5. Wildlife fauna of tropical forests

#### 5.1. Birds of tropical forests

Tropical forests are more diverse in vegetation structure and composition, which offer higher habitat complexity, that is, provide a diversity of nesting sites, greater protection from predators and harsh weather, and also plenty of food resources [58]. The vegetation climax and diversity had attracted a wide array of avian species, which are habitat and diet specialist in nature. For example, Black-naped Monarch—Hypothymis azurea—often prefers canopy and foraged on flying insects, Blue-headed Pitta—Pitta baudii—prefers to utilized the ground vegetation of evergreen broadleaved forest and prey on caterpillars of insects occurs in grasses, and Scarlet-rumped Trogon—Harpactes duvaucelli—is middle story bird often associated with evergreen broadleaved vegetation (Figures 3–5). They prefer to utilize old mature trees (large diameter and height) for foraging and nesting [59, 60]. Avian species often play a crucial role in forest ecosystem functions, that is, they pollinate the flowers and disperse the seeds from one

part of the forest to another [61–63] and control the pest such as rodents, insects, and squirrels,

Tropical forest birds are vulnerable to habitat loss, fragmentation, and changes in land use patterns [64–67]. This could be that habitat loss and fragmentation may alter the vegetation structure and composition, reduce the food resources, increase predation and brood parasitism risk, and enhance the competition for food and space [68–71]. It has been illustrated that in Southeast Asia, tropical forests are facing highest rate of habitat destruction [72–76], which exerts immense pressure on the habitat use, foraging behavior, and breeding success of avian species (Table 1).

Family Scientific name Common name Reference Accipitridae Haliastur indus Brahminy kite [76]

Bucerotidae Penelopides exhartus Sulawesi dwarf hornbill [76] Bucerotidae Rhyticeros cassidix Knobbed hornbill [76] Campephagidae Coracina bicolor Pied cuckooshrike [76]

Cardinalidae Cyanocompsa parellina Blue bunting [77]

Columbidae Ducula aenea Green imperial pigeon [76]

Corvidae Corvus typicus Piping crow [76]

Spilornis rufipectus Sulawesi serpent eagle [76] Accipiter trinotatus Spot-tailed goshawk [76] Ictinaetus malayensis Black eagle [76]

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Coracina leucopygia White-rumped cuckooshrike [76] Coracina morio Sulawesi cicadabird [76]

Passerina cyanea Indigo bunting [77] Granatellus sallaei Gray-throated chat [77] Habia fuscicauda Red-throated ant tanager [77] Piranga roseogularis Rose-throated ant tanager [77] Piranga rubra Summer tanager [77]

Ducula forsteni White-bellied imperial pigeon [76] Ducula luctuosa Sliver-tipped imperial pigeon [76] Macropygia amboinensis Brown cuckoo-dove [76] Treron griseicauda Gray-checked green pigeon [76] Ptilinopus melanospila Black-naped fruit dove [76] Turacoena manadensis Sulawesi black pigeon [76] Patagioenas flavirostris Red-billed pigeon [77] Columbina passerina Common ground dove [77] Columbina talpacoti Ruddy ground dove [77] Leptotila verreauxi White-tipped dove [77] Leptotila jamaicensis Caribbean dove [77]

Psilorhinus morio Brown jay [77]

which may cause damage to the forest foliage.

Figure 3. Black-naped monarch—Hypothymis azurea.

Figure 4. Blue-headed pitta—Pitta baudii.

Figure 5. Scarlet-rumped Trogon—Harpactes duvaucelii.

part of the forest to another [61–63] and control the pest such as rodents, insects, and squirrels, which may cause damage to the forest foliage.

vegetation of evergreen broadleaved forest and prey on caterpillars of insects occurs in grasses, and Scarlet-rumped Trogon—Harpactes duvaucelli—is middle story bird often associated with evergreen broadleaved vegetation (Figures 3–5). They prefer to utilize old mature trees (large diameter and height) for foraging and nesting [59, 60]. Avian species often play a crucial role in forest ecosystem functions, that is, they pollinate the flowers and disperse the seeds from one

Figure 4. Blue-headed pitta—Pitta baudii.

Figure 3. Black-naped monarch—Hypothymis azurea.

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Figure 5. Scarlet-rumped Trogon—Harpactes duvaucelii.

Tropical forest birds are vulnerable to habitat loss, fragmentation, and changes in land use patterns [64–67]. This could be that habitat loss and fragmentation may alter the vegetation structure and composition, reduce the food resources, increase predation and brood parasitism risk, and enhance the competition for food and space [68–71]. It has been illustrated that in Southeast Asia, tropical forests are facing highest rate of habitat destruction [72–76], which exerts immense pressure on the habitat use, foraging behavior, and breeding success of avian species (Table 1).



Family Scientific name Common name Reference

Pellorneidae Trichastoma celebense Sulawesi babbler [76] Phasianidae Gallus gallus Red junglefowl [76] Picidae Mulleripicus fulvus Ashy woodpecker [76]

Pittidae Pitta erythrogaster Blue-breasted pitta [76] Polioptilidae Ramphocaenus melanurus Long-billed gnat wren [77]

Psittacidae Tanygnathus sumatranus Blue-backed parrot [76]

Stenostriridae Culicicapa helianthea Citrine flycatcher [76] Sturnidae Aplonis panayensis Asian glossy starling [76]

Thamnophilidae Thamnophilus doliatus Barred antshrike [77] Thraupidae Eucometis penicillata Gray-headed tanager [77]

Setophaga magnolia Magnolia warbler [77] Setophaga caerulescens Black-throated blue warbler [77] Setophaga virens Black-throated green warbler [77] Setophaga dominica Yellow-throated warbler [77] Mniotilta varia Black-and-white warbler [77] Setophaga ruticilla American redstart [77] Seiurus aurocapilla Ovenbird [77] Geothlypis trichas Common yellowthroat [77] Setophaga citrina Hooded warbler [77]

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Melanerpes aurifrons Golden-fronted woodpecker [77] Picoides scalaris Ladder-backed woodpecker [77] Veniliornis fumigatus Smoky-brown woodpecker [77] Colaptes rubiginosus Golden-olive woodpecker [77] Dryocopus lineatus Lineated woodpecker [77]

Polioptila caerulea Blue-gray gnatcatcher [77] Polioptila plúmbea Tropical gnatcatcher [77]

Aratinga nana Olive-throated parakeet [77] Amazona albifrons White-fronted parrot [77] Trichoglossus ornatus Ornate lorikeet [76] Prioniturus platurus Golden-mantled racquet-tailed parrot [76]

Basilornis celebensis Sulawesi-crested myna [76] Streptocitta albicollis White-necked myna [76]

Cyanerpes cyaneus Red-legged honeycreeper [77] Sporophila torqueola White-collard seedeater [77] Tiaris olivaceus Yellow-faced grassquit [77] Saltator coerulescens Grayish saltator [77] Saltator atriceps Black-headed saltator [77]


Family Scientific name Common name Reference

Cuculidae Surniculus lugubris Drongo cuckoo [76]

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Dicaeidae Dicaeum aureolimbatum Yellow-sided flowerpecker [76]

Dicruridae Dicrurus hottentottus Hair-crested drongo [76] Emberizidae Arremonops rufivirgatus Olive sparrow [77]

Fringillidae Euphonia affinis Scrub euphonia [77]

Furnariidae Dendrocincla anabatina Twany-winged woodpecker [77]

Icteridae Dives dives Melodious blackbird [77]

Mimidae Melanoptila glabrirostris Black catbird [77]

Momotidae Momotus momota Amazonian motmot [77]

Monarchidae Hypothymis azurea Black-naped monarch [76] Nectariniidae Nectarinia aspasia Black sunbird [76] Odontophoridae Dactylortyx thoracicus Singing quail [77] Oriolidae Oriolus chinensis Black-naped oriole [76] Parulidae Vermivora cyanoptera Blue-winged warbler [77]

Cyanocorax yncas Green jay [77] Cyanocorax yucatanicus Yucatan jay [77]

Centropus celebensis Bay coucal [76] Piaya cayana Squirrel cuckoo [77] Dromococcyx phasianellus Pheasant cuckoo [77]

Dicaeum celebicum Gray-sided flowerpecker [76]

Arremonops chloronotus Green-backed sparrow [77]

Euphonia hirundinacea Yellow-throated euphonia [77]

Dendrocincla homochroa Ruddy woodpecker [77] Sittasomus griseicapillus Olivaceous woodpecker [77] Xiphorhynchus flavigaster Ivory-billed woodpecker [77]

Molothrus aeneus Bronzed cowbird [77] Icterus prosthemelas Black-cowled oriole [77] Icterus cucullatus Hooded oriole [77] Icterus chrysater Yellow-backed oriole [77] Icterus mesomelas Yellow-tailed oriole [77] Icterus auratus Orange oriole [77] Icterus gularis Altamira oriole [77] Amblycercus holosericeus Yellow-billed cacique [77]

Dumetella carolinensis Gray catbird [77]

Eumomota superciliosa Turquoise-browed motmot [77]

Oreothlypis peregrina Tennessee warbler [77] Setophaga americana Northern parula [77]


5.2. Mammals of tropical forests

ing day by day through a variety of ways [87] (Table 2).

Figure 6. Mantled Hawler monkey—Alouatta palliata.

Figure 7. Amazonian tapir—Tapirus terrestris.

pallets [63, 80–83].

Mammals are crucial element of tropical forest ecosystems [78, 79]. They exhibit a wide range of niches, exploit diverse tropical forest resources, and play a crucial role in vegetation composition and ecosystem functions, i.e., they forage on the grasses, control weed, pollinate flowers especially bats, and disperse seed from one area to another area after consuming in the form of

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Mammals are considered the third most threatened and endangered animals, for example, Mantled Hawler Monkey—Alouatta palliata—and Amazonian Tapir—Tapirus terrestris— (Figures 6 and 7) due to habitat loss and destruction, illegal hunting, and trapping [84–86]. It has been stated that >30% mammal species are threatened and their population is still declin-

Table 1. List of bird species occurring in tropical forests.

#### 5.2. Mammals of tropical forests

Family Scientific name Common name Reference Tityridae Pachyramphus major Gray-collared becard [77]

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Troglodytidae Pheugopedius maculipectus Spot-breasted wren [77]

Trogonidae Trogon melanocephalus Black-headed trogon [77]

Turdidae Hylocichla mustelina Wood thrush [77] Turdidae Turdus grayi Clay-colored thrush [77] Tyrannidae Camptostoma imberbe Northern beardless tyrannulet [77]

Vireonidae Vireo griseus White-eyed vireo [77]

Zosteropidae Zosterops celebense Pale-bellied white-eye [76]

Table 1. List of bird species occurring in tropical forests.

Vireo pallens Mangrove vireo [77] Vireo flavifrons Yellow-throated vireo [77] Hylophilus decurtatus Lesser greenlet [77] Cyclarhis gujanensis Rufous-browed pepper shrike [77]

Pachyramphus aglaiae Rose-throated becard [77] Tityra semifasciata Masked tityra [77] Tityra inquisitor Black-crownedt Tityra [77]

Thryothorus ludovicianus Carolina wren [77] Uropsila leucogastra White-bellied wren [77]

Trogon caligatus Gartered trogon [77]

Myiopagis viridicata Greenish elaenia [77] Elaenia flavogaster Yellow-bellied elaenia [77] Oncostoma cinereigulare Northern bentbill [77] Tolmomyias sulphurescens Yellow-olive flatbill [77] Platyrinchus cancrominus Stub-tailed spadebill [77] Contopus virens Eastern wood pewee [77] Contopus cinereus Tropical pewee [77] Empidonax minimus Least flycatcher [77] Attila spadiceus Bright-rumped attila [77] Myiarchus yucatanensis Yucatan flycatcher [77] Myiarchus tuberculifer Dusky-capped flycatcher [77] Myiarchus tyrannulus Brown-crested flycatcher [77] Pitangus sulphuratus Great kiskadee [77] Megarynchus pitangua Boat-billed flycatcher [77] Myiozetetes similis Social flycatcher [77] Tyrannus melancholicus Tropical kingbird [77] Tyrannus couchii Couch's kingbird [77] Mammals are crucial element of tropical forest ecosystems [78, 79]. They exhibit a wide range of niches, exploit diverse tropical forest resources, and play a crucial role in vegetation composition and ecosystem functions, i.e., they forage on the grasses, control weed, pollinate flowers especially bats, and disperse seed from one area to another area after consuming in the form of pallets [63, 80–83].

Mammals are considered the third most threatened and endangered animals, for example, Mantled Hawler Monkey—Alouatta palliata—and Amazonian Tapir—Tapirus terrestris— (Figures 6 and 7) due to habitat loss and destruction, illegal hunting, and trapping [84–86]. It has been stated that >30% mammal species are threatened and their population is still declining day by day through a variety of ways [87] (Table 2).

Figure 6. Mantled Hawler monkey—Alouatta palliata.

Figure 7. Amazonian tapir—Tapirus terrestris.


5.3. Amphibians of tropical forests

Table 2. List of mammal species occurring in tropical forests.

Amphibians are most abundant vertebrate in tropical forests, that is, they vary in color, behavior, habitat selection, size, and population density. Tropical amphibians are widely distributed and habitat specialist animals, that is, they often prefer the riparian areas of tropical forests (Figure 8). Amphibians depend on multiple environmental gradients and are closely

Family Scientific name Common name Reference

Mustelidae Eira barbara Tayra [87]

Myrmecophagidae Tamandua mexicana Northern tamandua [87] Nandiniidae Nandinia binotata African palm civet [88] Nesomyidae Cricetomys gambianus Giant pouched rat [88] Procaviidae Dendrohyrax arboreus Tree hyrax [88]

Sciuridae Sciurus granatensis Red–tailed squirrel [87]

Suidae Potamochoerus larvatus Bush pig [88] Tayassuidae Pecari tajacu Collard peccary [87] Tupaiidae Tupaia gracilis Slender tree shrew [89]

Viverridae Civettictis civetta African civet [88]

Rattus exulans Polynesian rat [89] Rattus rattus Black rat [89] Rattus tiomanicus Malayan field rat [89] Sundamys muelleri Muller's giant sunda rat [89]

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Lontra longicaudis Neotropical otter [87] Mellivora capensis Honey badger [88]

Nasua narica White–nosed coati [87] Potos flavus Kinkajou [87]

Simosciurus stramineus Guayaquil squirrel [87] Glyphotes simus Sculptor squirrel [89] Sundasciurus brookei Brooke's squirrel [89] Sundasciurus hippurus Horse-tailed squirrel [89] Lariscus hosei Four–striped ground squirrel [89] Sundasciurus lowii Low's squirrel [89] Sundasciurus tenuis Slender squirrel [89] Paraxeus vexillarius Tanganyika mountain squirrel [88]

Tupaia minor Pygmy tree shrew [89] Tupaia tana Large tree shrew [89]


Table 2. List of mammal species occurring in tropical forests.

#### 5.3. Amphibians of tropical forests

Family Scientific name Common name Reference Atelidae Alouatta palliata Mantled howler monkey [87] Bovidae Cephalophus harveyi Harvey's duiker [88]

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Bradypodidae Bradypus variegatus Brown-throated slot [87] Canidae Lycalopex culpaeus Andean fox [87] Cebidae Cebus aequatorialis Ecuadorian capuchin [87] Cercopithecidae Cercocebus sanjei Sanje mangabey [88]

Cuniculidae Cuniculus paca Lowland paca [87] Dasyproctidae Dasyprocta punctata Central American agouti [87] Didelphidae Didelphis marsupialis Common opossum [87] Elephantidae Loxodonta africana African elephant [88] Erinacaeidae Echinosorex gymnura Moon rat [89] Felidae Herpailurus yagouaroundi Eyra cat [87]

Herpestidae Herpestes brachyurus Short-tailed mongoose [89] Herpestidae Bdeogale crassicauda Bushy-tailed mongoose [88]

Hystricidae Hystrix africaeaustralis Cape porcupine [88] Macroscelidida Rhynchocyon cirnei Checkered elephant shrew [88]

Megalonychidae Choloepus hoffmanni Hoffmann's two-toed slot [87] Muridae Leopoldamys sabanus Long-tailed giant rat [89]

Cephalophus spadix Abbott's duiker [88] Neotragus moschatus Suni [88] Syncerus caffer African buffalo [88]

Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon [88] Procolobus gordonorum Udzungwa red colobus [88] Colobus angolensis Angolan colobus [88]

Leopardus pardalis Ocelot cat [87] Puma concolor Cougar [87] Panthera pardus Leopard [88]

Mungos mungo Banded mongoose [88]

Rhynchocyon udzungwensis Gray-faced elephant shrew [88] Petrodromus tetradactylus Four-toed elephant shrew [88]

Maxomys baeodon Small spiny rat [89] Maxomys ochraceiventer Chestnut-bellied spiny rat [89] Maxomys rajah Rajah spiny rat [89] Maxomys surifer Red spiny rat [89] Maxomys whiteheadi Whitehead's spiny rat [89] Niviventer cremoriventer Dark-tailed tree rat [89]

Amphibians are most abundant vertebrate in tropical forests, that is, they vary in color, behavior, habitat selection, size, and population density. Tropical amphibians are widely distributed and habitat specialist animals, that is, they often prefer the riparian areas of tropical forests (Figure 8). Amphibians depend on multiple environmental gradients and are closely

Family Scientific name Common name Reference Arthropleptidae Cardioglossa leucomystax Silver long-fingered frog [108]

Astylosternidae Astylosternus occidentalis Western night frog [108] Bufonidae Rhinella marina Cane toad [109]

Ceratobatrachidae Platymantis corrugatus Rough-backed forest frog [111] Craugastoridae Craugastor decoratus Adorned robber frog [109]

Dicroglossidae Limnonectes magnus Mindanao-fanged frog [111] Eleutherodactylidae Eleutherodactylus longipes Long-footed chirping frog [109]

Hylidae Ecnomiohyla miotympanum Small-eared tree frog [109]

Hyperoliidae Hyperolius concolor Hallowell's sedge frog [108]

Leptopelis hyloides African tree frog [108] Leptopelis occidentalis Tai forest tree frog [108] Leptopelis macrotis Big-eyed forest tree frog [108]

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Incilius nebulifer Coastal-plain toad [109] Ansonia muelleri Muller's toad [111] Chaunus marinus Cane toad [110] Ollotis marmorea Marbled toad [110]

Craugastor mexicanus Mexican robber frog [110] Craugastor hobartsmithi Pygmy robber frog [110]

Eleutherodactylus verrucipes Big-eared chirping frog [109] Eleutherodactylus modestus Blunt-toed chirping frog [110] Eleutherodactylus nitidus Spiny peeping frog [110]

Smilisca baudinii Baudin's tree frog [109] Trachycephalus typhonius Warty tree frog [109] Exerodonta smaragdina Emerald tree frog [110] Pachymedusa dacnicolor Mexican leaf frog [110] Smilisca baudinii Mexican tree frog [110] Smilisca fodiens Lowland burrowing tree frog [110] Tlalocohyla smithii Dwarf Mexican tree frog [110] Trachycephalus venulosus Veined tree frog [110] Triprion spatulatus Shovel-nosed tree frog [110]

Hyperolius guttulatus Dotted reed frog [108] Hyperolius picturatus Tanzania reed frog [108] Hyperolius sylvaticus Bobiri reed frog [108] Hyperolius zonatus Nimba reed frog [108] Hyperolius fusciventris Lime reed frog [108] Hyperolius chlorosteus Sierra Leone reed frog [108]

Figure 8. Silver long-fingered frog—Cardioglossa leucomystax.

associated with habitat types, such as riparian, forest, streams, and path or road edge. Amphibian community structure was influenced by habitat heterogeneity, stream turbidity, river size, water depth, occurrence of aquatic vegetation, and density of understorey vegetation [90]. They are closely associated with habitat structure, food resources, and microclimate variables, that is, temperature and precipitation.

The loss of amphibians seriously disturbed ecological function of tropical food chain and food web. This could be that they are important component in tropical food web, that is, have occupied diverse niches from planktivore to carnivore and often serves as major sources of food for wildlife species in tropical forest. From the ecological point of view, they are best indicators of habitat fragments, ecosystem stress, and aquatic pollution, etc. In addition, amphibians have been used in ecological, embryological, physiological, and genetic research purposes.

One-third populations of amphibian species had been listed as threatened and endangered due to human intervention [91, 92]. Habitat characteristics [93], habitat fragments due to forest logging [94–98], habitat loss and degradation [99–101], environment variables [102], invasive predator species [103], diseases [104], and leaf litter [105] are major driven factors which effect on amphibian assemblages and population parameters. However, the effect of these driven factors may vary depending on the nature of the habitat disturbance, change in microclimate, and alteration in food resource. This could be that the leaf litter, canopy cover, tree size, stream size, availability of river, and refuge areas are highly essential for their survival and reproduction (Table 3) [106, 107].

#### 5.4. Reptiles of tropical forests

Tropical forest is diverse and complex ecosystem which harbors most abundant and diverse reptile species [112]. Reptiles are primary consumers, that is, they prey on many animal species, such as birds, mammals, and amphibians (Figure 9). They provide ecological services into tropical forest ecosystem, such as control the population of pest (i.e., insects, rodents,


associated with habitat types, such as riparian, forest, streams, and path or road edge. Amphibian community structure was influenced by habitat heterogeneity, stream turbidity, river size, water depth, occurrence of aquatic vegetation, and density of understorey vegetation [90]. They are closely associated with habitat structure, food resources, and microclimate

The loss of amphibians seriously disturbed ecological function of tropical food chain and food web. This could be that they are important component in tropical food web, that is, have occupied diverse niches from planktivore to carnivore and often serves as major sources of food for wildlife species in tropical forest. From the ecological point of view, they are best indicators of habitat fragments, ecosystem stress, and aquatic pollution, etc. In addition, amphibians have

One-third populations of amphibian species had been listed as threatened and endangered due to human intervention [91, 92]. Habitat characteristics [93], habitat fragments due to forest logging [94–98], habitat loss and degradation [99–101], environment variables [102], invasive predator species [103], diseases [104], and leaf litter [105] are major driven factors which effect on amphibian assemblages and population parameters. However, the effect of these driven factors may vary depending on the nature of the habitat disturbance, change in microclimate, and alteration in food resource. This could be that the leaf litter, canopy cover, tree size, stream size, availability of river, and refuge areas are highly essential for their survival and reproduc-

Tropical forest is diverse and complex ecosystem which harbors most abundant and diverse reptile species [112]. Reptiles are primary consumers, that is, they prey on many animal species, such as birds, mammals, and amphibians (Figure 9). They provide ecological services into tropical forest ecosystem, such as control the population of pest (i.e., insects, rodents,

been used in ecological, embryological, physiological, and genetic research purposes.

variables, that is, temperature and precipitation.

Figure 8. Silver long-fingered frog—Cardioglossa leucomystax.

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tion (Table 3) [106, 107].

5.4. Reptiles of tropical forests


Figure 9. Reticulated python—Python reticulatus.

Family Scientific name Common name Reference Agamidae Gonocephalus semperi Mindoro forest dragon [111]

Boidae Boa constrictor Red-tailed boa snake [110] Colubridae Boiga dendrophila Golden-ringed cat snake [111]

Ptyctolaemus gularis Green fan-throated lizard [121] Gerrhonotus liocephalus Alligator lizard [110]

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Psammodynastes pulverulentus Common mock viper [111] Oligodon maculatus Barred short-headed snake [111] Calamaria gervaisii Philippine dwarf/Gervais' worm Snake [111] Lycodon dumerili Dumeril's wolf snake [111] Lycodon aulicus Indian wolf snake [121] Lycodon jara Twin-spotted wolf snake [121] Lycodon zawi Zaw's wolf snake [121] Oligodon dorsalis Gray's kukri snake [121] Oligodon taeniolata Streaked kukri snake [121] Psammodynastes pulverulentus Common mock viper [121] Ptyas korros Indo–Chinese rat snake [121] Ptyas mucosa Oriental rat snake [121] Rhabdophis subminiatus Red-necked Keelback snake [121]

Table 3. List of amphibian species occurring in tropical forests.

squirrels, tree shrews, small birds, etc. [113, 114], which are destructive to the vegetation. Likewise, they are also source of food for other animals, such as birds, mammals, amphibians, and even reptiles [115].

Reptiles are facing severe threats due to human activities, that is, habitat loss, and indiscriminate trapping and hunting for their skin and food thus become threatened and endangered [116–118]. The population decline of various reptile species in tropical forest may cause ecological imbalance that effected on the ecological functions (Table 4) [119, 120].

Figure 9. Reticulated python—Python reticulatus.

squirrels, tree shrews, small birds, etc. [113, 114], which are destructive to the vegetation. Likewise, they are also source of food for other animals, such as birds, mammals, amphibians,

Family Scientific name Common name Reference

Leptodactylidae Leptodactylus melanonotus Black-backed frog [110] Megophryidae Megophrys stejnegeri Mindanao-horned frog [111] Microhylidae Gastrophryne usta Two-spaded narrow-mouthed toad [110]

Phrynobatrachidae Phrynobatrachus gutturosus Chabanaud's river frog [108]

Ranidae Lithobates berlandieri Rio Grande leopard frog [109]

Rhacophoridae Polypedates leucomystax Four-lined tree frog [111]

Afrixalus dorsalis Brown banana frog [108] Afrixalus nigeriensis Nigeria banana frog [108] Afrixalus vibekae Nimba banana frog [108] Kassina lamottei Rainforest running frog [108] Acanthixalus sonjae Ivory Coast wart frog [108]

Kalophrynus pleurostigma Narrow-mouthed frog [111]

Phrynobatrachus fraterculus Macenta river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus guineensis Guinea river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus phyllophilus Tai river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus liberiensis Liberia river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus alleni Allen's river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus plicatus Coast river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus taiensis Rugegewald river frog [108] Phrynobatrachus annulatus Ringed river frog [108]

Lithobates johni Moore's frog [109] Lithobates spectabilis Showy leopard frog [109] Staurois natator Rock frog [111] Rana grandocula Big-eyed frog [111] Lithobates forreri Forr'ers grass frog [110]

Philautus acutirostris Pointed-snouted tree frog [111] Chiromantis rufescens African foam-nested tree frog [108]

Reptiles are facing severe threats due to human activities, that is, habitat loss, and indiscriminate trapping and hunting for their skin and food thus become threatened and endangered [116–118]. The population decline of various reptile species in tropical forest may cause eco-

logical imbalance that effected on the ecological functions (Table 4) [119, 120].

and even reptiles [115].

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Table 3. List of amphibian species occurring in tropical forests.



Family Scientific name Common name Reference

Leptotyphiopidae Leptotyphlops humilis Western thread/Blind snake [110] Microhylidae Hypopachus variolosus Mexican narrow-mouthed toad [110] Pareidae Pareas monticola Common slug snake [121] Phrynosomatidae Sceloporus melanorhinus Black-nosed lizard [110]

Plethodontidae Chiropterotriton chondrostega Gristle-headed splayfoot salamander [109] Pythonidae Python reticulatus Reticulated python [111, 121]

Scincidae Sphenomorphus variegatus Variegated skink [111]

Teiidae Ameiva undulata Rainbow amevia lizard [110]

Typhlopidae Ramphotyphlops braminus Brahminy blind snake [121]

Varanidae Varanus bengalensis Clouded monitor lizard [121]

Iguana iguana Green iguana [110, 122] Phrynosoma asio Giant-horned lizard [110] Sceloporus horridus Horrible spiny lizard [110] Ctenosaura pectinata Mexican spiny-tailed iguana [122]

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Sceloporus utiformis Spiny lizard [110] Urosaurus bicarinatus Tropical tree lizard [110, 122] Phrynosoma asio Giant-horned lizard [122] Sceloporus uniformis celaenorrhinus Yellow–backed Spiny Lizard [122] Phyllodactylus lanei Lane's leaf-toed gecko [122]

Python molurus Indian/Black-tailed python [121] Loxocemus bicolor Mexican burrowing python [110]

Sphenomorphus beyeri Beyer's sphenomorphus [111] Lipinia pulchella Yellow-striped slender tree skink [111] Eutropis multicarinata borealis Philippine mabuya [111] Eutropis englei Six–striped mabouya [111] Lygosoma bowringii Bowring's supple skink [121] Lygosoma lineolatum Striped writhing skink [121] Lygosoma punctata Dotted writhing skink [121] Sphenomorphus maculatus Spotted forest skink [121] Takydromus khasiensis Java grass lizard [121] Plestiodon parvulus Southern pygmy skink [110] Scincella assatus Red forest skink [110] Marisora brachypoda Middle American short-limbed skink [122]

Aspidoscelis lineattissimus Many-lined whiptail [110] Aspidoscelis communis lineattissima Giant whiptail lizard [110, 122]

Typhlops diardii Diard's blind snake [121] Typhlops jerdoni Jerdon's worm snake [121]


Family Scientific name Common name Reference

54 Tropical Forests - New Edition

Dactyloidae Anolis nebulosus Clouded anole [110, 122] Dipsadidae Hypsiglena torquata Night snake [110]

Elapidae Naja kaouthia Monocled cobra [121]

Eublepharidae Coleonyx elegans Yucatan-banded gecko [122] Gekkonidae Gekko mindorensis Mindoro narrow-disked gecko [111]

Geoemydidae Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima Painted wood turtle [110]

Helodermatidae Heloderma horridum Mexican-beaded lizard [110, 122] Iguanidae Ctenosaura pectinata Mexican spiny-tailed iguana [110]

Leptodeira maculata South-western cat-eyed snake [110] Manolepis putnami Ridge-head snake [110] Pseudoleptodeira latifasciata False cat-eyed snake [110] Leptodeira uribei Uribe's false cat-eyed snake [110]

Naja naja Indian cobra [121] Ophiophagus hannah King cobra [121] Micrurus distans West Mexican coral snake [110]

Hemidactylus bowringii Oriental leaf-towed gecko [121] Hemidactylus brookii Brooke's house gecko [121] Hemidactylus flaviviridis Yellow-bellied house gecko [121] Hemidactylus frenatus Pacific gecko [121] Hemidactylus garnotii Indo-Pacific gecko [121] Hemidactylus platyurus Flat-tailed house gecko [121] Coleonyx elegans Yucatan-banded gecko [110] Phyllodactylus lanei Lane's leaf-toed gecko [110] Hemidactylus frenatus Pacific gecko [122]

Rhinoclemmys rubida Mexican-spotted wood turtle [110]

Dipsas gaigeae Gaige's thirst snail-eater snake [110] Drymarchon corais Indigo snake [110] Drymobius margaritiferus Speckled racer snake [110] Imantodes gemmistratus Central American tree snake [110] Lampropeltis triangulum Milk snake [110] Leptophis diplotropis Pacific Coast parrot snake [110] Masticophis mentovarius Neotropical whip snake [110] Oxybelis aeneus Mexican vine snake [110] Senticolis triaspis Green rat snake [110] Sibon nebulata Clouded snake [110] Tantilla calamarina Pacific Coast centipede snake [110] Trimorphodon biscutatus Western Lyre snake [110]


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22:1-19

Table 4. List of reptile species occurs in tropical forest.
