**2. Methods**

#### **2.1. Study area: Amanioho and Manusela National Park**

Seram island is the largest island in the Moluccas (18,410 km<sup>2</sup> ), East Indonesia, extending approximately 60 km from north to south and approximately 340 km from west to east. The island is located at the north of Ambon, the provincial capital.

This study was conducted in an upland community (given the fictitious name of Amanioho) in the forested interior of central Seram (**Figure 3**). In central Seram, there is a certain amount of forest degradation and deforestation in the lowlands in the northern coastal areas. This is caused by cacao plantations, shrimp farms and transmigration programs as well as commercial logging of meranti (*Shorea* spp.) and merbau (*Intsia bijuga*). In addition, a large forest area in the northern coastal lowlands was cleared for oil palm plantation in 2009. Nevertheless, large tracts of mature natural forest remain in other rural areas in central Seram, especially in the interior mountainous area.

Amanioho is situated in the forest interior of central Seram. In 2012, the population of Amanioho was approximately 320 (60 households). Since there is no navigable roadway, it is necessary to walk to the coastal area where markets are situated. On foot, the journey from Amanioho to the north coast takes between 2 and 3 days, whereas the journey to the south coast takes 1 day (**Figure 4**).

Indonesian Act No.5/1990, concerning conservation of the living natural resources and their ecosystems, and Government Regulation No. 68/1998, on nature sanctuaries and nature conservation areas, stipulate that national parks are managed through a zoning system, and

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Even though the national park management system in Indonesia basically applies a separative conservation model, it also has a mechanism that partially allows local people to use resources inside a national park. The Indonesian national park zoning system comprises several types of zones as shown in **Table 1**. In traditional zones and special zones, the local people can harvest resources under certain conditions (e.g., prohibition on natural tree

According to the Ministerial Decree on guidelines for the zoning of national parks (p.56/ Menhut-II/2006), public consultation involving stakeholders including local people is needed in the process of zonation. Designation of zones in Manusela National Park was implemented in 2011. As shown in **Figure 5**, most of the park is designated as core zones and wilderness zones, where human activities are strictly limited for conservation. Several

activities that change the ecological integrity of the core zone are forbidden.

**Figure 3.** Manusela National Park in central Seram, East Indonesia.

cutting).

The main economic activities include sago palm (*Metroxylon sagu*) cultivation, banana and root crop agriculture, hunting and trapping and gathering forest products such as edible plants, rattan and wild honey. These activities are primarily conducted for subsistence [4, 5]. The villagers also engage in seasonal migrant work, such as harvesting cloves in the southern coastal area from September to November, and they occasionally sell non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as parrots and honey in the coastal areas [6].

The village settlement of Amanioho is situated approximately 2–3 km from the nearest boundary of the Manusela National Park. Nearly half the territory of Amanioho is inside the park. As mentioned above, the locals have created and maintained HMFs through arboriculture, and some of the HMF patches are located inside the national park.

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**Figure 3.** Manusela National Park in central Seram, East Indonesia.

species, the Moluccan cockatoo. This chapter is organized as follows. After explaining the research site and our data collection methods, in the results section, I first describe how the locals have formed HMFs through arboricultural practices and how resources provided from those HMFs support local livelihood. I also describe local knowledge on the Moluccan cockatoo's behavior, its habitat utilization and distribution. I then evaluate how some types of HMFs are functioning as habitats for the Moluccan cockatoo by analyzing transect survey data. Finally, I provide implications for future conservation

approximately 60 km from north to south and approximately 340 km from west to east. The

This study was conducted in an upland community (given the fictitious name of Amanioho) in the forested interior of central Seram (**Figure 3**). In central Seram, there is a certain amount of forest degradation and deforestation in the lowlands in the northern coastal areas. This is caused by cacao plantations, shrimp farms and transmigration programs as well as commercial logging of meranti (*Shorea* spp.) and merbau (*Intsia bijuga*). In addition, a large forest area in the northern coastal lowlands was cleared for oil palm plantation in 2009. Nevertheless, large tracts of mature natural forest remain in other rural areas in central Seram, especially in

Amanioho is situated in the forest interior of central Seram. In 2012, the population of Amanioho was approximately 320 (60 households). Since there is no navigable roadway, it is necessary to walk to the coastal area where markets are situated. On foot, the journey from Amanioho to the north coast takes between 2 and 3 days, whereas the journey to the south

The main economic activities include sago palm (*Metroxylon sagu*) cultivation, banana and root crop agriculture, hunting and trapping and gathering forest products such as edible plants, rattan and wild honey. These activities are primarily conducted for subsistence [4, 5]. The villagers also engage in seasonal migrant work, such as harvesting cloves in the southern coastal area from September to November, and they occasionally sell non-timber forest prod-

The village settlement of Amanioho is situated approximately 2–3 km from the nearest boundary of the Manusela National Park. Nearly half the territory of Amanioho is inside the park. As mentioned above, the locals have created and maintained HMFs through arboriculture,

), East Indonesia, extending

and research.

144 Tropical Forests - New Edition

**2. Methods**

the interior mountainous area.

coast takes 1 day (**Figure 4**).

**2.1. Study area: Amanioho and Manusela National Park**

Seram island is the largest island in the Moluccas (18,410 km<sup>2</sup>

island is located at the north of Ambon, the provincial capital.

ucts (NTFPs) such as parrots and honey in the coastal areas [6].

and some of the HMF patches are located inside the national park.

Indonesian Act No.5/1990, concerning conservation of the living natural resources and their ecosystems, and Government Regulation No. 68/1998, on nature sanctuaries and nature conservation areas, stipulate that national parks are managed through a zoning system, and activities that change the ecological integrity of the core zone are forbidden.

Even though the national park management system in Indonesia basically applies a separative conservation model, it also has a mechanism that partially allows local people to use resources inside a national park. The Indonesian national park zoning system comprises several types of zones as shown in **Table 1**. In traditional zones and special zones, the local people can harvest resources under certain conditions (e.g., prohibition on natural tree cutting).

According to the Ministerial Decree on guidelines for the zoning of national parks (p.56/ Menhut-II/2006), public consultation involving stakeholders including local people is needed in the process of zonation. Designation of zones in Manusela National Park was implemented in 2011. As shown in **Figure 5**, most of the park is designated as core zones and wilderness zones, where human activities are strictly limited for conservation. Several

**Figure 4.** The main street in Amanioho (A) and a distant view of Amanioho (B).

upland communities are situated in a peninsula-shaped enclave in Manusela valley. People of those communities are highly dependent on forest resources, and they historically used to use forest areas inside the national park. However, no "traditional zone" is established in the mountain areas where the local people harvest forest resources. The park management

authority did not provide sufficient opportunities for the Amanioho people to communi-

**Figure 5.** Manusela National Park in central Seram, East Indonesia. Note: Author (MS) drew the map based on 'Peta Zonasi Taman Nasional Manusela, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah, Provinsi Maluku (Zonation map of the Manusela

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National Park, Central Maluku, Maluku province) (Balai Taman Nasional Manusela, 2011).

The following research methods were used. All interviews were conducted by the author using Bahasa (a common Indonesian language) mixed with the local language, *Sou upa*.

• Interviews: Key informants, groups, and working interviews were conducted regarding the formation and utilization of HMFs and on local knowledge of the Moluccan cockatoo's ecology. These interviews were conducted intermittently in October–November 2010, Feb-

• Resource inventory surveys: Through walking interviews with groups of several villagers, the names of plant and animal resources, the usefulness of which was recognized by the villagers, were listed. Focus-group interviews with four villagers (two men and two women) were also conducted to collect data on land usage, where various resources were collected and harvested. As for plant resources, specimens were collected and their scientific

cate their aspirations during zone planning.

ruary 2012, September 2012 and March 2014.

**2.2. Data collection**


Sources: Ministerial Decree 'P.19/Menhut-II/2004 on collaborative management of nature reserves and protected areas, and Ministerial Decree'P.56/Menhut-II/2006 on guidelines for zoning of national parks.

**Table 1.** Zonation of National Parks in Indonesia.

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**Figure 5.** Manusela National Park in central Seram, East Indonesia. Note: Author (MS) drew the map based on 'Peta Zonasi Taman Nasional Manusela, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah, Provinsi Maluku (Zonation map of the Manusela National Park, Central Maluku, Maluku province) (Balai Taman Nasional Manusela, 2011).

authority did not provide sufficient opportunities for the Amanioho people to communicate their aspirations during zone planning.
