3. Evaluation of the experimental and numerical simulation data

Surroundings suitable for people's comfort conditions may vary in view of the environmental conditions within and outside of the building as well as user's age, gender, metabolism level and clothing. Human body not only can produce heat through the metabolism but also consumes the heat it has produced as a result of its actions. Creation of environments suitable for all kinds of climatic comfort conditions should considered as an objective in architectural designs in view of all these conditions. Openings at different ratios and locations on the building surface have been considered for comfortable ventilation and cooling in buildings with a courtyard, an indispensable architectural feature particularly for hot-dry climatic zones, if used in other climatic zones. And drawing from that central idea of this study, which was first to experimentally investigate to what extent such openings are effective in terms of climatic comfort and then to serve as a background for a more comfortable environment through comparison of achieved findings; the information from the measurements in the existing wind tunnel and the data from the analyses with CFD were examined and interpreted in detail.

The ground on which the fluid moves and the surfaces of the courtyard buildings being set as Wall, non-slippery condition will be applied on those surfaces. Because the flow takes place outdoors, Symmetry boundary condition will be selected for upper and lateral boundaries.

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Separate geometries were formed for each of the 17 different courtyard configurations in Fluent Design Modeler. In choosing the control volume to be calculated, attention was paid to selection of a domain where all necessary geometric and flow properties can be captured. Sensitivity

The first one of those is to make independent from the control volume the analysis in the solution area to be formed around the building. Recommendations from some resources were used to this end. It is generally recommended that if the height of the building is H and width is W, then the control volume should be at least 5H in height and 10W in width, and 2H for upward flow and 10H for the downward flow of the building. [Tutorials: Fluent Introduction - Cell Zone and Boundary Conditions] Another recommendation suggests that the upward flow

An average interval was elected among those recommended values and the height of the building which was designed in dimensions of 28.00 28.00 12.00 cm at the scale of 1/200 (H = 12 cm, W = 28 cm), was set 100 cm in height, 200 cm in width, 100 cm in upward flow and

The second important point is that the geometry was divided into as many parts as possible to increase the number of structural meshes in the mesh procedure. Although a structural mesh is easier to approach a solution, they still are hard to shape in complex geometries. Therefore, the geometry may require elimination of unnecessary details and division into an adequate number of smooth parts. In our model, the geometry was divided into an adequate number of parts in view of the same. Furthermore, "form new part" option was used to define under a single

Surroundings suitable for people's comfort conditions may vary in view of the environmental conditions within and outside of the building as well as user's age, gender, metabolism level and clothing. Human body not only can produce heat through the metabolism but also consumes the heat it has produced as a result of its actions. Creation of environments suitable for all kinds of climatic comfort conditions should considered as an objective in architectural designs in view of all these conditions. Openings at different ratios and locations on the building surface have been considered for comfortable ventilation and cooling in buildings with a courtyard, an indispensable architectural feature particularly for hot-dry climatic zones, if used in other climatic zones. And drawing from that central idea of this study, which was first to experimentally investigate to what extent such openings are effective in terms of climatic

was paid at a few important points for mesh and analysis in forming those geometries.

value should be at least 5H and the downward flow value at least 15H [18].

form to allow mesh element nodes capturing each other among respective parts.

3. Evaluation of the experimental and numerical simulation data

2.4. Modeling of courtyard configurations

200 cm in downward flow.

With the experimental study; it was aimed to find out the effect on velocity profiles of the rates of opening placed on the building surface, the effects of the flow types on turbulence, and the comfort conditions that can be deducted from human-climate data. The results of the measurements were compared via charts to the average velocity and turbulence values gained from measurements at heights of 0.00H–0.25H–0.50H–0.75H–1.00H–1.25H–1.50H–1.75H at 36 different pre-set points within the courtyard in the pre-set courtyard building configuration with 17 different openings. All openings were opened at ground floor level and the BSL-SUZ configuration accepted as reference building consists of a total of 40 4.00\*4.00\*4.00 cm boxes on ground floor level.

The opening rates on the courtyard building models with experimented 17 different openings are as follows. Openings were formed at a rate of 1/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL1, at a rate of 1/10 of the total ground floor area for BSL2, at a rate of 3/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL3, at a rate of 1/5 of the total ground floor area for BSL4, at a rate of 1/4 of the total ground floor area for BSL5, at a rate of 3/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL6, at a rate of 1/5 of the total ground floor area for BSL7, at a rate of 1/10 of the total ground floor area for BSL8, at a rate of 1/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL9, at a rate of 1/10 of the total ground floor area for BSL10, at a rate of 3/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL11, at a rate of 3/20 of the total ground floor area for BSL12, at a rate of 1/5 of the total ground floor area for BSL13, at a rate of 1/5 of the total ground floor area for BSL14, at a rate of 3/10 of the total ground floor area for BSL15, at a rate of 2/5 of the total ground floor area for BSL16 (Figure 1).

Although the opening rates of some courtyard building configurations are of the same value, the air velocity and turbulence values within the courtyard were found at different levels. The reason why different values have been found is the position to the wind and opening dimensions rather than same opening rates.

In BSL-SUZ courtyard building configuration, the average wind speed in the courtyard is 1.50 m/s. While turbulence values were between approximately 50 and 60% as far as 1.25H level, they have showed a decrease after 1.25H level. Although turbulence values exhibit an unstable appearance going up and down at 0.25H level, high turbulence values have been reached at other levels.

The opening rate at BSL-1-BSL-9 courtyard building configurations is 1/20. It has been seen upon comparison of the velocity values in BSL1 configuration and the values in the configuration of BSL-SUZ, the reference building, that velocity values in the courtyard show an increase. The average velocity in reference building courtyard H height is 1.50 m/s compared to BS1, which rises to 2.50 m/s. As to the windward points with opening, that rate reaches values of 4.50–5.00 m/s. Laminar flow type has been observed considering the flow values at 0.00H- and 0.50H levels. Turbulence air flow type has been observed at other levels. BSL9 configuration shows similarity in terms of lack of windward opening, yet measurements in the courtyard came out differently. The average wind velocity in courtyard at the side of the windward area without opening is the same as between 1.50 and 2.00 m/s, in contrast to the average wind velocity at the side of the windward area with the opening, which has been between 3.50 and 4.00 m/s. Consequently, the average courtyard wind velocities at the side of openings for courtyard building models BSL-1-BSL-9 with openings are almost the same, as about 3.50– 4.00 m/s. The average wind velocities at sides without opening in both configurations are 1.50– 2.00 m/s, the same level as the reference building.

The wind velocity at average courtyard H height in BSL-13 is 3.50 m/s. The speed values at points with openings on 3-4 axis at windward region on ground level are quite high compared

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Since the openings left at BSL-14 configuration is only from lateral areas, the wind does not enter the building courtyard from the windward area, resulting in a fall in the courtyard wind velocity values. A comparison of the BSL-14 measurements to the measurements of the reference building, BSL-SUZ courtyard building model, showed that the air velocity values up to 1.25H and turbulence values in the courtyard were almost the same. Average wind velocity is 1.50 m/s. At that level, no speed over 2.00 m/s wind velocity value was encountered up to almost 1.25H level. A comparison of the turbulence values showed that BSL14 had higher turbulence values.

The openings rates at BSL-3-BSL-11-BSL-12 building configurations are 3/20. Although the speed values on 1-2-3-4 axes with openings in BSL3 are about 5.50–6.00 m/s, quite high up to 0.50H height, the wind speed at points on 5-6 axes without openings turned out to be about 1.50 m/s. The width at the windward area constituting the entry area with the openings is greater compared to the width at the leeward area, which constitutes the exit area. Consequently, thanks to the effect called "channel-funnel effect" at leeward area, the speed values

The speed value is average 2.50–3.00 m/s at openings points within the courtyard in BSL-11

BSL-12 configuration differs from the other configurations examined until now. This is because openings were formed at windward and leeward areas only in the others in contrast to this one

As a consequence, the air flow within the courtyard is not from the windward and leeward area only but also from lateral areas. The air entry openings placed in the middle of the courtyard and the openings in the middle of the lateral area ensure a sudden change in direction after the air flow heads toward the courtyard, and limits toward the air outlet openings on the side wall. Thus, a high rate of air flow and velocity within the courtyard will have been sent out before they may even occur. Average wind velocities up to 1.25H height at points within the courtyard are about 3.00–3.50 m/s. Turbulence values are high here particularly at points in the leeward area.

The openings rates at BSL-6-BSL-15 building configurations are 3/10. In BSL6, velocities of laminar flow type at very high levels between 0.00H and 0.50H such as 7.00–7.50 m/s have been achieved. Considering the flow values at 0.50H and 1.25H levels, wind velocity fell to values between 1.50 and 2.00, and velocities of turbulence flow type were achieved (Figure 4).

The BSL-15 building with courtyard configuration is similar to the BSL13 building model with courtyard. Consequently, courtyard and extra-courtyard measurements came out almost similar. While the openings widths at lateral areas were 2H/3, the openings widths of windward and leeward areas were at H/3 rate, and heights of the same at H/3 rate. The average wind

particularly at leeward exit area are quite high (Figures 4 and 5).

configuration. Openings were left only from the leeward area.

where openings were formed laterally in addition to those areas.

velocity within the courtyard up to 1.25H height is about 2.50 m/s.

to other points without openings.

Other courtyard building models with equal opening rates are BSL-2-BSL-8-BSL-10. Opening rate is 1/10. A comparison of BSL2 with the previous building and BSL-1 buildings show us that the wind speed within the courtyard shows quite an increase. While the average velocity value in BSL1 was 2.50 m/s at H height, it rose to values of 4.50–5.00 m/s in BSL-2. The peripheral air flow to occur in gaps left oppositely will be quite high. The openings in BSL2- BSL-4-BSL-6 configurations were left oppositely at different rates. The reason why in the three configurations, wind velocities show an increase with the opening height within the courtyard at points with opening is due to the "Venturi Effect."

BSL-8 configuration essentially shows similar features to BSL-7 configuration. The only difference of BSL-8 configuration from BSL-7 configuration is the openings widths at windward and leeward regions. The openings widths at BSL8 are less. That has increased the wind velocity at windward and leeward areas with openings.

Average wind velocities as far as H height within the courtyard are about 3.50–4.00 m/s in BSL-2 and BSL-8 model. The wind velocities along the H height within courtyard are found close to wind velocities within the reference building except in general for the points with openings within BSL-8 model (Figure 3).

The BSL-10 building with courtyard configuration is highly similar with the BSL-9 building model with courtyard. The only difference of BSL10 configuration from BSL-9 configuration is the openings widths at windward and leeward regions. Openings width in BSL-10 configuration is 2H/3. Consequently, measured velocities and turbulence values are almost the same. Wind velocity as far as 1.25H level is average 3.00 m/s.

Courtyard building configurations BSL-12-BSL-13-BSL-14-BSL-15-BSL-16 are different compared to other configurations. While the openings of other model buildings were at windward and/or leeward area, openings were left in both windward and leeward area and in lateral areas in those models. The air flow within the courtyard is not from the windward and leeward area only but also from lateral areas. The openings at the lateral areas of the courtyard ensure a sudden change in direction after the air flow heads toward the courtyard, and limits toward the air outlet openings on the side wall. Thus, the high rate of air flow and velocity within the courtyard will have been prevented.

The openings rates at BSL-4-BSL-13-BSL-14 building configurations are 1/5. There are quite high values at BSL-4 openings points. The average wind velocity between 0.00H and 0.50H is 7.00–7.20 m/s. Between 0.50H and 1.25H, however, it showed a sudden decrease to fall to 2.00 m/s wind velocity values (Figure 4).

The wind velocity at average courtyard H height in BSL-13 is 3.50 m/s. The speed values at points with openings on 3-4 axis at windward region on ground level are quite high compared to other points without openings.

without opening is the same as between 1.50 and 2.00 m/s, in contrast to the average wind velocity at the side of the windward area with the opening, which has been between 3.50 and 4.00 m/s. Consequently, the average courtyard wind velocities at the side of openings for courtyard building models BSL-1-BSL-9 with openings are almost the same, as about 3.50– 4.00 m/s. The average wind velocities at sides without opening in both configurations are 1.50–

82 Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties

Other courtyard building models with equal opening rates are BSL-2-BSL-8-BSL-10. Opening rate is 1/10. A comparison of BSL2 with the previous building and BSL-1 buildings show us that the wind speed within the courtyard shows quite an increase. While the average velocity value in BSL1 was 2.50 m/s at H height, it rose to values of 4.50–5.00 m/s in BSL-2. The peripheral air flow to occur in gaps left oppositely will be quite high. The openings in BSL2- BSL-4-BSL-6 configurations were left oppositely at different rates. The reason why in the three configurations, wind velocities show an increase with the opening height within the courtyard

BSL-8 configuration essentially shows similar features to BSL-7 configuration. The only difference of BSL-8 configuration from BSL-7 configuration is the openings widths at windward and leeward regions. The openings widths at BSL8 are less. That has increased the wind velocity at

Average wind velocities as far as H height within the courtyard are about 3.50–4.00 m/s in BSL-2 and BSL-8 model. The wind velocities along the H height within courtyard are found close to wind velocities within the reference building except in general for the points with openings

The BSL-10 building with courtyard configuration is highly similar with the BSL-9 building model with courtyard. The only difference of BSL10 configuration from BSL-9 configuration is the openings widths at windward and leeward regions. Openings width in BSL-10 configuration is 2H/3. Consequently, measured velocities and turbulence values are almost the same. Wind

Courtyard building configurations BSL-12-BSL-13-BSL-14-BSL-15-BSL-16 are different compared to other configurations. While the openings of other model buildings were at windward and/or leeward area, openings were left in both windward and leeward area and in lateral areas in those models. The air flow within the courtyard is not from the windward and leeward area only but also from lateral areas. The openings at the lateral areas of the courtyard ensure a sudden change in direction after the air flow heads toward the courtyard, and limits toward the air outlet openings on the side wall. Thus, the high rate of air flow and velocity

The openings rates at BSL-4-BSL-13-BSL-14 building configurations are 1/5. There are quite high values at BSL-4 openings points. The average wind velocity between 0.00H and 0.50H is 7.00–7.20 m/s. Between 0.50H and 1.25H, however, it showed a sudden decrease to fall to

2.00 m/s, the same level as the reference building.

at points with opening is due to the "Venturi Effect."

windward and leeward areas with openings.

velocity as far as 1.25H level is average 3.00 m/s.

within the courtyard will have been prevented.

2.00 m/s wind velocity values (Figure 4).

within BSL-8 model (Figure 3).

Since the openings left at BSL-14 configuration is only from lateral areas, the wind does not enter the building courtyard from the windward area, resulting in a fall in the courtyard wind velocity values. A comparison of the BSL-14 measurements to the measurements of the reference building, BSL-SUZ courtyard building model, showed that the air velocity values up to 1.25H and turbulence values in the courtyard were almost the same. Average wind velocity is 1.50 m/s. At that level, no speed over 2.00 m/s wind velocity value was encountered up to almost 1.25H level. A comparison of the turbulence values showed that BSL14 had higher turbulence values.

The openings rates at BSL-3-BSL-11-BSL-12 building configurations are 3/20. Although the speed values on 1-2-3-4 axes with openings in BSL3 are about 5.50–6.00 m/s, quite high up to 0.50H height, the wind speed at points on 5-6 axes without openings turned out to be about 1.50 m/s. The width at the windward area constituting the entry area with the openings is greater compared to the width at the leeward area, which constitutes the exit area. Consequently, thanks to the effect called "channel-funnel effect" at leeward area, the speed values particularly at leeward exit area are quite high (Figures 4 and 5).

The speed value is average 2.50–3.00 m/s at openings points within the courtyard in BSL-11 configuration. Openings were left only from the leeward area.

BSL-12 configuration differs from the other configurations examined until now. This is because openings were formed at windward and leeward areas only in the others in contrast to this one where openings were formed laterally in addition to those areas.

As a consequence, the air flow within the courtyard is not from the windward and leeward area only but also from lateral areas. The air entry openings placed in the middle of the courtyard and the openings in the middle of the lateral area ensure a sudden change in direction after the air flow heads toward the courtyard, and limits toward the air outlet openings on the side wall. Thus, a high rate of air flow and velocity within the courtyard will have been sent out before they may even occur. Average wind velocities up to 1.25H height at points within the courtyard are about 3.00–3.50 m/s. Turbulence values are high here particularly at points in the leeward area.

The openings rates at BSL-6-BSL-15 building configurations are 3/10. In BSL6, velocities of laminar flow type at very high levels between 0.00H and 0.50H such as 7.00–7.50 m/s have been achieved. Considering the flow values at 0.50H and 1.25H levels, wind velocity fell to values between 1.50 and 2.00, and velocities of turbulence flow type were achieved (Figure 4).

The BSL-15 building with courtyard configuration is similar to the BSL13 building model with courtyard. Consequently, courtyard and extra-courtyard measurements came out almost similar. While the openings widths at lateral areas were 2H/3, the openings widths of windward and leeward areas were at H/3 rate, and heights of the same at H/3 rate. The average wind velocity within the courtyard up to 1.25H height is about 2.50 m/s.

Figure 4. Wind velocity and air flow in courtyard configurations from the gaps formed on the building surface to the courtyard.

Figure 5. Wind velocity diagram at plan plane at the elevation of the openings left on building surfaces in courtyard

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configurations.

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Figure 5. Wind velocity diagram at plan plane at the elevation of the openings left on building surfaces in courtyard configurations.

Figure 4. Wind velocity and air flow in courtyard configurations from the gaps formed on the building surface to the

84 Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties

courtyard.

The BSL16 building with courtyard configuration is in fact a different version of BSL13-BSL15 models of building with courtyard. Consequently, courtyard and extra-courtyard measurements came out almost similar. The average wind velocity at points of 3-4-5-6 axes with openings is about 5.50–6.00 m/s. As to the points on windward 1-2 axes without openings, the increase of the wind velocity fell considerably to an average of 2.00 m/s. The wind velocity average between 0.50H and 1.50H is about 2.50–3.00 m/s (Figures 4 and 5).

highest level and those on the leeward surface at the lowest level. While there might be decreases in the average air movement velocity due to the relative positions and area rates of

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With this study, several experimental measurements and numerical studies will be held in relation with the building form and surface openings in courtyard buildings at different configurations and at different dimensions. As a result, it will constitute a very good reference to all studies to be held hereafter with regard to the reliability and availability of all measurements conducted and results found, and constitute a base to the design data in

Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University,

[1] Erell E, Pearlmutter D, Williamson T. Urban climate: Designing Spaces Between Build-

[2] Ansley RM, Melbourne W, Vickery BJ. Architectural Aerodynamics. London: Applied

[3] Awbi HB. Design consideration for naturally ventilated buildings. Renewable Energy.

[4] Ratti C, Raydan D, Steemers K. Building form and environmental performance: archetypes, analysis and an arid climate. Energy and Buildings. January 2003;35(1):49-59

[5] Al-Mumin AA. Suitability of sunken courtyards in the desert climate of Kuwait. Energy

[6] Al-Hemiddi NA, Al-Saud KAM. The effect of a ventilated interior courtyard on the thermal performance of a house in a hot–dry region. Renewable Energy. November 2001;

[7] Rajapaksha I, Nagai H, Okumiya M. A ventilated courtyard as a passive cooling strategy in the warm humid tropics. Renewable Energy. September 2003;28(11):1755-1778

[8] Lawson TV. Wind Effects on Buildings – Vol. 1, Design Applications. London: Applied

ings. London: Earthscan/James & James Science Publishers; 2010. 266 p

openings, points where it increases at spatial distribution may also be formed.

various conditions.

Author details

Address all correspondence to: enesyasa@yahoo.com

and Buildings. January 2001;33(2):103-111

Enes Yasa

Turkey

References

Science Pub; 1977

1994;5(5):1081-1090

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As a result, the reference building model BSL-SUZ has a wind velocity of 1.50 m/s when assessed in view of average wind velocities in its region at H level area within the courtyard. There are two different velocity values within the courtyard in building configurations BSL1- BSL2-BSL3-BSL4-BSL5-BSL6. These are; while the average wind velocity is found out at high values up to 0.00H-0.50H level, the openings height at points with openings, a sudden fall occurs in locations without openings in the wind velocity values between 0.50H and 1.25H.

Wind velocities of 4.50–5.00 m/s were found for BSL1 up to openings level 0.00H-0.50H and of 2.00–2.50 m/s above openings level or at points between 0.50H and 1.25H without openings; of 5.50–6.00 m/s for BSL2 up to openings points level and of 3.50–4.00 m/s above openings level or at points without openings; of 5.50–6.00 m/s for BSL3 up to openings points level and of 1.50 m/s above openings level or at points without openings; of 7.00–7.20 m/s for BSL4 up to openings points level and of 2.00 m/s above openings level or at points without openings; of 6.50–7.00 m/s for BSL5 up to openings points level or of 2.50–3.00 m/s above openings level or at points without openings; of 7.00–7.50 m/s for BSL6 up to openings points level or of 1.50– 2.00 m/s above openings level or at points without openings. There are average wind velocity values for other building configurations up to courtyard H height. Those are average velocity values of 2.00–3.00 m/s for BSL7, 3.50–4.00 m/s for BSL8, 1.50–2.00 m/s for BSL9, 3.00 m/s for BSL10, 2.50–3.00 m/s for BSL11, 3.00–3.50 m/s for BSL12; 3.50 m/s for BSL13, 1.50 m/s for BSL14, 2.50–3.00 m/s for BSL15, 2.50–3.00 m/s for BSL16.
