**3. Results**

#### **3.1. Formation and utilization of human-modified forests**

The locals classified land types into at least 13 categories (**Table 4**). Land categories marked with X are HMFs formed through arboriculture.

Damar forests are dominated by *Agathis dammara*, which has been used for resin (damar is a fuel for lamps and kindling) collection. These are formed through selectively protecting seedlings as well as young trees that are growing naturally, and they are patchily distributed in primary and old secondary forests. Felling and barking of *Agathis dammara* is strictly forbidden. Forest gardens are mixed fruit tree gardens with durians (*Durio zibethinus*), langsats (*Lansium domesticum*), jackfruits (*Artocarpus champeden*) and so on. Forest gardens are formed through planting and protecting seedlings as well as young trees growing in the wild; the seeds are mainly dispersed by wild bats. Forest gardens are patchily distributed in mostly old secondary forests. These HMFs are less intensively managed. As a result, forest gardens have no

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**Figure 7** shows the number of plant resources and total use scores, which indicate the number of uses of the plant resources in each land category. This indicates that non-timber forest product (NTFP) collection forests, forest gardens and sago groves provide relatively diverse plant resources used for various purposes, including food and medicine. **Figure 8** shows the number of animal resources usually captured or commonly seen in each land type. This indicates that the locals utilize a variety of animal species that enter or live in these HMFs. The locals have created various types of HMFs, and this enables them to enjoy diverse plant and

**Figure 7.** Plant resources. Source: Fieldwork. Note 1: The 'Total use scores' were counted based on the number of uses. For example, the total use score of cassava for food is 2 because besides its root, the leaves of cassava can also be eaten.

Note 2: The data for the Itawa forest and cacao garden were deficient.

clear boundary and are mixed with many wild plants.

animal resource utilization.

Among the types, forest gardens and damar forests are important for interrelationships between humans and Moluccan cockatoos.


**Table 4.** Folk land categories.

Damar forests are dominated by *Agathis dammara*, which has been used for resin (damar is a fuel for lamps and kindling) collection. These are formed through selectively protecting seedlings as well as young trees that are growing naturally, and they are patchily distributed in primary and old secondary forests. Felling and barking of *Agathis dammara* is strictly forbidden.

**3. Results**

150 Tropical Forests - New Edition

1. Home garden and

2. Intensive root crop – vegetable garden (lela)

4. Forest garden (lawa aihua)

6–7. Cultivatable land and fallow forest (lukapi)

6. Young fallow

7. Old fallow

8. Itawa forest (Itawa harie)

9. Cacao garden (dusun cokorat)

10. Bamboo forest (dusun bambu)

11. Damar forest (kahupe

12. NTFP collection forest (airima hari)

13. Primary'/old secondary forest (kaitahu)

**Table 4.** Folk land categories.

hari)

Source: Fieldwork.

forest (lukapi holu)

forest (lukapi mutuani)

3. Extensive banana – taro garden (lawa aelo)

residential area (amania)

**3.1. Formation and utilization of human-modified forests**

with X are HMFs formed through arboriculture.

between humans and Moluccan cockatoos.

**Land types (Folk categories) HMFs Descriptions**

The locals classified land types into at least 13 categories (**Table 4**). Land categories marked

Among the types, forest gardens and damar forests are important for interrelationships

and various herbs.

and wild trees.

machete (parang).

edible wild birds.

fallow land.

is also collected.

plants and wild edible plants.

machete.

5. Sago grove (soma) X Sago palm (*Metroxylon sagu*) grove that supplies sago starch, which is a

Residential land and home gardens with coconut palms, betel nut palms

Intensively managed garden, where the main crops are taro, cassava,

staple food for local people. Sago (*Metroxylon sagu*) grove. Local people

Cultivatable land where huge roots of trees have decayed, and fallow

X Fallow forests with relatively small young trees that can be cut down by a

X Fallow forests with relatively large trees that cannot be cut down by a

X Litsea mappacea-dominated forests that are used as a trapping ground for

X Cacao (*Theobroma cacao*) -dominated gardens. Most of them spring up in

X Bamboo grove formed through transplanting. Several species of bamboo are used as handicraft materials, fuel wood, and cookware. Bamboo shoot

X Resin extraction forest dominated by the *damar* tree *(Agathis dammara*).

X A forest located relatively close to village settlements, and they are used for collecting NTFPs such as construction materials, fuel woods, medical

> settlement and thought of as ground that is primarily used for hunting and trapping game animals. Artificial gaps are made for trapping cuscus.

X A primary or mature secondary forest situated far from the village

X Mixed tree garden with both fruit trees (durian, langsat, jackfruits, etc.)

also use sago groves as places to collect edible wild plants.

forest that was formed in the ex-lela and ex-lawa.

sweet potato, vegetables, tobacco, sugar cane, etc.

Extensively managed garden with banana and taro.

Forest gardens are mixed fruit tree gardens with durians (*Durio zibethinus*), langsats (*Lansium domesticum*), jackfruits (*Artocarpus champeden*) and so on. Forest gardens are formed through planting and protecting seedlings as well as young trees growing in the wild; the seeds are mainly dispersed by wild bats. Forest gardens are patchily distributed in mostly old secondary forests. These HMFs are less intensively managed. As a result, forest gardens have no clear boundary and are mixed with many wild plants.

**Figure 7** shows the number of plant resources and total use scores, which indicate the number of uses of the plant resources in each land category. This indicates that non-timber forest product (NTFP) collection forests, forest gardens and sago groves provide relatively diverse plant resources used for various purposes, including food and medicine. **Figure 8** shows the number of animal resources usually captured or commonly seen in each land type. This indicates that the locals utilize a variety of animal species that enter or live in these HMFs. The locals have created various types of HMFs, and this enables them to enjoy diverse plant and animal resource utilization.

**Figure 7.** Plant resources. Source: Fieldwork. Note 1: The 'Total use scores' were counted based on the number of uses. For example, the total use score of cassava for food is 2 because besides its root, the leaves of cassava can also be eaten. Note 2: The data for the Itawa forest and cacao garden were deficient.

**Figure 8.** Animal resources. Sources: Fieldwork. Note 1: These animal resources are mostly used for food. Note 2: 'Others' includes snails and honey.

Here we look at how resources provided from HMFs support local diets. **Figure 9** shows the result of the food intake surveys. Bars indicate the number of food items that were consumed by 14 households during the 2 periods by land types. As shown in the graph, the local people harvest diverse food resources in various types of lands. During both survey periods, sago grove, old fallow forest and NTFP collection forest provided relatively many food resources. In the fruiting season for durian, jackfruit, langsat and so on, the locals consume lots of food resources harvested from forest gardens. Creation and maintenance of diverse HMFs contribute to enriching local diets.

During the durian, jackfruit and langsat fruiting seasons, the cockatoos frequently fly to forest gardens to eat the fruits of these trees. They also frequently use damar forests to nest in hol-

**Figure 9.** Number of food resources harvested in each land category. Source: Fieldwork. Note 1: Food resources consumed as a snack, luxury items (e.g. tea, coffee, tobacco, betel nuts etc.), spices, flavors and oil are not included. Note 2: 'Semi-domesticated plants' here mean (1) herbaceous and arboreal plants that are planted (transplanted) by humans and less intensively managed after planting, and (2) herbaceous and arboreal plants that grow naturally, but the growth

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The map in **Figure 11** indicates the "cockatoo sites" recognized by the randomly selected 26 villagers, as those where Moluccan cockatoos are frequently and commonly seen or heard. As shown on the map, the cockatoo sites are distributed over a wide area, including areas relatively near the village settlement and some of HMFs inside the national park. A total of 78 cockatoo sites were listed. Among them, 42 sites are damar forests, and 25 sites are forest gardens (including forest gardens mixed with *Agathis dammara* trees). Of those, 16 sites in damar forests and 3 sites in forest gardens are situated inside the national park

The result of the Moluccan cockatoo site-mapping surveys seems to indicate that the cockatoo uses damar forests and forest gardens as important parts of their habitats. However, it is still unclear whether those HMFs are truly functioning as important parrot habitats because of the

lows of large dead damar trees (**Table 5** and **Figure 10**).

of which is encouraged by humans through weeding, cutting underbrush and vines, etc.

**3.2.2. Forest types and distribution of the cockatoo sites**

(**Table 6**).

#### **3.2. Local knowledge of parrot ecology**

#### *3.2.1. Behavior and habitat utilization of Moluccan cockatoo*

According to the villagers, during the night, the cockatoos roost in large trees, such as those locally called "kahari" (*Sloanea* sp.) and "raruka" (*Elaeocarpus rumphii)*, in primary and old secondary forests. After sunrise, they fly to feeding areas; they return to the same roosting sites before sunset.

In the morning and evening, they forage new shoots of rattan (*Calamus* spp.), swarms of moths in trunks of dead trees and fruits such as "kahari" and "raruka" in primary and old secondary forests (the fruiting seasons of "kahari" and "raruka" are unknown). They also forage other fruits such as "tatola" (*Homalanthus novoguineensis)*, "ulia" *(Spondias cytherea)* and "masapa" (*Syzygium* sp.) in old fallow forests and forest gardens; fruits of *Agathis dammara* in damar forests; and *"*hakia" (*Magnolia candollei)*, which also grows in damar forests. These trees do not have specific fruiting seasons. The cockatoos use these food resources all year.

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**Figure 9.** Number of food resources harvested in each land category. Source: Fieldwork. Note 1: Food resources consumed as a snack, luxury items (e.g. tea, coffee, tobacco, betel nuts etc.), spices, flavors and oil are not included. Note 2: 'Semi-domesticated plants' here mean (1) herbaceous and arboreal plants that are planted (transplanted) by humans and less intensively managed after planting, and (2) herbaceous and arboreal plants that grow naturally, but the growth of which is encouraged by humans through weeding, cutting underbrush and vines, etc.

During the durian, jackfruit and langsat fruiting seasons, the cockatoos frequently fly to forest gardens to eat the fruits of these trees. They also frequently use damar forests to nest in hollows of large dead damar trees (**Table 5** and **Figure 10**).

#### **3.2.2. Forest types and distribution of the cockatoo sites**

Here we look at how resources provided from HMFs support local diets. **Figure 9** shows the result of the food intake surveys. Bars indicate the number of food items that were consumed by 14 households during the 2 periods by land types. As shown in the graph, the local people harvest diverse food resources in various types of lands. During both survey periods, sago grove, old fallow forest and NTFP collection forest provided relatively many food resources. In the fruiting season for durian, jackfruit, langsat and so on, the locals consume lots of food resources harvested from forest gardens. Creation and maintenance of diverse HMFs contribute to enriching local diets.

**Figure 8.** Animal resources. Sources: Fieldwork. Note 1: These animal resources are mostly used for food. Note 2:

According to the villagers, during the night, the cockatoos roost in large trees, such as those locally called "kahari" (*Sloanea* sp.) and "raruka" (*Elaeocarpus rumphii)*, in primary and old secondary forests. After sunrise, they fly to feeding areas; they return to the same roosting

In the morning and evening, they forage new shoots of rattan (*Calamus* spp.), swarms of moths in trunks of dead trees and fruits such as "kahari" and "raruka" in primary and old secondary forests (the fruiting seasons of "kahari" and "raruka" are unknown). They also forage other fruits such as "tatola" (*Homalanthus novoguineensis)*, "ulia" *(Spondias cytherea)* and "masapa" (*Syzygium* sp.) in old fallow forests and forest gardens; fruits of *Agathis dammara* in damar forests; and *"*hakia" (*Magnolia candollei)*, which also grows in damar forests. These trees do not

have specific fruiting seasons. The cockatoos use these food resources all year.

**3.2. Local knowledge of parrot ecology**

'Others' includes snails and honey.

152 Tropical Forests - New Edition

sites before sunset.

*3.2.1. Behavior and habitat utilization of Moluccan cockatoo*

The map in **Figure 11** indicates the "cockatoo sites" recognized by the randomly selected 26 villagers, as those where Moluccan cockatoos are frequently and commonly seen or heard. As shown on the map, the cockatoo sites are distributed over a wide area, including areas relatively near the village settlement and some of HMFs inside the national park. A total of 78 cockatoo sites were listed. Among them, 42 sites are damar forests, and 25 sites are forest gardens (including forest gardens mixed with *Agathis dammara* trees). Of those, 16 sites in damar forests and 3 sites in forest gardens are situated inside the national park (**Table 6**).

The result of the Moluccan cockatoo site-mapping surveys seems to indicate that the cockatoo uses damar forests and forest gardens as important parts of their habitats. However, it is still unclear whether those HMFs are truly functioning as important parrot habitats because of the


**Table 5.** Utilization of human-modified forests.

lack of objective and quantitative data. Therefore, I next analyze the relative abundances of Moluccan cockatoos by forest types.

#### *3.2.2. Relative abundance of Moluccan cockatoos*

A relatively high abundance of Moluccan cockatoos was observed in primary and old secondary forests during time period 1 and in damar forests during time periods 2 and 3 in both the fruiting (February 2012) and non-fruiting (September 2012) seasons. During the fruiting season, the cockatoos' abundance in forest gardens during time zones 2 and 3 is relatively high (**Table 7** and **Figure 12**). On the other hand, their presence in other forest types (NTFP collection forest, cacao garden, bamboo forest and sago grove) is very low in both seasons.

**Figure 11.** Sites where the Moluccan cockatoos are frequently seen or heard.

**Forest types Number of sites Number of sites inside the National Park**

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Primary/old secondary forest 11 3 Damar forest 42 16 Forest garden 19 2 Forest garden mixed with damar trees 6 1

Note: 78 cockatoo sites were identified through the interviews with 26 villagers (Feb 2012).

Source: Fieldwork.

**Table 6.** The results of the cockatoo site surveys.

**Figure 10.** Feeding scars of Moluccan cockatoo on the fruit of durian (A) and *Agathis dammara* (B).


Source: Fieldwork.

lack of objective and quantitative data. Therefore, I next analyze the relative abundances of

**Forest type Utilization Season**

• Eats tatola (*Homalanthus novoguineensis*), ulia (*Spondias cytherea*), and masapa

Damar forest • Eats fruits of damar tree (*Agathis dammara*) and hakia (*Magnolia candollei*) All year around

• Eats fruits of durian, langsat, jackfruit Jan–May

All year around

A relatively high abundance of Moluccan cockatoos was observed in primary and old secondary forests during time period 1 and in damar forests during time periods 2 and 3 in both the fruiting (February 2012) and non-fruiting (September 2012) seasons. During the fruiting season, the cockatoos' abundance in forest gardens during time zones 2 and 3 is relatively high (**Table 7** and **Figure 12**). On the other hand, their presence in other forest types (NTFP collection forest, cacao garden, bamboo forest and sago grove) is very low in

**Figure 10.** Feeding scars of Moluccan cockatoo on the fruit of durian (A) and *Agathis dammara* (B).

Moluccan cockatoos by forest types.

**Table 5.** Utilization of human-modified forests.

(*Syzygium* sp.)

• Nests in tree hollows of large dead damar tree

both seasons.

Forest garden

Source: Fieldwork.

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*3.2.2. Relative abundance of Moluccan cockatoos*

Note: 78 cockatoo sites were identified through the interviews with 26 villagers (Feb 2012).

**Table 6.** The results of the cockatoo site surveys.

**Figure 11.** Sites where the Moluccan cockatoos are frequently seen or heard.


**Forest type**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N P**

**zone-8** 

**(17:00–**

**18:00)**

**zone-7** 

**(16:00–**

**17:00)**

**zone-6** 

**(14:30–**

**16:00)**

**zone-5** 

**(11:00–**

**12:30)**

**zone-4** 

**(10:00–**

**11:00)**

**zone-3** 

**(9:00–10:00)**

**zone-2** 

**(8:00–9:00)**

**zone-1** 

**(6:30–8:00)**

Old fallow

0.00

11 1.05

17 0.00

2

0.00

3

1.07

9

0

0.00

9

0.00

12

0,763

forest

Bamboo grove

Cacao garden

Sago grove

P Source: Fieldwork.

Note 1: Kruskal-Wallis test.

Note 2:\*Significant level 10%;

\*\*Significant level 5%;

\*\*\*Significant level 1%.

Note 3: Relative abundance

**Table 7.**

Relative abundances of Moluccan cockatoos (number/1000

 m).

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 =

[numbers of observed cockatoo]/[length of a transect unit].

0.000\*\*\*

0.000\*\*\*

0.008\*\*\*

0

1

0.081\*

0

0.054\*

0.00

25 0.00

11 0.00

20 0.00

5

0.06

27 0.00

19 0.00

3

0.00

18

0,809

0.00

21 0.00

8

0.00

2

0.00

7

0.00

17 0.00

9

0.00

5

0.00

14

1000

 0.00

17 0.18

22 0.00

11 0.00

10 0.00

15 0.00

9

0.00

16 0.00

20

0,726


**Forest type**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N**

**Time** 

**N P**

**zone-8** 

**(17:00–**

**18:00)**

156 Tropical Forests - New Edition

**zone-7** 

**(16:00–**

**17:00)**

**zone-6** 

**(14:30–**

**16:00)**

**zone-5** 

**(11:00–**

**12:30)**

**zone-4** 

**(10:00–**

**11:00)**

**zone-3** 

**(9:00–10:00)**

**zone-2** 

**(8:00–9:00)**

**zone-1** 

**(6:30–8:00)**

**Fruit season (Feb. 2012)**

Primary/old

2.88

27 0.94

25 0.21

28 0.24

27 0.00

33 0.72

26 0.21

20 0.12

15

0,001\*\*\*

secondary

forest

Damar forest Forest garden

NTFP

0.00

4

0.00

9

0.00

12 0.00

7

0.00

8

0.00

9

0.00

15 0.00

8

1000

collection

forest

Old fallow

0.00

15 0.00

6

0.00

3

0.00

3

0.00

6

0.00

3

0.00

6

0.00

9

1000

forest

Bamboo grove

Cacao garden

Sago grove

P

0.009\*\*\* **Outside fruit season (Sep. 2012)**

Primary/old

2.29

34 1.08

24 0.47

25 0.45

33 0.10

39 0.26

24 0.51

29 0.43

28

0,010\*\*

secondary

forest

Damar forest Forest garden

NTFP

0.00

4

0.00

4

0.30

12 0.00

12 0.07

13 0.00

10 0.00

13 0.00

4

0,412

collection

forest

0.18

31 0.30

22 0.85

12 0.73

11 0.00

19 0.00

17 0.09

17 0.00

17

0,747

0.97

40 0.00

14 2.03

10 0.45

11 0.00

12 1.10

12 0.36

19 0.31

30

0,036\*\*

0.029\*\*

0

1

0

0.044\*\*

0

0

0.30

21 0.00

14 0.00

9

0.00

10 0.00

18 0.00

18 0.00

6

0.00

14

0,286

0.00

9

0.00

2

0.00

1

0.00

14 0.00

14 0.00

6

0.00

2

0.00

5

1000

 0.00

12 0.00

19 0.00

14 0.00

8

0.00

6

0.00

10 0.00

19 0.00

10

1000

1.19

35 1.20

25 1.08

14 0.18

19 0.59

17 0.21

13 0.00

20 0.06

20

0,052\*

0.81

30 1.29

14 0.34

11 0.00

13 0.00

7

1.62

8

0.27

13 0.86

22

0,308

Relative abundances of Moluccan cockatoos (number/1000

Note 3: Relative abundance

**Table 7.**

 =

[numbers of observed cockatoo]/[length of a transect unit].

 m).

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In the participatory transect surveys, I could not collect data after 18:00 (shortly before sunset) for a practical reason: the recorders were needed to prepare firewood for overnight camping. Therefore, cockatoo locations during the late evening are still unknown, but it can be presumed that the cockatoos' forest use patterns correspond to folk knowledge about parrot

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The data collected by the participatory transect surveys suggest that the cockatoos use primary and old secondary forests as shelters, roosting sites and feeding areas and that they frequently use HMFs as feeding sites (including damar forests, forest gardens and old fallow forest) during different time periods and seasons. Damar forests are used by the cockatoos all year, but the extent of their use of forest gardens tends to increase during the fruiting

The locals under study have created and maintained diverse HMFs. Some of these are located inside the national park. The diverse HMFs enable the locals to enjoy a variety of forest provisioning ecosystem services. The HMFs appear to secure the livelihood of mountain people

As indicated by the results of the cockatoo site surveys and the participatory transect surveys, among the various types of HMFs, NTFP collection forests, bamboo forests, cacao gardens and sago groves appear to be unsuitable habitats for the cockatoos, but less-intensively man-

If forest gardens and damar forests really contribute to providing important habitats for the cockatoo and if we attach great importance to the conservation of the cockatoo as part of national park management, it would be inappropriate to apply conventional national park management measures that strictly exclude any human intervention through agriculture

In the northern coastal area of central Seram, there are coconut palm and cacao plantations as well as shrimp farms. In addition, transmigration programs and commercial logging have been conducted intensively since the 1990s [7]. These practices have caused forest degradation and deforestation in large areas of the lowland. An oil palm plantation company began

Given that these large-scale development projects have destroyed and are destroying a large area of the forest, the park's importance in conserving regional biodiversity is undoubted. What I recommend here is more flexible park management measures that are consistent with

As long as locals engage in less-intensive and small-scale arboriculture, it is unlikely that their subsistence activities will negatively impact biodiversity in the park. Therefore, it would be desirable to establish special zones where locals can practice arboriculture in the park under

aged HMFs, such as damar forests and forest gardens, are suitable habitats.

living in remote areas with poor access to local markets.

certain conditions (e.g., limited to subsistence purposes).

(including arboriculture) inside the park.

behaviors, as described earlier.

season.

**4. Discussion**

operations in 2009.

local realities.

**Figure 12.** Relative abundances of Moluccan cockatoos in terms of forest type and time zone (number/1000 m). Source: Fieldwork. Note:T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8 represent time zone 6:30–8:00, 8:00–9:00, 9:00–10:00, 10:00–11:00, 11:00– 12:30, 14:30–16:00, 16:00–17:00, 17:00–18:00, respectively.

In the participatory transect surveys, I could not collect data after 18:00 (shortly before sunset) for a practical reason: the recorders were needed to prepare firewood for overnight camping. Therefore, cockatoo locations during the late evening are still unknown, but it can be presumed that the cockatoos' forest use patterns correspond to folk knowledge about parrot behaviors, as described earlier.

The data collected by the participatory transect surveys suggest that the cockatoos use primary and old secondary forests as shelters, roosting sites and feeding areas and that they frequently use HMFs as feeding sites (including damar forests, forest gardens and old fallow forest) during different time periods and seasons. Damar forests are used by the cockatoos all year, but the extent of their use of forest gardens tends to increase during the fruiting season.
