (white). The value of CIE a\* shows redness while CIE b\* indicates yellowness. Negative a\* and b\* values indicate the appearance of green and blue color of the meat.

#### **3.1. Influence of genotype, sex and feeding on the chicken meat quality**

of red meat, is a potential risk factor for development of certain types of cancer. Red meat contains more potentially harmful ingredients than white meat. These potentially harmful ingredients are saturated fat, heme iron, sodium, N-nitroso compounds and aromatic amines produced by high temperature cooking, so the consumption of red meat represents a risk of developing cancers. Therefore, red meat is associated with a higher risk of cancers, while white meat shows neutral or moderately protective correlation to cancer occurrence [36, 37]. Cancers in digestive system are usually associated with consumption of animal products. This conclusion was confirmed by researches carried out among populations with significantly higher consumption of meat than recommended. It is assumed that myoglobin from red meat activates pre-cancerous damage by accelerating the heme iron influence on the formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds and by developing cytotoxic and genotoxic aldehydes through the lipid peroxidation process [38]. These facts are in favor of supporting consumption of white chicken meat. Zhu et al. carried out a comprehensive review of literature on the occurrence of esophageal cancer, and concluded that there was a reverse correlation between the number of chicken meat meals a week and the risk of developing esophageal cancer [39]. The authors stated researches showed the decreasing risk of developing esophageal cancer by about 53% in Europe in cases of increased consumption of chicken meat. Of course, such research conclusions should be interpreted cautiously, because it cannot be stated with full certainty that red meat causes cancers and white meat does not, yet there is a lot of evidence that consumption of white meat is more

When considering nutritional aspects, poultry meat is good for consumers because it is rich in protein and minerals, and contains a small amount of fat with high portion of unsaturated fatty acids and a low cholesterol level [2]. Changes in consumers' lifestyle in developed countries have influenced the meat market by changing the demand and supply of certain types of meat, which the food industry used as an advantage to market so called "fast food" and more recently also "functional food". In both food groups, chicken meat is highly represented [3]. This growing demand for poultry meat influenced the scientists to create chickens of fast-growing genotypes, which have good feed conversion, better carcass formation (higher portion of breast meat and less abdominal fat), lower mortality, etc. However, all of these positive changes in new chicken genotypes cause greater stress, and many researchers point out that this fast growth of chickens resulted in histological and biochemical modifications of muscle tissue [40, 41, 42]. The researches proved that selection of fast-growing chickens had negative effects on some meat quality parameters: reduced water holding capacity of meat, poor cohesiveness in cooked meat, appearance of pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat, that is, of dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat [43, 44]. In addition to the mentioned factors, the available literature states that parameters of chicken meat quality are affected by the keeping system and duration of chicken fattening, feeding treatment

and sex of chickens, pre-slaughter handling, transport to slaughterhouse, etc.

An important factor for consumers when deciding on the purchase of meat is its appearance, therefore, in this chapter are described some technological features such as color, pH value, drip loss, cooking loss and water holding capacity (WHC), that have a direct impact on meat

favorable than consumption of red meat.

68 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

**3. Parameters of chicken meat quality**

Kralik et al. reported that the chicken genotype did not influence the CIE L\* (lightness) and CIE b\* (yellowness) values referring to meat color [45]. As of the results, the CIE L\* 49.93 and CIE b\* 10.17 was reported for chicken meat of Cobb 500 genotype, and for the Hubbard Classic, the values were CIE L\* 51.11 and CIE b\* 10.50 (P > 0.05). Furthermore, the authors stated that there was a negative correlation between pH and CIE L\* value r = −0.285 for Cobb 500 and r = −0.438 for Hubbard Classic genotypes. In the research into the influence of chicken sex on the quality of fresh and cooked meat, Salakova et al. also determined the negative correlation between pH and CIE L\* value measured in fresh and cooked breast meat of the Ross 308 chicken genotype (r = −0.41, P < 0.001 and r = −0.31, P < 0.05), [46]. The authors stated that male chickens of the Ross 308 genotype had statistically significantly higher pH values than female chickens (P < 0.05), which was not depending on the portion of crude protein in the finisher mixture (A = 22.6%, B = 20.1% and C = 18.7%). The highest pH values were measured in breast meat of male and female chickens of the group A (pH = 6.08 and pH = 5.97, respectively), while in feeding treatments with lower portion of crude protein in feeding mixture the value of pH in breast meat of both sexes decreased (♂ B = 5.99 and C ♂ =5.77 and ♀ B = 5.85 and ♀ C = 5.66). Female chickens had statistically significantly brighter meat color than male chickens in the A treatment (CIE L\* 54.90 and CIE L\* 52.24, respectively; P < 0.01). The same trend referring to the meat color was noticed in other feeding treatments, however, the differences were not statistically significant (♀ B=CIE L\* 59.43 C=CIE L\* 58.11 and ♂ B=CIE L\* 58.36 C=CIE L\*55.17). The research of Živković et al. describes the influence of extruded linseed in chicken feed on the physico-chemical and sensory traits of meat [47]. They fattened chicken separated by sex in control and experimental group. The control group (C) consumed the commercial mixture and the experimental group (E) had mixture supplemented with 6% of extruded linseed. The authors concluded that feeding treatment influenced the protein content in meat of thighs of females only (C = 19.27% E = 17.76%; P < 0.05). The feeding treatment had effect on the breast meat color (P < 0.05). Experimental group of chickens had lighter breast meat color than the control. Male chickens had statistically significantly lighter breast meat than females (P < 0.05). The value of CIE a\* (redness) reduced significantly in *m. pectoralis profundus*, and CIE b\* increased in *m. pectoralis superficialis* in both chicken sexes (P < 0.001). In thigh muscles (*m. biceps femoris*), the value of CIE a\* reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in meat of male chickens, while in female chickens the values of CIE b\* increased significantly (P < 0.05). The feeding treatment, sex and their interaction did not influence the results of chicken meat sensory analysis. In their research into the effects of genotype on some parameters of chicken meat quality, Kralik et al. reported that breast meat of the Hubbard Classic genotype was of better quality than the breast meat of Cobb 500 and Ross 308 genotypes [48]. Hubbard Classic chickens had better pH45min and CIE L\* values than other two genotypes (Cobb 500 and Ross 308). The highest pH45min was determined in Cobb 500 chickens, while the values for pH45min in Ross 308 and Hubbard Classic chicken were similar (6.05, 5.99 and 5.98, respectively; P > 0.05). Genotype had no effect on pH24h values (P > 0.05). Hubbard Classic chickens had the lowest CIE L\* value in breast muscle tissue (53.86), while Ross 308 and Cobb 500 chickens had slightly higher CIE L\* values (55.12 and 54.36, respectively; P > 0.05). Kralik et al. reported statistically significant influence of genotype on pH<sup>1</sup> (P = 0.004) and pH<sup>2</sup> (P < 0.001), drip loss (P = 0.015) and meat color (CIE L\* P = 0.015 and CIE a\* P < 0.001) in their research [49]. The values of pH were measured 45 minutes after slaughtering (pH1 ) and 24 h after slaughtering and cooling of chickens (pH2 ). The authors stated that chicken sex had statistically significant influence on meat color (P < 0.001). Female chickens had lower CIE L\* values than male chickens (Cobb ♀ = CIE L\* 49.24 and ♂ = CIE L\* 50.60, i.e. Hubbard ♀ = CIE L\* 49.97 and ♂ = CIE L\* 52.61). Influence of interaction between genotype and sex was observed in breast texture values (P < 0.020). In the research into the influence of pH values on the meat quality of different chicken genotypes, Ristić and Damme concluded that the chicken genotype and sex had statistically significant effect on the pH measured 15 minutes after slaughtering of chickens [50]. Male chickens had statistically significantly lower pH values than females. In the research into the influence of chicken genotype (Cobb, Ross and Hubbard) and the age (42 and 50 days) on the quality of meat, Glamoclija et al. stated that the pH values measured at different times after slaughtering (pH15min; pH24h and pH48h) were influenced by the chicken age at slaughter (P < 0.05), [51]. Older chickens had higher pH values of breast meat than younger ones. Interaction of chicken genotype and age had effect on the pH15min value, while the genotype did not affect the pH values (P > 0.05).

K56 days = 52.02% and K81 days = 55.26%, and O56 days = 51.82% and O81 days = 53.17% (P < 0.05), while the values in thighs were as follows: K56 days = 59.69% and K81 days = 60.15%, and O56 days = 56.21% and O81 days = 57.45% (P < 0.05). The values of pH in breast muscles of the treatments K56 days and K81 days were statistically significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in the treatments O56 days and O81 days (pH 5.96 and pH 5.98, and pH 5.75 and pH 5.80, respectively). Referring to all other meat quality parameters of both tested tissue (breasts and thighs), chicken meat from organic production had better values than the meat produced in conventional fattening system (cooking loss %, CIE

).

**3.3. Influence of transport and pre-slaughter handling on the chicken meat quality**

When animals are exposed to long-lasting stress (long-distance transport, lack of feed before transport and slaughter, overcrowded transport cages, high or low temperatures in the production facility or during transport, etc.), they will be exhausted and the glycogen stored in muscles will turn into lactic acid, which will then lead to a sudden lowering of pH value in muscles after slaughter, while the carcass is still warm. High temperature and low pH in chicken meat will stimulate protein denaturation, which will further influence lowering of the water holding capacity in meat. Low pH values stimulate the oxidation of myoglobin (pink color) and oxyhemoglobin (red color) to metamyoglobin (brown meat color). If animals are exposed to longer stress before slaughtering, they will have less stored glycogen in muscles because of exhaustion. Reduced glycogen reserve affects postmortem changes after slaughtering, meaning that the pH value remains high, which causes the occurrence of DFD meat. In this meat, protein denaturation and drip loss are slowed down [41]. In their study about influences of transport-caused stress on the meat quality parameters, Doktor and Połtowicz [55] stated that after 42 days of fattening of Hubbard Flex chickens, their treatment before and during transport to slaughter-

(%), shear force (N)). Bressan and Beraquet studied the influence of heat stress during fattening on the chicken meat quality and determined that chickens exposed to high daily temperatures (ambient temperature 30°C) had higher cooking loss measured in breast meat when compared to chickens kept at lower ambient temperatures (17°C), (28.7 and 27.2%, respectively), [56].

Since appearance and odor, as the parameters of meat quality, significantly affect the consumers' preferences at purchase, it is important to achieve "normal" meat color with the odor typical for fresh meat [57]. The stated authors assessed the consumers' opinions toward pale, soft and exudative chicken meat. In their research they used meat of lighter color (L\* = 59.26), that is, the meat color that was considered as normal for chicken filets (L\* = 49.24). The examinees made differences between PSE and meat of normal quality in stores, while panelists assessed sensory quality of cooked meat and showed preference toward control samples (meat of "normal" quality). Qiao et al. determined the border values for color of chicken breast muscle: lighter than normal (L\* > 53), normal (48 < L\* < 53) and darker than normal (L\* < 48), [58]. Furthermore, the authors defined the values for breast muscle color measured 24 hours post mortem, as of the following: dark L\* 45.68, normal L\* 51.32 and light L\* 55.95. Woelfel et al.

**3.4. Influence of some technological parameters on the chicken meat quality**

, while other meat quality parameters

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71

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, meat color (L\*, a\*, b\*), drip loss (%), water holding capacity—WHC

L\*, CIE a\*, CIE b\* and shear value kg/cm<sup>2</sup>

house had statistically significant influence only on pH<sup>1</sup>

were not influenced (pH<sup>2</sup>

#### **3.2. Influence of keeping system and fattening duration on the chicken meat quality**

Bogosavljević-Bošković et al. determined that the fattening system (intensive or semi-intensive) had statistically significant influence on the portion of breasts and drumsticks with thighs (P < 0.05), [52]. The authors indicated that the portion of muscle tissue in chickens kept in semiintensive system was by 1.44% higher (P < 0.01), but the same chickens had the portion of bone and skin by 0.82 and 0.67% lower than chickens fattened in the intensive system (P < 0.05). Li et al. investigated the influence of chicken keeping systems (free range, cage and litter) on production parameters and meat quality and they reported that the keeping system had statistically significant influence on the final weight of chickens and feed consumption, as well as on the texture and portion of intramuscular fat in breast meat (P < 0.05), [53]. However, chicken keeping system had no effect on pH and drip loss in breast meat (P > 0.05). Castellini et al. [54] studied the influence of keeping systems (K = conventional and O = organic) and duration of fattening of chickens (56 and 81 days) on the quality of chicken meat, and they confirmed that breast and thigh meat of chickens kept in organic production had lower WHC values and pH24h than meat of chickens fattened conventionally. The breast meat had the following WHC values: K56 days = 52.02% and K81 days = 55.26%, and O56 days = 51.82% and O81 days = 53.17% (P < 0.05), while the values in thighs were as follows: K56 days = 59.69% and K81 days = 60.15%, and O56 days = 56.21% and O81 days = 57.45% (P < 0.05). The values of pH in breast muscles of the treatments K56 days and K81 days were statistically significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in the treatments O56 days and O81 days (pH 5.96 and pH 5.98, and pH 5.75 and pH 5.80, respectively). Referring to all other meat quality parameters of both tested tissue (breasts and thighs), chicken meat from organic production had better values than the meat produced in conventional fattening system (cooking loss %, CIE L\*, CIE a\*, CIE b\* and shear value kg/cm<sup>2</sup> ).

#### **3.3. Influence of transport and pre-slaughter handling on the chicken meat quality**

(*m. biceps femoris*), the value of CIE a\* reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in meat of male chickens, while in female chickens the values of CIE b\* increased significantly (P < 0.05). The feeding treatment, sex and their interaction did not influence the results of chicken meat sensory analysis. In their research into the effects of genotype on some parameters of chicken meat quality, Kralik et al. reported that breast meat of the Hubbard Classic genotype was of better quality than the breast meat of Cobb 500 and Ross 308 genotypes [48]. Hubbard Classic chickens had better pH45min and CIE L\* values than other two genotypes (Cobb 500 and Ross 308). The highest pH45min was determined in Cobb 500 chickens, while the values for pH45min in Ross 308 and Hubbard Classic chicken were similar (6.05, 5.99 and 5.98, respectively; P > 0.05). Genotype had no effect on pH24h values (P > 0.05). Hubbard Classic chickens had the lowest CIE L\* value in breast muscle tissue (53.86), while Ross 308 and Cobb 500 chickens had slightly higher CIE L\* values (55.12 and 54.36, respectively; P > 0.05). Kralik et al. reported statistically significant

(P = 0.004) and pH<sup>2</sup>

color (CIE L\* P = 0.015 and CIE a\* P < 0.001) in their research [49]. The values of pH were mea-

**3.2. Influence of keeping system and fattening duration on the chicken meat quality**

Bogosavljević-Bošković et al. determined that the fattening system (intensive or semi-intensive) had statistically significant influence on the portion of breasts and drumsticks with thighs (P < 0.05), [52]. The authors indicated that the portion of muscle tissue in chickens kept in semiintensive system was by 1.44% higher (P < 0.01), but the same chickens had the portion of bone and skin by 0.82 and 0.67% lower than chickens fattened in the intensive system (P < 0.05). Li et al. investigated the influence of chicken keeping systems (free range, cage and litter) on production parameters and meat quality and they reported that the keeping system had statistically significant influence on the final weight of chickens and feed consumption, as well as on the texture and portion of intramuscular fat in breast meat (P < 0.05), [53]. However, chicken keeping system had no effect on pH and drip loss in breast meat (P > 0.05). Castellini et al. [54] studied the influence of keeping systems (K = conventional and O = organic) and duration of fattening of chickens (56 and 81 days) on the quality of chicken meat, and they confirmed that breast and thigh meat of chickens kept in organic production had lower WHC values and pH24h than meat of chickens fattened conventionally. The breast meat had the following WHC values:

). The authors stated that chicken sex had statistically significant influence on meat color (P < 0.001). Female chickens had lower CIE L\* values than male chickens (Cobb ♀ = CIE L\* 49.24 and ♂ = CIE L\* 50.60, i.e. Hubbard ♀ = CIE L\* 49.97 and ♂ = CIE L\* 52.61). Influence of interaction between genotype and sex was observed in breast texture values (P < 0.020). In the research into the influence of pH values on the meat quality of different chicken genotypes, Ristić and Damme concluded that the chicken genotype and sex had statistically significant effect on the pH measured 15 minutes after slaughtering of chickens [50]. Male chickens had statistically significantly lower pH values than females. In the research into the influence of chicken genotype (Cobb, Ross and Hubbard) and the age (42 and 50 days) on the quality of meat, Glamoclija et al. stated that the pH values measured at different times after slaughtering (pH15min; pH24h and pH48h) were influenced by the chicken age at slaughter (P < 0.05), [51]. Older chickens had higher pH values of breast meat than younger ones. Interaction of chicken genotype and age had effect on the pH15min value, while the genotype did not affect the pH values (P > 0.05).

(P < 0.001), drip loss (P = 0.015) and meat

) and 24 h after slaughtering and cooling of chickens

influence of genotype on pH<sup>1</sup>

70 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

(pH2

sured 45 minutes after slaughtering (pH1

When animals are exposed to long-lasting stress (long-distance transport, lack of feed before transport and slaughter, overcrowded transport cages, high or low temperatures in the production facility or during transport, etc.), they will be exhausted and the glycogen stored in muscles will turn into lactic acid, which will then lead to a sudden lowering of pH value in muscles after slaughter, while the carcass is still warm. High temperature and low pH in chicken meat will stimulate protein denaturation, which will further influence lowering of the water holding capacity in meat. Low pH values stimulate the oxidation of myoglobin (pink color) and oxyhemoglobin (red color) to metamyoglobin (brown meat color). If animals are exposed to longer stress before slaughtering, they will have less stored glycogen in muscles because of exhaustion. Reduced glycogen reserve affects postmortem changes after slaughtering, meaning that the pH value remains high, which causes the occurrence of DFD meat. In this meat, protein denaturation and drip loss are slowed down [41]. In their study about influences of transport-caused stress on the meat quality parameters, Doktor and Połtowicz [55] stated that after 42 days of fattening of Hubbard Flex chickens, their treatment before and during transport to slaughterhouse had statistically significant influence only on pH<sup>1</sup> , while other meat quality parameters were not influenced (pH<sup>2</sup> , meat color (L\*, a\*, b\*), drip loss (%), water holding capacity—WHC (%), shear force (N)). Bressan and Beraquet studied the influence of heat stress during fattening on the chicken meat quality and determined that chickens exposed to high daily temperatures (ambient temperature 30°C) had higher cooking loss measured in breast meat when compared to chickens kept at lower ambient temperatures (17°C), (28.7 and 27.2%, respectively), [56].

#### **3.4. Influence of some technological parameters on the chicken meat quality**

Since appearance and odor, as the parameters of meat quality, significantly affect the consumers' preferences at purchase, it is important to achieve "normal" meat color with the odor typical for fresh meat [57]. The stated authors assessed the consumers' opinions toward pale, soft and exudative chicken meat. In their research they used meat of lighter color (L\* = 59.26), that is, the meat color that was considered as normal for chicken filets (L\* = 49.24). The examinees made differences between PSE and meat of normal quality in stores, while panelists assessed sensory quality of cooked meat and showed preference toward control samples (meat of "normal" quality). Qiao et al. determined the border values for color of chicken breast muscle: lighter than normal (L\* > 53), normal (48 < L\* < 53) and darker than normal (L\* < 48), [58]. Furthermore, the authors defined the values for breast muscle color measured 24 hours post mortem, as of the following: dark L\* 45.68, normal L\* 51.32 and light L\* 55.95. Woelfel et al. determined the border values for "normal" chicken breasts L\* 52.15, drip loss 3.32% and cooking loss 21.02%, while for PSE meat these values were: L\* 59.81, drip loss 4.38% and cooking loss 26.39% [59]. Border values reported by Karunanayaka et al. are slightly higher than those determined by the abovementioned authors [60]. According to Karunanayaka et al., the values for normal meat are L\* 56.82 and WHC 77.95, while the PSE meat has the following values: L\* 61.83 and WHC 77.12 [60]. **Table 3** presents border values for PSE, normal and DFD chicken meat, as reported by various authors.

**4. Enrichment of chicken meat with functional ingredients**

Science on nutrition has developed over the years, and new analytical methods have enabled the determination of various functional food ingredients that have a beneficial effect on human health and that help to reduce the disease risks. Such ingredients, called nutricines, have an important biological activity in human cells [65]. The concept of functional food has been first mentioned in Japan in the 1980s. The project foods for specified health uses (FOSHU) was focused on food that was expected to have a specific health effect based on the content of some important and useful ingredients [66]. Ingredients in which consumers show interest are n-3 PUFA, Se, vitamin E, lutein and carnosine. Chicken meat can be enriched with n-3 PUFA if the content of FA (Fatty Acids) is changed in their feed [10, 67, 68, 69]. The optimal ratio of n-6 PUFA:n-3 PUFA is from 10:1 to 5:1 [70, 71]. The RDI (Recommended Daily Intake) for n-3 longchain PUFA is 350–400 mg. Vegetable and fish oils are predominant sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Vegetable oils are the main source of α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3, ALA), and fish oils are the main source of eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA), [72]. Vegetable oils contain significant amounts of polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acids, of which linoleic acid (C18:2n-6, LA) is the most significant. It is also present in sunflower and soybean oils [65]. Metabolic processes are initiated over arachidonic acid (C20:4n6, AA) and EPA in endoplasmic reticulum, and further carried out by the enzymes elongase Δ6 and desaturase ∆5. The mechanism of conversion into DHA is still not fully known, yet is believed that this

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**4.1. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA)**

**Figure 1.** Metabolism of n-3 and n-6 PUFA [76].

According to Zhang and Barbut, meat color typical to PSE meat is L\* > 53, the meat of normal quality has the values ranging between 46 < L\* < 53, and the DFD meat has the value L\* < 46 [63]. The same authors stated the cooking loss of meat classified as of color: 20.96% for PSE meat, 25.77% for normal meat and 21.32% for DFD meat. Referring to the values of meat color (L\*, a\* and b\*), Kissel et al. classified the chicken meat as normal, with measured values of L\* = 51.42, a\* = 7.26 and b\* = 6.74, and as PSE meat with measured values L\* = 57.63, a\* = 2.11 and b\* = 5.46 [62]. In their research into the PSE chicken meat in further processing (marinating and cooking), Barbut et al. [64] reported that fresh PSE meat was of lighter color (L\* = 57.7) and had lower pH (5.72), while DFD meat was of darker color L\* = 44.8 and higher pH (6.27). Carvalho et al. determined that PSE meat had L\* = 58.90; drip loss = 6.52%, cooking loss = 27.02% and WHC 79.84% [61]. The authors defined the meat to be of normal quality if exhibiting the following values: L\* = 56.86; drip loss = 4.04, cooking loss = 24.41% and WHC = 85.43%.


**Table 3.** Typical limits of pH values for PSE, normal and DFD chicken meat.

## **4. Enrichment of chicken meat with functional ingredients**

#### **4.1. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA)**

determined the border values for "normal" chicken breasts L\* 52.15, drip loss 3.32% and cooking loss 21.02%, while for PSE meat these values were: L\* 59.81, drip loss 4.38% and cooking loss 26.39% [59]. Border values reported by Karunanayaka et al. are slightly higher than those determined by the abovementioned authors [60]. According to Karunanayaka et al., the values for normal meat are L\* 56.82 and WHC 77.95, while the PSE meat has the following values: L\* 61.83 and WHC 77.12 [60]. **Table 3** presents border values for PSE, normal and DFD

According to Zhang and Barbut, meat color typical to PSE meat is L\* > 53, the meat of normal quality has the values ranging between 46 < L\* < 53, and the DFD meat has the value L\* < 46 [63]. The same authors stated the cooking loss of meat classified as of color: 20.96% for PSE meat, 25.77% for normal meat and 21.32% for DFD meat. Referring to the values of meat color (L\*, a\* and b\*), Kissel et al. classified the chicken meat as normal, with measured values of L\* = 51.42, a\* = 7.26 and b\* = 6.74, and as PSE meat with measured values L\* = 57.63, a\* = 2.11 and b\* = 5.46 [62]. In their research into the PSE chicken meat in further processing (marinating and cooking), Barbut et al. [64] reported that fresh PSE meat was of lighter color (L\* = 57.7) and had lower pH (5.72), while DFD meat was of darker color L\* = 44.8 and higher pH (6.27). Carvalho et al. determined that PSE meat had L\* = 58.90; drip loss = 6.52%, cooking loss = 27.02% and WHC 79.84% [61]. The authors defined the meat to be of normal quality if exhibiting the fol-

lowing values: L\* = 56.86; drip loss = 4.04, cooking loss = 24.41% and WHC = 85.43%.

pH 5.83 pH 5.61 pH ≤ 5.8 pH24h 5.77 pH < 5.7 pH 5.72 pH 5.76

pH 5.97 pH 5.96 pH 5.9–6.2 pH24h 5.93 pH < 6.1 pH 6.07

pH > 6.1 pH 6.27

**Condition pH Value of meat References**

[61] [60] [57] [50] [62] [63] [64] [59]

[61] [60] [57] [50] [62] [63] [59]

[50] [63] [64]

chicken meat, as reported by various authors.

72 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

PSE pH24h 5.75

Normal pH24h 5.94

DFD pH ≥6.3

**Table 3.** Typical limits of pH values for PSE, normal and DFD chicken meat.

Science on nutrition has developed over the years, and new analytical methods have enabled the determination of various functional food ingredients that have a beneficial effect on human health and that help to reduce the disease risks. Such ingredients, called nutricines, have an important biological activity in human cells [65]. The concept of functional food has been first mentioned in Japan in the 1980s. The project foods for specified health uses (FOSHU) was focused on food that was expected to have a specific health effect based on the content of some important and useful ingredients [66]. Ingredients in which consumers show interest are n-3 PUFA, Se, vitamin E, lutein and carnosine. Chicken meat can be enriched with n-3 PUFA if the content of FA (Fatty Acids) is changed in their feed [10, 67, 68, 69]. The optimal ratio of n-6 PUFA:n-3 PUFA is from 10:1 to 5:1 [70, 71]. The RDI (Recommended Daily Intake) for n-3 longchain PUFA is 350–400 mg. Vegetable and fish oils are predominant sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Vegetable oils are the main source of α-linolenic acid (C18:3n3, ALA), and fish oils are the main source of eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA), [72]. Vegetable oils contain significant amounts of polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acids, of which linoleic acid (C18:2n-6, LA) is the most significant. It is also present in sunflower and soybean oils [65]. Metabolic processes are initiated over arachidonic acid (C20:4n6, AA) and EPA in endoplasmic reticulum, and further carried out by the enzymes elongase Δ6 and desaturase ∆5. The mechanism of conversion into DHA is still not fully known, yet is believed that this


**Figure 1.** Metabolism of n-3 and n-6 PUFA [76].

process is supported by the enzyme desaturase ∆4 [73]. Infante and Huszagh stated that DHA is synthesized in mitochondrial membranes, while EPA and AA are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum [74, 75]. **Figure 1** presents the metabolism of n-3 and n-6 PUFA.

to lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases development [82]. The second reason is that fats are replaced by polyunsaturated oils [83, 84, 85]. It is known that fish flour and oil are rich in essential n-3 PUFAs (EPA, DHA), however it is also proved that, if supplemented to chicken feed in higher amounts, they have negative effect on organoleptic properties of meat [86]. For that reason, as an alternative to fish oil, scientists use vegetable oils as supplements to chicken feed (soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and linseed oils), as well as combinations of those oils [11, 12, 77, 87]. In addition to oils, chicken feed can be supplemented also by extruded linseed or rapeseed [88], in order to change the FA profile. References about the use of various oils in chicken diets for the purpose of enriching broiler meat with n-3 PUFA are overviewed in **Tables 4** and **5**.

According to some researches, people have changed their dietary habits, so that over the past 150 years, once favorable and very narrow n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratio turned into unfavorable and wide ratio. There is also increased consumption of saturated fat originating from livestock fed grains, as well as increased consumption of trans-fatty acids originating from hydrogenated vegetable oils, along with significantly increased consumption of n-6 PUFA [91]. In developed countries, there is daily consumption of about 2.92 mg ALA, 48 mg EPA and 72 mg DHA [92], which is considered as insufficient. The studies have shown that human nutrition in Western European countries is lacking n-3 PUFA, and due to the significant amounts of n-6 PUFA in animal products, the n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratio is unfavorable, as it ranges from 15/1 to 16.7/1 [93, 94]. At present times, our diet is richer in calories than the food that man consumed in the Paleolithic. Nutrition in industrial societies is characterized by a surplus of calories, by increased consumption of SFA, n-6 PUFA and trans-fatty acids, and at

**Reference Diet ALA EPA DHA**

[89] Fish oil 6%

[80] Corn oil 15%

[10] Linseed oil 6%

[81]

\*

Fish oil 4% + 2% linseed oil

Canola oil 5% + corn oil 10% Canola oil 10% + corn oil 5%

Linseed oil 6% + 0.3% Se Linseed oil 6% + 0.5% Se

Soybean oil 6%

Canola oil 15%

[90] Sunflower oil 3% + linseed oil 3%

\* Rice bran oil S 1% + F 2%

Fish oil 2% + 2% linseed oil +2% sunflower oil

Sunflower oil 3% + linseed oil 3% + 0.5 mg Se/kg feed

Rice bran oil (S 0.7% + F 1.6%) + linseed oil (S 0.3% + F 0.4%) Rice bran oil (S 0.3% + F 1.0%) + linseed oil (S 0.7% + F 1.0%)

Rice bran oil and linseed oil supplemented to starter (S) and finisher (F) mixtures in the amounts as presented.

**Table 5.** Supplementation of oils to chicken diets and their effects on enrichment of thigh muscles with n-3 PUFA.

**% of total FA**

5.66 3.83 1.94 -

– – – 0.01

0.17 0.26 0.17

0.107 0.100

0.82 0.35 0.71 6.27 4.72 2.84 0.72

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0.09 0.08 0.14 0.03

0.17 0.18 0.19

0.107 0.127

1.20 0.48 1.23

1.01 1.80 2.27 3.37

1.97 2.13 3.55 3.67

6.75 11.90 8.28

4.755 5.692

0.41 0.07 0.20

There are two reasons for increasing the concentration of n-3 PUFA in chicken meat. The first reason is that nutritionists recommend the reduced consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFA)


S-starter diet.

F-finisher diet.\* Rice bran oil and linseed oil are supplemented to S and F diets in the amounts as presented. \*\*Oils of different origin are supplemented in the amount of 2% to S and 3% to F diets.

**Table 4.** Supplementation of oils in chicken feeding mixtures and their effect on enriching of breast muscles with n-3 PUFA.

to lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases development [82]. The second reason is that fats are replaced by polyunsaturated oils [83, 84, 85]. It is known that fish flour and oil are rich in essential n-3 PUFAs (EPA, DHA), however it is also proved that, if supplemented to chicken feed in higher amounts, they have negative effect on organoleptic properties of meat [86]. For that reason, as an alternative to fish oil, scientists use vegetable oils as supplements to chicken feed (soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and linseed oils), as well as combinations of those oils [11, 12, 77, 87]. In addition to oils, chicken feed can be supplemented also by extruded linseed or rapeseed [88], in order to change the FA profile. References about the use of various oils in chicken diets for the purpose of enriching broiler meat with n-3 PUFA are overviewed in **Tables 4** and **5**.

process is supported by the enzyme desaturase ∆4 [73]. Infante and Huszagh stated that DHA is synthesized in mitochondrial membranes, while EPA and AA are synthesized in the endoplas-

There are two reasons for increasing the concentration of n-3 PUFA in chicken meat. The first reason is that nutritionists recommend the reduced consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFA)

**Reference Diet ALA EPA DHA**

**% of total FA**

0.79 0.93 1.32 1.18

0.75 1.18 0.62

1.04 5.84 8.53 10.54

0.77 0.73 0.51

0.29 0.34 0.29

– – – –

0.15 0.50 0.98

0.17 0.25 0.63 1.74 2.72 5.62 6.44 8.95 5.66

0.87 2.03 0.75

0.15 0.66 2.39 3.80

0.90 0.93 0.84

0.39 0.59 0.50

0.07 0.05 0.13 0.07

0.43 0.88 1.77

0.23 0.63 1.47 3.51 5.76

3.16 2.37 2.36 6.25

0.72 0.37 0.61

1.59 0.70 2.17 2.14

7.09 8.51 6.78

5.14 6.29 4.39

2.21 2.01 3.41 3.52

0.33 0.86 0.98

0.23 0.92 3.23 5.02 4.60

mic reticulum [74, 75]. **Figure 1** presents the metabolism of n-3 and n-6 PUFA.

[12] Sunflower oil 2.5% + fish oil 2.5%

Rapeseed oil 2% Rapeseed oil 4%

Fish oil 3%

[79] Sunflower oil 3% + linseed oil 3%

Canola oil 15%

\* Rice bran oil S 1% + F 2%

\*\* Sunflower oil S 2% + F 3%

Soybean oil S 2% + F 3% Mustard oil S 2% + F3% Linseed oil S 2% + F 3% Fish oil S 2% + F 3%

Poultry fat 2% + fish oil 1% Poultry fat 1% + fish oil 2%

Linseed oil 6% + 0.3% Se Linseed oil 6% + 0.5% Se

Canola oil 5% + corn oil 10% Canola oil 10% + corn oil 5%

Sunflower oil 3% + linseed oil 3% + 0.3 mg Se/kg feed Sunflower oil 3% + linseed oil 3% + 0.5 mg Se/kg feed

Rice bran oil (S 0.7% + F 1.6%) + linseed oil (S 0.3% + F 0.4%) Rice bran oil (S 0.3% + F 1.0%) + linseed oil (S 0.7% + F 1.0%)

\*\*Oils of different origin are supplemented in the amount of 2% to S and 3% to F diets.

Rice bran oil and linseed oil are supplemented to S and F diets in the amounts as presented.

**Table 4.** Supplementation of oils in chicken feeding mixtures and their effect on enriching of breast muscles with n-3 PUFA.

[77] Control

74 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

[78] Poultry fat 3%

[10] Linseed oil 6%

[80] Corn oil 15%

[81]

[11]

S-starter diet. F-finisher diet.\* Soybean oil 2.5% + fish oil 2.5% Rapeseed oil 2.5% + fish oil 2.5% Linseed 2.5% + fish oil 2.5%

According to some researches, people have changed their dietary habits, so that over the past 150 years, once favorable and very narrow n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratio turned into unfavorable and wide ratio. There is also increased consumption of saturated fat originating from livestock fed grains, as well as increased consumption of trans-fatty acids originating from hydrogenated vegetable oils, along with significantly increased consumption of n-6 PUFA [91]. In developed countries, there is daily consumption of about 2.92 mg ALA, 48 mg EPA and 72 mg DHA [92], which is considered as insufficient. The studies have shown that human nutrition in Western European countries is lacking n-3 PUFA, and due to the significant amounts of n-6 PUFA in animal products, the n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratio is unfavorable, as it ranges from 15/1 to 16.7/1 [93, 94]. At present times, our diet is richer in calories than the food that man consumed in the Paleolithic. Nutrition in industrial societies is characterized by a surplus of calories, by increased consumption of SFA, n-6 PUFA and trans-fatty acids, and at


Rice bran oil and linseed oil supplemented to starter (S) and finisher (F) mixtures in the amounts as presented.

**Table 5.** Supplementation of oils to chicken diets and their effects on enrichment of thigh muscles with n-3 PUFA.


**Table 6.** Ratio of n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA in human nutrition.

the same time, by reduced consumption of n-3 PUFA, as well as of fruits, vegetables, protein, antioxidants and calcium. **Table 6** gives an overview of the n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratios in human nutrition according to different time periods and geographic locations [95].

ALA deposition was noticed in thighs than in breasts, and it was not depending on the feeding treatment. These results can be explained by the fact that thigh meat has higher content of fat than breast meat in all investigated groups. The content of fat in thighs was ranging from 8.97% (7.5% linseed) to 9.85% (combination 10% rapeseed + 10% linseed), and in breasts it was 6.79% (7.5% linseed). Combination of linseed and rapeseed as dietary supplement proved to be the most efficient in enriching of chicken meat (breasts and thighs) with the n-3 PUFA, however, the same group had statistically significantly higher concentration of MDA μg/kg thigh meat than meat of other investigated groups (P < 0.01). The authors explained the statistically significantly higher oxidation of fat in meat of the mentioned group by the weak stability of n-3 PUFA.

**Table 7.** Effects of fish oil in the diet and breed of chicken on the mean EPA and DHA concentration (mg/100 g meat) in

EPA 7.5 6.9 17.4 20.0 27.2 30.8 NS\* <0.001 DHA 39.6 38.6 54.9 64.3 118 126 NS <0.001

**Ross2 Cobb Ross Cobb Ross Cobb Breed Diet**

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**Fatty Acid Control1 Lofish Hifish P**

Diets contained fish oil at Control 0, Lofish 20 and Hifish 40 g/kg diet.

Breed of birds used, Ross 308 and Cobb 500.

Rymer and Givens [99], citation Givens [16], stated that there was a possibility of enriching

The authors concluded that the chicken genotype did not influence the incorporation of EPA and DHA in muscle tissue, however, the dosage of fish oil to feed is very significant (20 g/kg feed, i.e. 40 g/kg feed). The stated amounts enriched white chicken meat with n-3 PUFA for 171 and 573%, respectively. The authors recommended the supplementation of 200 mg/kg vitamin E to chicken feed in order to preserve oxidative stability and organoleptic traits. Yan and Kim reported the efficient usage of microalgae in enrichment of poultry products (meat

Carnosine is a dipeptide composed of ß-alanine and L-histidine, which is considered as a bioactive food component because of its physiological role in an organism. As a dipeptide precursor, L-histidine is important in the synthesis of carnosine (ß-alanine – L-histidine), homocarnosine (γ-glutamine – L-histidine) and anserine (ß-alanine – 3-methyl-L-histidine). Haug et al. supplemented histidine in the amount of 1 g/kg of feed and achieved the increase in carnosine concentration in chicken breast muscle for 64%, as well as the increase of anserine for 10% [100]. The authors concluded that higher amounts of histidine can cause the growth depression and the increase in feed conversion. Hu et al. did not determine the influence of carnosine supplementation (0.5% from 1st–21st day and from 22nd–42nd day of fattening) on the growth performances [101]. Experimental groups had higher weight of breast muscle and reduced thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values, while the meat color and pH values did not depend on the supplemented amount of carnosine to diets. Kopec et al.

white chicken meat by using fish oil (**Table 7**).

**4.3. The increase of carnosine in chicken meat**

and eggs) with DHA [14].

1

2

\*

NS: Not Significant.

white chicken meat.

#### **4.2. The increase of PUFA in chicken meat**

Within conventional chicken feeding treatment, fat contained in chicken meat is dominated by palmitic and stearic fatty acids from the SFA group. Among the unsaturated fatty acids, the most present are oleic and linoleic acids, α-linolenic and arachidonic acids are represented in small amounts. Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acids are present only in traces or not present at all. In order to ensure the deposition of desirable fatty acids into poultry muscle tissue, chickens should be fed diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable oils, such as rapeseed and linseed oils, are rich in α-LNA, but they do not contain EPA and DHA. When supplementing fish oil to poultry feed, meat can obtain a "fishy" smell and taste that is undesirable for consumers [86]. Intensive researches into the effects of different diets on the content and profile of fatty acids in chicken meat are carried out, with the aim to produce meat with increased portion of n-3 PUFA and to retain organoleptic properties that are acceptable to consumers. Zelenka et al. concluded that broilers have limited capacity of desaturation and elongation of ALA into long-chain FA [96]. This conclusion was confirmed also by Lopez-Ferrer et al. [97]. Within the research into efficiency of enriching meat with EPA and DHA by using individual vegetable oils, such as sunflower, soybean, rapeseed and linseed oil in the amount of 5% as dietary supplements, it was proven that the most efficient was linseed oil as chicken feed supplement, as it achieved in muscle lipids the following results: 0.89% EPA and 1.85% DHA, which was, respectively, 7.41 and 1.92 times higher than the results achieved by the control fed sunflower oil [98].

Rahimi et al. fattened broilers with linseed and rapeseed as dietary supplements (7.5 and 15%, respectively), as well as with combination of both seeds (10 + 10%), and they determined that the combination of seeds influenced the increase of n-3 PUFA concentration in breast muscle when compared to the control group (0.004–0.25 mg/g meat), and the decrease of AA (0.08– 0.03 mg/g), as well as the decrease of n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (from 47.78 to 8.14), [13]. The authors pointed out that the most favorable ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids in chicken thighs was determined in the group of chickens which consumed diets supplemented with 15% linseed (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the same group had the highest content of n-3 PUFA (1.15 mg/g), while the least content of those fatty acids was determined in the control group (0.26 mg/g). Better tendency of


1 Diets contained fish oil at Control 0, Lofish 20 and Hifish 40 g/kg diet.

2 Breed of birds used, Ross 308 and Cobb 500.

\* NS: Not Significant.

the same time, by reduced consumption of n-3 PUFA, as well as of fruits, vegetables, protein, antioxidants and calcium. **Table 6** gives an overview of the n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratios in

0.79 1.00–2.00 4.00 5–6.1 15.00 16.74 38–50

Within conventional chicken feeding treatment, fat contained in chicken meat is dominated by palmitic and stearic fatty acids from the SFA group. Among the unsaturated fatty acids, the most present are oleic and linoleic acids, α-linolenic and arachidonic acids are represented in small amounts. Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acids are present only in traces or not present at all. In order to ensure the deposition of desirable fatty acids into poultry muscle tissue, chickens should be fed diet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable oils, such as rapeseed and linseed oils, are rich in α-LNA, but they do not contain EPA and DHA. When supplementing fish oil to poultry feed, meat can obtain a "fishy" smell and taste that is undesirable for consumers [86]. Intensive researches into the effects of different diets on the content and profile of fatty acids in chicken meat are carried out, with the aim to produce meat with increased portion of n-3 PUFA and to retain organoleptic properties that are acceptable to consumers. Zelenka et al. concluded that broilers have limited capacity of desaturation and elongation of ALA into long-chain FA [96]. This conclusion was confirmed also by Lopez-Ferrer et al. [97]. Within the research into efficiency of enriching meat with EPA and DHA by using individual vegetable oils, such as sunflower, soybean, rapeseed and linseed oil in the amount of 5% as dietary supplements, it was proven that the most efficient was linseed oil as chicken feed supplement, as it achieved in muscle lipids the following results: 0.89% EPA and 1.85% DHA, which was, respectively, 7.41 and 1.92 times higher than the results achieved by the control fed sunflower oil [98]. Rahimi et al. fattened broilers with linseed and rapeseed as dietary supplements (7.5 and 15%, respectively), as well as with combination of both seeds (10 + 10%), and they determined that the combination of seeds influenced the increase of n-3 PUFA concentration in breast muscle when compared to the control group (0.004–0.25 mg/g meat), and the decrease of AA (0.08– 0.03 mg/g), as well as the decrease of n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio (from 47.78 to 8.14), [13]. The authors pointed out that the most favorable ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids in chicken thighs was determined in the group of chickens which consumed diets supplemented with 15% linseed (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the same group had the highest content of n-3 PUFA (1.15 mg/g), while the least content of those fatty acids was determined in the control group (0.26 mg/g). Better tendency of

human nutrition according to different time periods and geographic locations [95].

**Period – area n-6/n-3**

**4.2. The increase of PUFA in chicken meat**

**Table 6.** Ratio of n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA in human nutrition.

Paleolithic

Current US

Greece prior to 1960 Current Japan Current India, rural

76 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

Current India, urban

Current UK and Northern Europe

**Table 7.** Effects of fish oil in the diet and breed of chicken on the mean EPA and DHA concentration (mg/100 g meat) in white chicken meat.

ALA deposition was noticed in thighs than in breasts, and it was not depending on the feeding treatment. These results can be explained by the fact that thigh meat has higher content of fat than breast meat in all investigated groups. The content of fat in thighs was ranging from 8.97% (7.5% linseed) to 9.85% (combination 10% rapeseed + 10% linseed), and in breasts it was 6.79% (7.5% linseed). Combination of linseed and rapeseed as dietary supplement proved to be the most efficient in enriching of chicken meat (breasts and thighs) with the n-3 PUFA, however, the same group had statistically significantly higher concentration of MDA μg/kg thigh meat than meat of other investigated groups (P < 0.01). The authors explained the statistically significantly higher oxidation of fat in meat of the mentioned group by the weak stability of n-3 PUFA.

Rymer and Givens [99], citation Givens [16], stated that there was a possibility of enriching white chicken meat by using fish oil (**Table 7**).

The authors concluded that the chicken genotype did not influence the incorporation of EPA and DHA in muscle tissue, however, the dosage of fish oil to feed is very significant (20 g/kg feed, i.e. 40 g/kg feed). The stated amounts enriched white chicken meat with n-3 PUFA for 171 and 573%, respectively. The authors recommended the supplementation of 200 mg/kg vitamin E to chicken feed in order to preserve oxidative stability and organoleptic traits. Yan and Kim reported the efficient usage of microalgae in enrichment of poultry products (meat and eggs) with DHA [14].

#### **4.3. The increase of carnosine in chicken meat**

Carnosine is a dipeptide composed of ß-alanine and L-histidine, which is considered as a bioactive food component because of its physiological role in an organism. As a dipeptide precursor, L-histidine is important in the synthesis of carnosine (ß-alanine – L-histidine), homocarnosine (γ-glutamine – L-histidine) and anserine (ß-alanine – 3-methyl-L-histidine). Haug et al. supplemented histidine in the amount of 1 g/kg of feed and achieved the increase in carnosine concentration in chicken breast muscle for 64%, as well as the increase of anserine for 10% [100]. The authors concluded that higher amounts of histidine can cause the growth depression and the increase in feed conversion. Hu et al. did not determine the influence of carnosine supplementation (0.5% from 1st–21st day and from 22nd–42nd day of fattening) on the growth performances [101]. Experimental groups had higher weight of breast muscle and reduced thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values, while the meat color and pH values did not depend on the supplemented amount of carnosine to diets. Kopec et al. determined that supplementation of histidine to turkey diet resulted in the increased diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity in breast muscles and blood, but did not result in the increased histidine dipeptide concentration [102]. The enzymatic antioxidant system of turkey blood was affected by the diet-containing spray dried blood cells (SDBC). In the plasma, the SDBC addition increased both superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and decreased GPx activity in the erythrocytes. Turkeys fed with diet-containing SDBC had increased BW (body weight) and the content of isoleucine and valine in breast muscles. Kralik et al. investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3% histidine on the quality of meat and the content of carnosine in breast and thigh muscles in Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic chickens [103]. Dietary supplementation with L-histidine significantly affected live weight, carcass weight, weight of drumsticks and thighs, backs and wings, share of back and the a\* value (P < 0.05), as well as the content of carnosine in breast muscle (P = 0.003). The Cobb 500 broiler chickens deposited more carnosine in meat than Hubbard Classic chickens. Chicken breast muscle had higher content of carnosine than thighs and drumsticks [18, 104, 105, 106]. Results of studies into the enrichment of chicken meat with carnosine through implementation of different dietary treatments indicated the need for further investigations in order to determine the most efficient dietary treatment for synthesis and deposition of carnosine in chicken muscle tissues [19, 100, 101, 107–109]. In order to enrich chicken meat with carnosine, Kralik et al. added to chicken feed, apart of 0.10% L-histidine, also 0.20% β-alanine and 0.24% MgO as a catalyzer [110]. The research results proved more efficient synthesis and deposition of carnosine in broiler meat of experimental group than in the control group (breasts 1443.35:664.1 mg/kg, P < 0.01; thighs 452.62:342.14 mg/kg, P = 0.057). Carnosine plays an important role in physiological functions of an organism. Recent researches into enrichment of chicken meat with carnosine as a functional ingredient confirmed that carnosine influences regulation of intracellular pH, it prevents oxidation and it is also important for maintaining the neurotransmission [111, 112]. Poultry meat is susceptible to oxidative processes which cause the changes in color, smell and taste [101]. Lipid oxidation can be controlled during meat storage by means of antioxidants (vitamin C, selenium and carnosine).

significant effect on its exploitation in the organism [15, 117, 118]. Wang and Hu determined statistically significant higher activity of GPx in blood of fattening chicken that consumed diet with higher content of selenium (P < 0.05), [15]. Furthermore, they stated that the source of selenium influenced the selenium content and GPx activity in chicken blood (P = 0.01). Better results were obtained in chickens fed diet supplemented with organic selenium. In their research into the influence of selenium sources on chicken meat quality, Ševčikova et al. used chickens of the Ross 308 provenience and fed them for 42 days with three feeding mixtures (C = without selenium, P1 = 0.3 mg/kg Se-yeast and P2 = 0.3 mg/kg Se-Chlorella), [119]. In their results, the authors reported that the content of selenium in chicken thighs (C = 52.11, P1 = 217.39 and P2 = 123.21 μg/kg) and in breasts (C = 70.95, P1 = 247.87 and P2 = 147.61 μg/ kg) increased in experimental groups in comparison with the control group (P < 0.05). Choct et al. stated that the increased content of selenium in chicken feed from 0.1 to 0.25 mg/kg affected the increase of selenium content in breast muscles from 0.232 to 0.278 mg/kg [120]. Kralik et al. investigated the influence of selenium content in chicken feed on the selenium content in breast muscles, by using 60 male chickens of the Ross 308 provenience, divided into three groups: P1 = without selenium, P2 = 0.3 mg Se/kg feed and P3 = 0.5 mg Se/kg feed [79]. All groups of chickens had feed that contained a total of 6% oils (3% sunflower oil and 3% linseed oil). Experimental groups' feed were supplemented by organic selenium Sel-Plex®, produced by Alltech. The authors pointed out that breast muscle tissue in the group P3 contained significantly more selenium (0.265 mg/kg tissue) than groups P2 (0.183 mg Se/kg tissue) and P1 (0.087 mg/kg tissue, P < 0.05). The increase in the content of selenium in feed from 0.0 to 0.3 mg/kg influenced the change of the fatty acid profile in breast muscle tissue. More precisely, it caused the increase in portion of ALA, EPA, DPA and DHA, that is, in portion of total n-3 PUFA, and it affected also the lowering of the total SFA and MUFA portion. The results that support the mentioned fact are also pointed out by Haug et al., as they reported significant influence of selenium contained in chicken feed on the content of EPA, DPA and DHA in thigh muscles [121]. This means that the increased content of selenium in feed affects the increase of the mentioned fatty acids in thigh muscles (P < 0.05). The authors explained this fact by confirming that higher content of selenium in feed had influence on the activity of ∆6-, ∆5- and ∆4- desaturase and elongase, which catalyze elongation and desaturation of short-chain fatty acids to long-chain fatty acids, or that such intake led to slowed speed of long-chain fatty acids degradation within peroxidation processes. Furthermore, Kralik et al. stated that the increase of selenium content in feed to a level of 0.5 mg/kg caused the portion of n-3 PUFA to equalize with the values recorded in the P1 group, which did not have organic selenium added to feed [79]. The authors assumed that the surplus of selenium in feed of the P3 group was required for saturation of various antioxidative selenoenzymes in cells, since it was noticed that the value of lipid oxidation in that group was the lowest. The values of lipid oxidation in meat (TBARS) measured in fresh and frozen meat 28 days in a freezer at −20°C) were similar in all groups (fresh meat: P1 = 3.97 nmol MDA (Malondialdehyde)/g tissue, P2 = 3.56 nmol MDA/g tissue, P3 = 3.44 nmol MDA/g tissue and frozen meat: P1 = 5.50 nmol MDA/g tissue, P2 = 5.44 nmol MDA/g tissue and P3 = 4.94 nmol MDA/g tissue; P > 0.05). Dlouhá et al. reported that organic selenium in chicken feed reduced the lipid oxidation in breast muscle tissue, both in fresh and in stored meat [122]. Wang et al. pointed out that the level of selenium in feed (0.0 and 0.6 mg/kg) statistically significantly reduced the lipid oxidation in breast muscle tissue (0.34–0.30 mg/kg MDA; P < 0.001), [123].

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#### **4.4. Enrichment of chicken meat with selenium**

In the food chain, plants are the main source of selenium for animals. Plants get selenium from the soil, so it is important that soil is well supplied with this microelement. The supply of plant with selenium depends on its availability in the soil, therefore, plants from different areas have different selenium content. As poultry feeding mixtures are made from grains produced on different fields, the content of selenium is not equalized. If inorganic fertilizers that contain sulfur are used in agricultural production, then the selenium availability for plants is reduced. Also, acidification of soil significantly reduces the availability of selenium for plants. Instead of the inorganic form of selenium, scientists pointed out that organic form of selenium produced in form of selenized yeast shall be introduced as an animal feed supplement [17, 113, 114]. Recently, biofortification of plants with selenium has been carried out in arable crop production in order to increase the availability of selenium to plants, and to make them further available as a feed for animals, to consequently enrich final animal products with selenium [115, 116]. The source of selenium (inorganic—sodium selenite or organic—selenomethionine in the form of yeasts or algae) used in animal feed has significant effect on its exploitation in the organism [15, 117, 118]. Wang and Hu determined statistically significant higher activity of GPx in blood of fattening chicken that consumed diet with higher content of selenium (P < 0.05), [15]. Furthermore, they stated that the source of selenium influenced the selenium content and GPx activity in chicken blood (P = 0.01). Better results were obtained in chickens fed diet supplemented with organic selenium. In their research into the influence of selenium sources on chicken meat quality, Ševčikova et al. used chickens of the Ross 308 provenience and fed them for 42 days with three feeding mixtures (C = without selenium, P1 = 0.3 mg/kg Se-yeast and P2 = 0.3 mg/kg Se-Chlorella), [119]. In their results, the authors reported that the content of selenium in chicken thighs (C = 52.11, P1 = 217.39 and P2 = 123.21 μg/kg) and in breasts (C = 70.95, P1 = 247.87 and P2 = 147.61 μg/ kg) increased in experimental groups in comparison with the control group (P < 0.05). Choct et al. stated that the increased content of selenium in chicken feed from 0.1 to 0.25 mg/kg affected the increase of selenium content in breast muscles from 0.232 to 0.278 mg/kg [120]. Kralik et al. investigated the influence of selenium content in chicken feed on the selenium content in breast muscles, by using 60 male chickens of the Ross 308 provenience, divided into three groups: P1 = without selenium, P2 = 0.3 mg Se/kg feed and P3 = 0.5 mg Se/kg feed [79]. All groups of chickens had feed that contained a total of 6% oils (3% sunflower oil and 3% linseed oil). Experimental groups' feed were supplemented by organic selenium Sel-Plex®, produced by Alltech. The authors pointed out that breast muscle tissue in the group P3 contained significantly more selenium (0.265 mg/kg tissue) than groups P2 (0.183 mg Se/kg tissue) and P1 (0.087 mg/kg tissue, P < 0.05). The increase in the content of selenium in feed from 0.0 to 0.3 mg/kg influenced the change of the fatty acid profile in breast muscle tissue. More precisely, it caused the increase in portion of ALA, EPA, DPA and DHA, that is, in portion of total n-3 PUFA, and it affected also the lowering of the total SFA and MUFA portion. The results that support the mentioned fact are also pointed out by Haug et al., as they reported significant influence of selenium contained in chicken feed on the content of EPA, DPA and DHA in thigh muscles [121]. This means that the increased content of selenium in feed affects the increase of the mentioned fatty acids in thigh muscles (P < 0.05). The authors explained this fact by confirming that higher content of selenium in feed had influence on the activity of ∆6-, ∆5- and ∆4- desaturase and elongase, which catalyze elongation and desaturation of short-chain fatty acids to long-chain fatty acids, or that such intake led to slowed speed of long-chain fatty acids degradation within peroxidation processes. Furthermore, Kralik et al. stated that the increase of selenium content in feed to a level of 0.5 mg/kg caused the portion of n-3 PUFA to equalize with the values recorded in the P1 group, which did not have organic selenium added to feed [79]. The authors assumed that the surplus of selenium in feed of the P3 group was required for saturation of various antioxidative selenoenzymes in cells, since it was noticed that the value of lipid oxidation in that group was the lowest. The values of lipid oxidation in meat (TBARS) measured in fresh and frozen meat 28 days in a freezer at −20°C) were similar in all groups (fresh meat: P1 = 3.97 nmol MDA (Malondialdehyde)/g tissue, P2 = 3.56 nmol MDA/g tissue, P3 = 3.44 nmol MDA/g tissue and frozen meat: P1 = 5.50 nmol MDA/g tissue, P2 = 5.44 nmol MDA/g tissue and P3 = 4.94 nmol MDA/g tissue; P > 0.05). Dlouhá et al. reported that organic selenium in chicken feed reduced the lipid oxidation in breast muscle tissue, both in fresh and in stored meat [122]. Wang et al. pointed out that the level of selenium in feed (0.0 and 0.6 mg/kg) statistically significantly reduced the lipid oxidation in breast muscle tissue (0.34–0.30 mg/kg MDA; P < 0.001), [123].

determined that supplementation of histidine to turkey diet resulted in the increased diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging capacity in breast muscles and blood, but did not result in the increased histidine dipeptide concentration [102]. The enzymatic antioxidant system of turkey blood was affected by the diet-containing spray dried blood cells (SDBC). In the plasma, the SDBC addition increased both superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and decreased GPx activity in the erythrocytes. Turkeys fed with diet-containing SDBC had increased BW (body weight) and the content of isoleucine and valine in breast muscles. Kralik et al. investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3% histidine on the quality of meat and the content of carnosine in breast and thigh muscles in Cobb 500 and Hubbard Classic chickens [103]. Dietary supplementation with L-histidine significantly affected live weight, carcass weight, weight of drumsticks and thighs, backs and wings, share of back and the a\* value (P < 0.05), as well as the content of carnosine in breast muscle (P = 0.003). The Cobb 500 broiler chickens deposited more carnosine in meat than Hubbard Classic chickens. Chicken breast muscle had higher content of carnosine than thighs and drumsticks [18, 104, 105, 106]. Results of studies into the enrichment of chicken meat with carnosine through implementation of different dietary treatments indicated the need for further investigations in order to determine the most efficient dietary treatment for synthesis and deposition of carnosine in chicken muscle tissues [19, 100, 101, 107–109]. In order to enrich chicken meat with carnosine, Kralik et al. added to chicken feed, apart of 0.10% L-histidine, also 0.20% β-alanine and 0.24% MgO as a catalyzer [110]. The research results proved more efficient synthesis and deposition of carnosine in broiler meat of experimental group than in the control group (breasts 1443.35:664.1 mg/kg, P < 0.01; thighs 452.62:342.14 mg/kg, P = 0.057). Carnosine plays an important role in physiological functions of an organism. Recent researches into enrichment of chicken meat with carnosine as a functional ingredient confirmed that carnosine influences regulation of intracellular pH, it prevents oxidation and it is also important for maintaining the neurotransmission [111, 112]. Poultry meat is susceptible to oxidative processes which cause the changes in color, smell and taste [101]. Lipid oxidation can be controlled

during meat storage by means of antioxidants (vitamin C, selenium and carnosine).

In the food chain, plants are the main source of selenium for animals. Plants get selenium from the soil, so it is important that soil is well supplied with this microelement. The supply of plant with selenium depends on its availability in the soil, therefore, plants from different areas have different selenium content. As poultry feeding mixtures are made from grains produced on different fields, the content of selenium is not equalized. If inorganic fertilizers that contain sulfur are used in agricultural production, then the selenium availability for plants is reduced. Also, acidification of soil significantly reduces the availability of selenium for plants. Instead of the inorganic form of selenium, scientists pointed out that organic form of selenium produced in form of selenized yeast shall be introduced as an animal feed supplement [17, 113, 114]. Recently, biofortification of plants with selenium has been carried out in arable crop production in order to increase the availability of selenium to plants, and to make them further available as a feed for animals, to consequently enrich final animal products with selenium [115, 116]. The source of selenium (inorganic—sodium selenite or organic—selenomethionine in the form of yeasts or algae) used in animal feed has

**4.4. Enrichment of chicken meat with selenium**

78 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

## **5. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids, carnosine and selenium on human health**

tract, penetrates through the blood and brain barrier, and with its great bioavailability it acts as a cell membrane stabilizer [133]. In general, carnosine is more concentrated in white muscle tissue than in dark tissue [134], which was also confirmed in the research by Kralik et al., within which it was determined that chicken breast muscle contained higher concentrations of carnosine than the thigh muscle [101]. There are many physiological roles attributed to carnosine, such as: buffer activity, antioxidative activity, hydroxyl radicals, aldehydes and carbonyls scavenger, copper and zinc ions chelator, protein degradation stimulator, reaction with protein carbonyls, activator of enzyme action, suppressor of protein networking [135]. Still, carnosine is the best known by its buffer activity in the organism. It is assumed that this buffer activity is the reason for carnosine's predominant association with white muscles in the organism. White, glycolytic muscle fibers contain few mitochondria and therefore, they produce lactic acid, within which the ability of carnosine to directly suppress the growth of hydrogen ion concentration is being emphasized [135]. As a chelator of metal ions (calcium, copper and zinc), carnosine participates in regulation of their metabolism in muscle and brain tissue [136]. Carnosine has also an important role in antioxidant protection, as it has the ability to catch reactive oxygen species (ROS), of which hydroxyl radical is the most dangerous one. Hydroxyl radical is formed from hydrogen peroxide in the presence of bivalent ions, such as copper. By catching and neutralizing the activity of free radicals, carnosine prevents oxidative damage occurrence. Researches confirmed its protective role in lipid oxidation [137] and protein oxidation [138]. The activity of carnosine in the process of slowing down glycosylation and protein networking is actually a consequence of its antioxidative activity, that is, its ability to block oxidation of biomolecules [133]. There is further research required to determine the role of carnosine in physiological processes that occur in human organism.

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**Selenium** is one of the important trace elements required for the normal functioning of a living organism. If there is deficit of any micro- or macro-element in the body, health can be disturbed and serious disorders or illness may arise. The occurrence of Keshan (endemic cardiomyopathy) and Kashin-Beck (endemic osteochondropathy) diseases are known to happen due to low selenium status in human population, which is a consequence of selenium-deficient soil, especially in northeastern to southwestern China [139]. Selenium concentration in tissues, plasma or serum depends on the intake and varies by country. It is generally lower in Eastern Europe than in North America [140]. Selenium in the body is a part of selenoproteins that have a wide range of health benefits. The most important of them are glutathione peroxidases (GPxs), thioredoxin reductases (TrxR) and iodothyronine deiodinases. They show antioxidant and antiinflammatory effects and are included in the production of active thyroid hormone [140]. One of the most important health benefits of selenium is its role in cancer prevention. Duffield-Lillico et al. showed that treatment with 200 μg selenium per day (as selenium yeast) for a mean of 4.5 years resulted in a significant reduction in cancer mortality (50%) and in the incidence of total (37%), prostate (67%), colorectal (58%) and lung (46%) cancers after a follow-up of 6.4 years [141]. Low selenium status is associated with poor immune function. Selenium supplementation enhances proliferation of activated T cells and increase total T cell count, hence boosting immune response [142]. Selenium is also very important to human fertility and reproduction. It is shown that glutathione peroxidase GPx4 protects spermatozoa by its antioxidant function and with other proteins forms structural component of the flagellum which is essential for

In recent years, many studies have been performed to determine the effect of **omega-3 fatty acids** on human health. In human nutrition, α-linolenic acid is the most represented fatty acid because it is found in vegetable sources (vegetable oils, seeds, nuts leafy vegetables). However, ALA has less expressed positive effect on human health than EPA and DHA, and its efficiency of conversion to EPA and DHA in the human body is only 2–10% [124] or even less. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce into diet some foodstuffs rich in EPA and DHA (fish and oils of fish and marine organisms), or to consume products enriched with these fatty acids, such as eggs and poultry meat. Omega-3 fatty acids are associated with many positive effects on human health. Since they are a constituent part of cell membranes, they are spread throughout the body. In the cells, these fatty acids act anti-inflammatory and help to maintain membrane viscosity [125]. DHA is an integral part of all cell membranes, and it is especially represented in the brain tissue. When compared to EPA, the researches proved that DHA has a more important role in maintenance of normal cell membrane function and that it is crucial for proper development of fetal brain and retina [126]. It was also found that the intake of EPA and DHA during pregnancy helps to reduce the incidence of premature birth, which causes many diseases in newborns. It is assumed that EPA and DHA reduce the production of prostaglandins E2 and F2α, thus helping to reduce uterine inflammation associated with premature birth [127]. Omega-3 fatty acids are usually mentioned in association with the prevention of heart and blood vessel diseases, which are usually caused by chronic inflammation processes in the body. EPA and DHA have anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activity [128] and help to maintain good condition of heart and blood vessels. The researches into the use of EPA and DHA in prevention of heart diseases are often controversial, but many of them prove positive effects of the stated fatty acids. For example, Kris-Etherton et al. [129] and Tavazzi et al. [130] determined a positive correlation between the intake of EPA and DHA and the reduced risk of reoccurring cardiac artery disease, sudden cardiac death after acute myocardial infarct and reduced heart failure occurrence. In addition, the omega-3 fatty acids have a positive role in prevention of atherosclerosis and peripheral artery diseases. It is believed that EPA and DHA improve plaque stability, reduce endothelial activation and improve blood vessel permeability, thus reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence [131]. Since DHA is largely present in phospholipids of the nerve cell membranes, where it is involved in the proper functioning of the nervous system, it is considered to have a preventive role in the development of Alzheimer's disease [132]. When considering the contradictory results of research into the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on various diseases, there is further research required to determine the exact protective mechanism of these fatty acids not only against the abovementioned diseases, but also against some other diseases.

**Carnosine** is a natural dipeptide composed of amino acids β-alanine and L-histidine through the action of the carnosine synthase enzyme. It is synthesized and present in large quantities in muscular and nervous tissue of mammals, birds and fish. It easily absorbs into the digestive tract, penetrates through the blood and brain barrier, and with its great bioavailability it acts as a cell membrane stabilizer [133]. In general, carnosine is more concentrated in white muscle tissue than in dark tissue [134], which was also confirmed in the research by Kralik et al., within which it was determined that chicken breast muscle contained higher concentrations of carnosine than the thigh muscle [101]. There are many physiological roles attributed to carnosine, such as: buffer activity, antioxidative activity, hydroxyl radicals, aldehydes and carbonyls scavenger, copper and zinc ions chelator, protein degradation stimulator, reaction with protein carbonyls, activator of enzyme action, suppressor of protein networking [135]. Still, carnosine is the best known by its buffer activity in the organism. It is assumed that this buffer activity is the reason for carnosine's predominant association with white muscles in the organism. White, glycolytic muscle fibers contain few mitochondria and therefore, they produce lactic acid, within which the ability of carnosine to directly suppress the growth of hydrogen ion concentration is being emphasized [135]. As a chelator of metal ions (calcium, copper and zinc), carnosine participates in regulation of their metabolism in muscle and brain tissue [136]. Carnosine has also an important role in antioxidant protection, as it has the ability to catch reactive oxygen species (ROS), of which hydroxyl radical is the most dangerous one. Hydroxyl radical is formed from hydrogen peroxide in the presence of bivalent ions, such as copper. By catching and neutralizing the activity of free radicals, carnosine prevents oxidative damage occurrence. Researches confirmed its protective role in lipid oxidation [137] and protein oxidation [138]. The activity of carnosine in the process of slowing down glycosylation and protein networking is actually a consequence of its antioxidative activity, that is, its ability to block oxidation of biomolecules [133]. There is further research required to determine the role of carnosine in physiological processes that occur in human organism.

**5. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids, carnosine and selenium** 

In recent years, many studies have been performed to determine the effect of **omega-3 fatty acids** on human health. In human nutrition, α-linolenic acid is the most represented fatty acid because it is found in vegetable sources (vegetable oils, seeds, nuts leafy vegetables). However, ALA has less expressed positive effect on human health than EPA and DHA, and its efficiency of conversion to EPA and DHA in the human body is only 2–10% [124] or even less. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce into diet some foodstuffs rich in EPA and DHA (fish and oils of fish and marine organisms), or to consume products enriched with these fatty acids, such as eggs and poultry meat. Omega-3 fatty acids are associated with many positive effects on human health. Since they are a constituent part of cell membranes, they are spread throughout the body. In the cells, these fatty acids act anti-inflammatory and help to maintain membrane viscosity [125]. DHA is an integral part of all cell membranes, and it is especially represented in the brain tissue. When compared to EPA, the researches proved that DHA has a more important role in maintenance of normal cell membrane function and that it is crucial for proper development of fetal brain and retina [126]. It was also found that the intake of EPA and DHA during pregnancy helps to reduce the incidence of premature birth, which causes many diseases in newborns. It is assumed that EPA and DHA reduce the production of prostaglandins E2 and F2α, thus helping to reduce uterine inflammation associated with premature birth [127]. Omega-3 fatty acids are usually mentioned in association with the prevention of heart and blood vessel diseases, which are usually caused by chronic inflammation processes in the body. EPA and DHA have anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activity [128] and help to maintain good condition of heart and blood vessels. The researches into the use of EPA and DHA in prevention of heart diseases are often controversial, but many of them prove positive effects of the stated fatty acids. For example, Kris-Etherton et al. [129] and Tavazzi et al. [130] determined a positive correlation between the intake of EPA and DHA and the reduced risk of reoccurring cardiac artery disease, sudden cardiac death after acute myocardial infarct and reduced heart failure occurrence. In addition, the omega-3 fatty acids have a positive role in prevention of atherosclerosis and peripheral artery diseases. It is believed that EPA and DHA improve plaque stability, reduce endothelial activation and improve blood vessel permeability, thus reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence [131]. Since DHA is largely present in phospholipids of the nerve cell membranes, where it is involved in the proper functioning of the nervous system, it is considered to have a preventive role in the development of Alzheimer's disease [132]. When considering the contradictory results of research into the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on various diseases, there is further research required to determine the exact protective mechanism of these fatty acids not only against the abovementioned diseases, but also

**Carnosine** is a natural dipeptide composed of amino acids β-alanine and L-histidine through the action of the carnosine synthase enzyme. It is synthesized and present in large quantities in muscular and nervous tissue of mammals, birds and fish. It easily absorbs into the digestive

**on human health**

80 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

against some other diseases.

**Selenium** is one of the important trace elements required for the normal functioning of a living organism. If there is deficit of any micro- or macro-element in the body, health can be disturbed and serious disorders or illness may arise. The occurrence of Keshan (endemic cardiomyopathy) and Kashin-Beck (endemic osteochondropathy) diseases are known to happen due to low selenium status in human population, which is a consequence of selenium-deficient soil, especially in northeastern to southwestern China [139]. Selenium concentration in tissues, plasma or serum depends on the intake and varies by country. It is generally lower in Eastern Europe than in North America [140]. Selenium in the body is a part of selenoproteins that have a wide range of health benefits. The most important of them are glutathione peroxidases (GPxs), thioredoxin reductases (TrxR) and iodothyronine deiodinases. They show antioxidant and antiinflammatory effects and are included in the production of active thyroid hormone [140]. One of the most important health benefits of selenium is its role in cancer prevention. Duffield-Lillico et al. showed that treatment with 200 μg selenium per day (as selenium yeast) for a mean of 4.5 years resulted in a significant reduction in cancer mortality (50%) and in the incidence of total (37%), prostate (67%), colorectal (58%) and lung (46%) cancers after a follow-up of 6.4 years [141]. Low selenium status is associated with poor immune function. Selenium supplementation enhances proliferation of activated T cells and increase total T cell count, hence boosting immune response [142]. Selenium is also very important to human fertility and reproduction. It is shown that glutathione peroxidase GPx4 protects spermatozoa by its antioxidant function and with other proteins forms structural component of the flagellum which is essential for sperm motility [143]. Low selenium status was connected with pre-eclampsia [144] and premature birth [145] in women. At the end, it is important to note that additional selenium intake may benefit people with low selenium status, while those who have adequate or high status should be careful and not take selenium supplements, since it may have adverse effect [140].

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## **6. Conclusion**

World poultry meat consumption is constantly growing. Chicken meat is a source of highquality protein with a relatively low content of fat. The quality of chicken meat is influenced by a number of factors like genotype, sex, feeding treatment, production technology, transport and pre-slaughter handling, all of which should be taken into account. In the production of chicken meat, it is very important to choose a good chicken genotype and to have good production conditions. It is also important to have devices on the slaughter line that can quickly provide meat quality data. It is necessary to improve chicken meat production technology year after year and to offer new products to the market. The production of enriched or functional products of animal origin is on this track. In poultry production, meat and eggs stand out. Functional ingredients are supplemented to chicken feed to improve the nutritional value of chicken meat, thus making chicken meat a foodstuff with added value (enriched or functional product), as it contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health. Chicken meat has become a functional food through the increase in the content of bioactive substances (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium, etc.) that have beneficial effects on consumers' health.

## **Acknowledgements**

This chapter is a part of the research unit "Research, Manufacturing and Medical Testing of Functional Food", within "The Scientific Centre of Excellence for Personalized Health Care", Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, supported by the Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia.

## **Author details**

Gordana Kralik1,2\*, Zlata Kralik1,2, Manuela Grčević1,2 and Danica Hanžek1,2

\*Address all correspondence to: gkralik@pfos.hr

1 Department of Applied Zootechnics, Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia

2 The Scientific Centre of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia

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World poultry meat consumption is constantly growing. Chicken meat is a source of highquality protein with a relatively low content of fat. The quality of chicken meat is influenced by a number of factors like genotype, sex, feeding treatment, production technology, transport and pre-slaughter handling, all of which should be taken into account. In the production of chicken meat, it is very important to choose a good chicken genotype and to have good production conditions. It is also important to have devices on the slaughter line that can quickly provide meat quality data. It is necessary to improve chicken meat production technology year after year and to offer new products to the market. The production of enriched or functional products of animal origin is on this track. In poultry production, meat and eggs stand out. Functional ingredients are supplemented to chicken feed to improve the nutritional value of chicken meat, thus making chicken meat a foodstuff with added value (enriched or functional product), as it contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health. Chicken meat has become a functional food through the increase in the content of bioactive substances (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium,

This chapter is a part of the research unit "Research, Manufacturing and Medical Testing of Functional Food", within "The Scientific Centre of Excellence for Personalized Health Care", Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, supported by the Ministry of Science and

Gordana Kralik1,2\*, Zlata Kralik1,2, Manuela Grčević1,2 and Danica Hanžek1,2

1 Department of Applied Zootechnics, Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, Josip Juraj

2 The Scientific Centre of Excellence for Personalized Health Care, Josip Juraj Strossmayer

**6. Conclusion**

82 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition

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**Author details**

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University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia

\*Address all correspondence to: gkralik@pfos.hr

Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia

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**Section 2**

**Animal Nutrition**


**Section 2**
