**4. Discussion**

**Figure 12.** Relative abundances of Moluccan cockatoos in terms of forest type and time zone (number/1000 m). Source: Fieldwork. Note:T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8 represent time zone 6:30–8:00, 8:00–9:00, 9:00–10:00, 10:00–11:00, 11:00–

12:30, 14:30–16:00, 16:00–17:00, 17:00–18:00, respectively.

158 Tropical Forests - New Edition

The locals under study have created and maintained diverse HMFs. Some of these are located inside the national park. The diverse HMFs enable the locals to enjoy a variety of forest provisioning ecosystem services. The HMFs appear to secure the livelihood of mountain people living in remote areas with poor access to local markets.

As indicated by the results of the cockatoo site surveys and the participatory transect surveys, among the various types of HMFs, NTFP collection forests, bamboo forests, cacao gardens and sago groves appear to be unsuitable habitats for the cockatoos, but less-intensively managed HMFs, such as damar forests and forest gardens, are suitable habitats.

If forest gardens and damar forests really contribute to providing important habitats for the cockatoo and if we attach great importance to the conservation of the cockatoo as part of national park management, it would be inappropriate to apply conventional national park management measures that strictly exclude any human intervention through agriculture (including arboriculture) inside the park.

In the northern coastal area of central Seram, there are coconut palm and cacao plantations as well as shrimp farms. In addition, transmigration programs and commercial logging have been conducted intensively since the 1990s [7]. These practices have caused forest degradation and deforestation in large areas of the lowland. An oil palm plantation company began operations in 2009.

Given that these large-scale development projects have destroyed and are destroying a large area of the forest, the park's importance in conserving regional biodiversity is undoubted. What I recommend here is more flexible park management measures that are consistent with local realities.

As long as locals engage in less-intensive and small-scale arboriculture, it is unlikely that their subsistence activities will negatively impact biodiversity in the park. Therefore, it would be desirable to establish special zones where locals can practice arboriculture in the park under certain conditions (e.g., limited to subsistence purposes).

utilization of wildlife in the tropics, resource management and conservation based on local ecological knowledge and policy of forest resource management and biodiversity conservation.

A Re-Examination of the Validity of the "Separative and Exclusive Conservation Model": Insights…

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[1] Latinis K. The development of subsistence system models for Island Southeast Asia and near Oceania: The nature and role of arboriculture and arboreal-based economies.

[2] BirdLife International. Species Factsheet: *Cacatua moluccensis*. 2017. http://www.birdlife.

[3] Ellen R. Human impact on the environment in Seram. In: Edward ID, Macdonald AA, Proctor J, editors. Natural History of Seram, Maluku, Indonesia. Intercept Ltd; 1993.

[4] Sasaoka M, Laumonier Y. Suitability of local resource management practices based on supernatural enforcement mechanisms in the local social–cultural context. Ecology and

[5] Sasaoka M, Laumonier Y, Sugimura K. Influence of indigenous sago-based agriculture on local forest landscapes in Maluku, East Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 2014;**26**(1):75-83 http://www.frim.gov.my/v1/JTFSOnline/jtfs/v26n1/75-83.pdf [Accessed

[6] Sasaoka M. The economic importance of wildlife as a supplemental remedial source of income for remote mountain villagers in the tropics: A case study of commercial hunting of wild parrots in Seram Island, Eastern Indonesia. Asian and African Area Studies.

[7] Badcock, S. (1996) Report 1 Social Characterization. Social Assessment—Maluku Regional Development Project (MRDP), Maluku Integrated Conservation and Natural

Resource Project (MACONAR). . n.p. Unpublished Paper

Society. 2012;**17**(4):6. DOI: 10.5751/ES-05124-170406. [Accessed: April 26, 2017]

Address all correspondence to: m.sasaoka@let.hokudai.ac.jp

**Author details**

Masatoshi Sasaoka

**References**

pp. 191-205

26 April 2017]

2008;**7**:158-190. (In Japanese)

Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

World Archaeology. 2000;**32**(1):41-67

org [Accessed: April 26, 2017]

**Figure 13.** A new conservation paradigm versus the conventional paradigm.

To promote such a flexible system, a shift of management paradigm, away from the conventional separative model that strictly separates areas of human activity from conservation areas to a new one that focuses on human-wildlife relationships formed in human-modified landscapes (**Figure 13**) is necessary.

Space for less-intensively managed HMFs is diminishing through the process of "polarization of landscapes," where rural forest areas are divided into "development areas" used intensively for agricultural production and resource exploitation on the one hand and "conservation areas" for protecting "intact nature" on the other hand. We still know little about the roles of less-intensively managed HMFs in conserving flagship species and maintaining local biodiversity. Therefore, the conservation value of HMFs needs to be assessed.
