**2. Chemistry of submerged rice paddy soil**

Agriculture is one of the most important anthropogenic sources of CH4 emission to the atmosphere and about 11% of the total CH<sup>4</sup> is emitted from submerged rice paddy soils. Rice is the staple food for more than half of world population and about 90% of that rice is cultivated under submerged condition [6]. During rice cultivation, rice seedlings are transplanted after flooding the soil, and water is removed (drained out) few days before crop harvesting. Therefore, in case of transplanted rice, soil remains submerged for at least 85–90% of the total cultivation duration. Such submerged rice paddy soil is the most important anthropogenic source of CH4 emission to the atmosphere.

Submerged condition for such a prolonged duration makes rice paddy soils different from soils of upland crops. Submerged condition cuts off air transportation between soil and atmosphere. Flooding of rice paddy soil disconnects gas exchange between soil and air. Under this situation, molecular diffusion is the main mechanism to enter oxygen and other gases from atmosphere to the interstitial water. However, this process is 10,000 times slower than the diffusion through gas-filled pores in soil [7]. Thus the oxygen diffusion rate suddenly decreases when a soil reaches saturation by water [8]. Evans and Scott [9] noted that the concentration of oxygen in the water used for saturating a soil decreased to one - hundredth of its initial value in 75 minutes. The major characteristics of submerged soils are:

**a.** Absence of molecular oxygen

Flooding of land disconnected gas exchange between soil and air. Under submerged condition, oxygen along with other atmospheric gases enters into the soil only by molecular diffusion in the interstitial water. It was observed that gas diffusion under submerged soil condition is 10,000 times slower than diffusion through gas-filled pores [7]. Hence, soil of submerged rice paddy soil losses all its molecular oxygen as soil microorganisms use-up the oxygen present in soil within a few hours.

**b.** Oxidized mud – water interface

A submerged soil; however, is not completely devoid of oxygen. The top-most layer of fewmillimeter thick soil, saturated with water (in mud form) remains oxygenated. The chemical properties of this oxidized interface are completely different from underneath top-soil.

**c.** Exchanges between mud and water

The presence of molecular oxygen in the soil-water interface makes it a sink of several redox reactions in soil and controls availability of phosphate and other nutrients in submerged soil. The presence of oxygen in the soil-water interface profoundly affects the N economy of submerged rice paddy soils. Ammonium-N released from broadcasted chemical fertilizer or from applied organic matter is converted to nitrate in the oxygenated interface on soil.

**d.** Soil reduction

Human activities since the beginning of the industrial revolution (Taken as year 1750) have resulted 40% increased in the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration from 280 ppm in

is the second most important GHG emitted to the atmosphere on volume basis and it has 25 times higher global warming potential (GWP) as compared to equivalent amount of CO2

atmosphere has been increased by 150% since 1750. Methane accounts for 20% of the total radiative forcing from the entire long-lived and globally mixed GHGs, excluding water vapor.

the staple food for more than half of world population and about 90% of that rice is cultivated under submerged condition [6]. During rice cultivation, rice seedlings are transplanted after flooding the soil, and water is removed (drained out) few days before crop harvesting. Therefore, in case of transplanted rice, soil remains submerged for at least 85–90% of the total cultivation duration. Such submerged rice paddy soil is the most important anthropogenic

Submerged condition for such a prolonged duration makes rice paddy soils different from soils of upland crops. Submerged condition cuts off air transportation between soil and atmosphere. Flooding of rice paddy soil disconnects gas exchange between soil and air. Under this situation, molecular diffusion is the main mechanism to enter oxygen and other gases from atmosphere to the interstitial water. However, this process is 10,000 times slower than the diffusion through gas-filled pores in soil [7]. Thus the oxygen diffusion rate suddenly decreases when a soil reaches saturation by water [8]. Evans and Scott [9] noted that the concentration of oxygen in the water used for saturating a soil decreased to one - hundredth of its initial value

Flooding of land disconnected gas exchange between soil and air. Under submerged condition, oxygen along with other atmospheric gases enters into the soil only by molecular diffusion in the interstitial water. It was observed that gas diffusion under submerged soil condition is 10,000 times slower than diffusion through gas-filled pores [7]. Hence, soil of submerged rice paddy soil losses all its molecular oxygen as soil microorganisms use-up

A submerged soil; however, is not completely devoid of oxygen. The top-most layer of fewmillimeter thick soil, saturated with water (in mud form) remains oxygenated. The chemical properties of this oxidized interface are completely different from underneath top-soil.

, N2

in the atmosphere is about 25 years, which is also much higher than that of

) is the most important GHG in atmosphere

is considered as one of the most notorious GHGs having

is emitted from submerged rice paddy soils. Rice is

O, CFC compounds etc. Methane

concentration in the earth's

emission to the atmo-

[5].

1970 to 400 ppm in 2015 [4]. Carbon dioxide (CO2

. Due to these characteristics, CH4

sphere and about 11% of the total CH<sup>4</sup>

**a.** Absence of molecular oxygen

**b.** Oxidized mud – water interface

The half-life of CH4

212 Rice Crop - Current Developments

source of CH4

CO2

in terms of its emitted volume. The other GHGs are CH<sup>4</sup>

**2. Chemistry of submerged rice paddy soil**

emission to the atmosphere.

in 75 minutes. The major characteristics of submerged soils are:

the oxygen present in soil within a few hours.

potential of causing global warming to the atmosphere. The CH4

Agriculture is one of the most important anthropogenic sources of CH4

An acute reduced state makes the major difference between chemical reactions of a submerged soil and aerated soil. Excluding the thin oxygenated layer in the soil-water interface, submerged soils have a negative oxidation-reduction potential (Eh value) due to anaerobic condition. Under such condition, dominant form of elements are NH<sup>4</sup> + , H2 S, Mn2+, Fe2+ and CH4 instead of NO3 − , SO4 2−, Mn4+, Fe3+ and CO2 .

#### **2.1. Oxidation – reduction (redox) potential**

Under submerged condition, aerobic soil microorganisms consume oxygen during their metabolism and that in turn gradually depletes oxygen pool making the soil anaerobic in reaction [10]. The redox potential (Eh) value in submerged soil starts decreasing after 3–4 days of flooding and sharply decreases with time. The Eh values in submerged anaerobic soils vary around −200 eV values throughout the rice cultivation duration [11]. Such anaerobic reducing environment is one of the prime factors for determining the rate and quantity of CH4 production in rice paddy soil.

#### **3. Methanogens and CH4 production**

The average global CH4 emission from rice fields is approximately 20–40 Tg CH<sup>4</sup> year−1, which accounts for 11% of the total anthropogenic CH<sup>4</sup> emissions [12]. It had already been reported that rice production will be increased from 473 million tons of 1990 to approximately 781 million tons by 2020 to fulfill the food demand of the world population and that proportionately increase CH4 emission from rice paddy soils by 40–50% [13].

Methane is mainly produced during decomposition of organic matter by strictly anaerobic methanogens under intense reduced condition [14]. At the initial state of rice cultivation, the rate of CH4 emission is generally low; however, the flux gradually increases with plant development and with enhanced anaerobic condition [15, 16]. Anaerobic conditions of submerged rice paddy soil favors CH4 production and the highest CH4 emission is generally observed after the soil Eh value dropped below −200 eV [17].

Both cold- and hot-water extractable organic carbon (C) compounds are labile fraction of soil organic C. Low molecular weight organic compounds namely low molecular weight organic acids, carbohydrates are considered as labile organic C compounds in soil [18]. Labile organic C compounds rather than total organic C pool acts as the energy source for heterotrophic microorganisms like methanogens in soil [19]. Methane is the metabolic end product of methanogens [20] and methanogens reduce simple carbonaceous compounds namely CO2 , carbohydrates and/ or simple carboxylic acids like formate, acetate through multi-step enzyme-mediated methanogenesis to generate ATP and to produce CH4 as the end product.

Methanogens are generally specific to their substrate requirement. Based on the ability to utilize carbonaceous compounds as energy source, methanogens may be classified as acetophilic methanogens and hydrophilic methanogens [21]. The acetophilic methanogens transform acetate ions into CH4 , while the hydrophilic methanogens utilize hydrogen and CO2 as their energy source.

#### **4. Factors affecting CH<sup>4</sup> production in soil**

Methanogenesis or the process of CH4 production is an enzyme-mediated multi-step biochemical process and kinetics of this process depends on several factors. The most important and prominent factor of CH4 production is the availability of initial carbonaceous compounds in soil. Addition of organic materials in flooded rice field promotes CH<sup>4</sup> emission (**Figure 1**) by providing readily available C source to methanogens [22, 23]. Improvement in crop production by organic amendment conflicts with mitigation strategies of CH<sup>4</sup> emission [24]. Hence, it may be believed that methanogens degrade applied organic matter to produce CH<sup>4</sup> under strictly anaerobic conditions [14]. However, this is the exaggeration of the truth.

Application of organic matter increases total population and activity of microorganisms including methanogens in rice paddy soil [25]. Therefore application of organic substrates significantly increases CH<sup>4</sup> emission from rice field [26]. However, methanogens does not have potential to degrade carbonaceous polymers like cellulose due their inability to produce cellulase enzyme. In fact, there is a synergistic effect of cellulolytic microorganisms on methanogens and CH4 formation in submerged rice paddy soil. Cellulose, a 1,4-β-linked glucan, contributes 20–30% of the organic biomass [27] and application of organic matter provides a significant C source in the form of cellulose to soil microbial community in soil.

The hydrolysis of carbonaceous polymers (mainly cellulose) is an important pathway to convert added organic C into CH4 and anaerobic cellulolytic microorganisms play a significant role in that process [28]. Incubation of rice paddy soil with different amounts of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) under anaerobic condition in a close-vessel produced variable amount of CH4 after 3 days (**Figure 2**). The amount of generated CH4 within that period was proportional to the quantity of added CMC in soil. Therefore, cellulolytic materials of applied organic substrates were initially degraded by cellulolytic microorganisms into low molecular weight organic acids and/ or carbohydrates, which are then utilized by methanogens to produce CH4 under anaerobic condition of submerged rice paddy soils.

In submerged rice paddy soil, the flux of CH<sup>4</sup> emission depends on the amount as well as nature of applied organic matter [29]. The rate of CH4 emission is dependent on the nature i.e. degree of stabilization of applied organic matter. During decomposition, carbonaceous compounds like cellulose and hemicelluloses are readily stabilized through mineralization and converted into humified substrates. Therefore, composts contain lesser amount of easily

decomposable compounds like cellulose and hemicelluloses compounds as compared to their initial substrates. Lower cellulose contains leads to fewer cellulolytic microbial populations in soil and that generates lower amount of labile organic C compounds in soil. Therefore, reduced availability of precursor carbonaceous compounds is responsible for lower CH4

production as affected by CMC application.

**Figure 1.** Changes in methane emission flux from rice paddy soils as affected by air-dried and composted dairy cow

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds…

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215

manures.

**Figure 2.** Changes in CH4

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73299 215

**Figure 1.** Changes in methane emission flux from rice paddy soils as affected by air-dried and composted dairy cow manures.

**Figure 2.** Changes in CH4 production as affected by CMC application.

of methanogens [20] and methanogens reduce simple carbonaceous compounds namely

Methanogens are generally specific to their substrate requirement. Based on the ability to utilize carbonaceous compounds as energy source, methanogens may be classified as acetophilic methanogens and hydrophilic methanogens [21]. The acetophilic methanogens trans-

chemical process and kinetics of this process depends on several factors. The most important

providing readily available C source to methanogens [22, 23]. Improvement in crop produc-

Application of organic matter increases total population and activity of microorganisms including methanogens in rice paddy soil [25]. Therefore application of organic substrates

have potential to degrade carbonaceous polymers like cellulose due their inability to produce cellulase enzyme. In fact, there is a synergistic effect of cellulolytic microorganisms on metha-

contributes 20–30% of the organic biomass [27] and application of organic matter provides a

The hydrolysis of carbonaceous polymers (mainly cellulose) is an important pathway to

cant role in that process [28]. Incubation of rice paddy soil with different amounts of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) under anaerobic condition in a close-vessel produced variable

proportional to the quantity of added CMC in soil. Therefore, cellulolytic materials of applied organic substrates were initially degraded by cellulolytic microorganisms into low molecular weight organic acids and/ or carbohydrates, which are then utilized by methanogens to pro-

i.e. degree of stabilization of applied organic matter. During decomposition, carbonaceous compounds like cellulose and hemicelluloses are readily stabilized through mineralization and converted into humified substrates. Therefore, composts contain lesser amount of easily

after 3 days (**Figure 2**). The amount of generated CH4

under anaerobic condition of submerged rice paddy soils.

it may be believed that methanogens degrade applied organic matter to produce CH<sup>4</sup>

strictly anaerobic conditions [14]. However, this is the exaggeration of the truth.

significant C source in the form of cellulose to soil microbial community in soil.

enzyme-mediated methanogenesis to generate ATP and to produce CH4

 **production in soil**

in soil. Addition of organic materials in flooded rice field promotes CH<sup>4</sup>

tion by organic amendment conflicts with mitigation strategies of CH<sup>4</sup>

, carbohydrates and/ or simple carboxylic acids like formate, acetate through multi-step

, while the hydrophilic methanogens utilize hydrogen and CO2

production is an enzyme-mediated multi-step bio-

production is the availability of initial carbonaceous compounds

emission from rice field [26]. However, methanogens does not

and anaerobic cellulolytic microorganisms play a signifi-

emission depends on the amount as well as

emission is dependent on the nature

formation in submerged rice paddy soil. Cellulose, a 1,4-β-linked glucan,

as the end product.

emission (**Figure 1**) by

emission [24]. Hence,

within that period was

under

as

CO2

form acetate ions into CH4

**4. Factors affecting CH<sup>4</sup>**

and prominent factor of CH4

significantly increases CH<sup>4</sup>

convert added organic C into CH4

In submerged rice paddy soil, the flux of CH<sup>4</sup>

nature of applied organic matter [29]. The rate of CH4

nogens and CH4

amount of CH4

duce CH4

Methanogenesis or the process of CH4

their energy source.

214 Rice Crop - Current Developments

decomposable compounds like cellulose and hemicelluloses compounds as compared to their initial substrates. Lower cellulose contains leads to fewer cellulolytic microbial populations in soil and that generates lower amount of labile organic C compounds in soil. Therefore, reduced availability of precursor carbonaceous compounds is responsible for lower CH4

emission from compost treated rice paddy soil. Therefore, degree of stabilization or humifica-

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds…

be reduced by ~20% by application of compost instead of air-dried cattle manure (**Figure 3**).

In many anoxic environments, methanogenesis is the predominant terminal electron accepting process involved in organic matter mineralization and that process is catalyzed by methanogenic *Archaea*. This group of microorganisms represents a unique but phylogenetically diverse group of prokaryotes [30]. The most widely used method for measuring the rate of metha-

Though this analysis is closely related to the metabolic functions of methanogenic community; it does not directly quantify methanogens [31]. One of the most convincing processes of quantifying methanogens is the direct determination of methanogens numbers on specific culture. However, isolating methanogenic *Archaea* remains a fastidious process because of the slow growth of these *Archaea* and also for their extreme intolerance to oxygen [32]. Growth of methanogens is also restricted to the availability of specific organic substrates and metal ions to complete their metabolic process [33]. Culturable microorganisms isolated by specific enriched medium can only detect a small portion (2–5%) of the total microbial community in soil.

Still researchers often prepared one specific culture medium for each one of the various methanogenic *Archaea* species to fulfill their specific requirements [34]. However, there are reports of versatile media like SAB medium, which is capable of supporting growth of wide spectrum of methanogens [33]. Hence, due to these limitations and difficulties, methanogens are prefer-

Biomarkers are compounds that have a biological specificity in the sense that they are produced only by a limited group of organisms [35]. A variety of compounds such as fatty acids and ether lipids are used in microbial ecology and related fields like organic geochemistry to

The mcrA gene is responsible for synthesizing methyl coenzyme M reductase enzyme, which

dependent and culture-independent techniques targeting 16S rRNA and methyl coenzyme M reductase (*mcrA*) genes have been used to assess the phylogenetic diversity of methanogens

The DNA may be extracted from natural and/ or enriched samples using any suitable kit following manufacturers' protocol. The quality of the extracted DNA is observed in an agarose gel.

detect groups of organisms or their remains in natural or artificial ecosystems [36, 37].

flux in a specific system within unit time interval [17].

during the final stage of methanogenesis. Culture-

emission, which may

217

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73299

tion of applied organic substrates is inversely related to the flux of CH<sup>4</sup>

**5. Biomarkers of methanogens: quantification**

nogenesis is the quantification of CH<sup>4</sup>

ably quantified by measuring their biomarkers.

**5.1. Methyl coenzyme M reductase A (mcrA) gene**

is involved in the production of CH4

**5.2. DNA extraction and quantification**

assemblages [38].

**Figure 3.** Coenzyme M concentrations (a), mcrA gene copy numbers, (b) and cellulolytic bacterial populations, (c) as affected by manure and compost applications in rice paddy soils.

emission from compost treated rice paddy soil. Therefore, degree of stabilization or humification of applied organic substrates is inversely related to the flux of CH<sup>4</sup> emission, which may be reduced by ~20% by application of compost instead of air-dried cattle manure (**Figure 3**).

### **5. Biomarkers of methanogens: quantification**

In many anoxic environments, methanogenesis is the predominant terminal electron accepting process involved in organic matter mineralization and that process is catalyzed by methanogenic *Archaea*. This group of microorganisms represents a unique but phylogenetically diverse group of prokaryotes [30]. The most widely used method for measuring the rate of methanogenesis is the quantification of CH<sup>4</sup> flux in a specific system within unit time interval [17]. Though this analysis is closely related to the metabolic functions of methanogenic community; it does not directly quantify methanogens [31]. One of the most convincing processes of quantifying methanogens is the direct determination of methanogens numbers on specific culture. However, isolating methanogenic *Archaea* remains a fastidious process because of the slow growth of these *Archaea* and also for their extreme intolerance to oxygen [32]. Growth of methanogens is also restricted to the availability of specific organic substrates and metal ions to complete their metabolic process [33]. Culturable microorganisms isolated by specific enriched medium can only detect a small portion (2–5%) of the total microbial community in soil.

Still researchers often prepared one specific culture medium for each one of the various methanogenic *Archaea* species to fulfill their specific requirements [34]. However, there are reports of versatile media like SAB medium, which is capable of supporting growth of wide spectrum of methanogens [33]. Hence, due to these limitations and difficulties, methanogens are preferably quantified by measuring their biomarkers.

Biomarkers are compounds that have a biological specificity in the sense that they are produced only by a limited group of organisms [35]. A variety of compounds such as fatty acids and ether lipids are used in microbial ecology and related fields like organic geochemistry to detect groups of organisms or their remains in natural or artificial ecosystems [36, 37].

### **5.1. Methyl coenzyme M reductase A (mcrA) gene**

The mcrA gene is responsible for synthesizing methyl coenzyme M reductase enzyme, which is involved in the production of CH4 during the final stage of methanogenesis. Culturedependent and culture-independent techniques targeting 16S rRNA and methyl coenzyme M reductase (*mcrA*) genes have been used to assess the phylogenetic diversity of methanogens assemblages [38].

### **5.2. DNA extraction and quantification**

**Figure 3.** Coenzyme M concentrations (a), mcrA gene copy numbers, (b) and cellulolytic bacterial populations, (c) as

affected by manure and compost applications in rice paddy soils.

216 Rice Crop - Current Developments

The DNA may be extracted from natural and/ or enriched samples using any suitable kit following manufacturers' protocol. The quality of the extracted DNA is observed in an agarose gel. The extracted DNA is amplified by PCR in a final volume of 25 μl containing 2 μl of undiluted template DNA, 1μl each of forward and reverse primers (10 mM) and 12.5μl of Taq polymerase enzyme [39]. For detecting the presence of methanogens, a forward primer with 32-mer and a reverse primer with 23-mer were developed after testing against 23 species of methanogen representing all five recognized orders of this group of *Archaea* [40]. The two oligonucleotide primers were a forward primer, 5′-GGTGGTGTMGGATTCACACARTAYGCWACAGC-3′ and a reverse primers, 5′-TTCATTGCRTAGTTWGGRTAGTT-3′. The methanogen diversity in a sample may be studied by analyzing amplified DNA (or PCR product of extracted DNA) through denatured gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) [41].

Total population of methanogens can be determined from extracted DNA by quantitative PCR (qPCR) or real-time PCR (RT-PCR) using PCR efficiency, 110.5%; slope of the standard curve, −3.093; y-intercept, 5.134 and correlation coefficient, 0.9949 [31]. The Ct for the no template control was 24.03 and >26.5 for all the no-reverse transcriptase control. The qPCR results (mcrA gene copy numbers ng−1 DNA) of extracted DNA show significant correlation with specific methanogenic activities against H<sup>2</sup> and CO2 gases. Steinberg and Regan [42] developed the TaqMan qPCR probe assay for successfully determining the environmental abundance of different phylogenetic groups of methanogens, including several groups with few or no cultivated members.

#### **5.3. 2-mercaptoethane sulphonate (coenzyme M)**

Methane production in soil is a complex enzyme-mediated multi-step process and methanogens reduce simple carbonaceous compounds like CO2 and H2 , formate, methanol, methykamines and/ or acetate into CH4 gas [43]. In the penultimate step of methanogenesis, coenzyme M (Co-M), 2-mercaptoethane sulphonate, is methylated and generated methyl Co-M is reduced by methanogens to CH4 gas involving previously-mentioned methyl Co-M reductase enzyme [44]. Therefore, irrespective of the preference towards initial carbonaceous compounds, Co-M could be considered as the precursor of CH4 formation [45]. The whole methanogenesis is intracellular and Co-M is synthesized inside methanogen cells [46]. The conversion factor (0.39 ± 0.07 fmol cell−1) of Co-M to methanogens could be used for quantitative estimation of methanogen abundance and methanogenic activity in soil.

### **5.4. Coenzyme M quantification**

Pramanik and Kim [47] developed a HPLC-based technique for quantifying Co-M in soil. Pure Co-M is detected at 270 nm wavelength using UV detector and a mixture of acetonitrile and 0.05 M trichloroacetic acid (TCA) solution at flow rate of 0.5 ml min−1 is used as mobile phase during this analysis.

Coenzyme M is an intracellular compound of methanogens; hence, rupturing cells of methanogens is mandatory prior to extraction. The lysis buffer was prepared by mixing Tris-HCl solution (pH 8.0), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) solution (pH 8.0) and NaCl solution. The Co-M was extracted from fresh soil using lysis buffer through consecutive

**Figure 4.** Changes in coenzyme M concentration (a) and methanogen activity (b) and methane flux (c) from soil during

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds…

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219

rice cultivation (bars represent standard errors).

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73299 219

The extracted DNA is amplified by PCR in a final volume of 25 μl containing 2 μl of undiluted template DNA, 1μl each of forward and reverse primers (10 mM) and 12.5μl of Taq polymerase enzyme [39]. For detecting the presence of methanogens, a forward primer with 32-mer and a reverse primer with 23-mer were developed after testing against 23 species of methanogen representing all five recognized orders of this group of *Archaea* [40]. The two oligonucleotide primers were a forward primer, 5′-GGTGGTGTMGGATTCACACARTAYGCWACAGC-3′ and a reverse primers, 5′-TTCATTGCRTAGTTWGGRTAGTT-3′. The methanogen diversity in a sample may be studied by analyzing amplified DNA (or PCR product of extracted DNA)

Total population of methanogens can be determined from extracted DNA by quantitative PCR (qPCR) or real-time PCR (RT-PCR) using PCR efficiency, 110.5%; slope of the standard

plate control was 24.03 and >26.5 for all the no-reverse transcriptase control. The qPCR results (mcrA gene copy numbers ng−1 DNA) of extracted DNA show significant correlation with

oped the TaqMan qPCR probe assay for successfully determining the environmental abundance of different phylogenetic groups of methanogens, including several groups with few or

Methane production in soil is a complex enzyme-mediated multi-step process and metha-

esis, coenzyme M (Co-M), 2-mercaptoethane sulphonate, is methylated and generated methyl

reductase enzyme [44]. Therefore, irrespective of the preference towards initial carbonaceous

methanogenesis is intracellular and Co-M is synthesized inside methanogen cells [46]. The conversion factor (0.39 ± 0.07 fmol cell−1) of Co-M to methanogens could be used for quantita-

Pramanik and Kim [47] developed a HPLC-based technique for quantifying Co-M in soil. Pure Co-M is detected at 270 nm wavelength using UV detector and a mixture of acetonitrile and 0.05 M trichloroacetic acid (TCA) solution at flow rate of 0.5 ml min−1 is used as mobile

Coenzyme M is an intracellular compound of methanogens; hence, rupturing cells of methanogens is mandatory prior to extraction. The lysis buffer was prepared by mixing Tris-HCl solution (pH 8.0), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) solution (pH 8.0) and NaCl solution. The Co-M was extracted from fresh soil using lysis buffer through consecutive

and CO2

for the no tem-

, formate, methanol,

formation [45]. The whole

gases. Steinberg and Regan [42] devel-

and H2

gas [43]. In the penultimate step of methanogen-

gas involving previously-mentioned methyl Co-M

curve, −3.093; y-intercept, 5.134 and correlation coefficient, 0.9949 [31]. The Ct

through denatured gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) [41].

specific methanogenic activities against H<sup>2</sup>

methykamines and/ or acetate into CH4

Co-M is reduced by methanogens to CH4

**5.4. Coenzyme M quantification**

phase during this analysis.

**5.3. 2-mercaptoethane sulphonate (coenzyme M)**

nogens reduce simple carbonaceous compounds like CO2

compounds, Co-M could be considered as the precursor of CH4

tive estimation of methanogen abundance and methanogenic activity in soil.

no cultivated members.

218 Rice Crop - Current Developments

**Figure 4.** Changes in coenzyme M concentration (a) and methanogen activity (b) and methane flux (c) from soil during rice cultivation (bars represent standard errors).

homogenization by vortex shaker and sonication [47]. The Co-M was precipitated from ethanolic solution of the supernatant and re-dissolved in distilled water prior to the HPLC analysis. The precision of this method to quantify Co-M in the soil matrix was >97%. The high recovery rate (90.3 ± 8.1%) indicated that Co-M is not adsorbed to the ionic sites of soil colloids and the measured values are very close to the actual Co-M content in soil (**Figure 4**).

were mixed in culture broth. Finazzo et al. [54] stated that Ni is present as Ni(I) in F430 and conversion of Ni(I) to Ni(II) provides necessary electron for reduction of methyl coenzyme to

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is a strong chelating agent and often shows adverse effect on plants when applied in higher doses. Pramanik and Kim [55] established that EDTA

sion from rice paddy soils without suppressing crop productivity (**Figure 5**). However, EDTA

and productivity of rice. Therefore, application of 5.0 ppm EDTA is possibly the most ratio-

treated soil was significantly lower than that of control treatment. However, activity of all the microorganisms (microbial respiration) in soil was initially decreased due to EDTA application during rice cultivation. Application of EDTA enhances availability of nutrients especially nitrogen content in soil solution and that in turn gradually boosts microbial activity in soil. After 30 days of rice cultivation, microbial respiration of EDTA-treated soils did not differ significantly from that of control soil. Application of EDTA leads up to 18.1% reduction in CH<sup>4</sup>

organic amended submerged soils. Application of EDTA did not suppress the rate of organic

emis-

221

emission from

emission and also adversely affected maturity

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73299

flux from rice paddy soil. The activity of methanogens in EDTA-

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds…

application at smaller doses (up to 5.0 ppm) proportionately reduces the flux of CH<sup>4</sup>

Unlike Fe-enriched silicate fertilizers, EDTA is also effective to mitigate CH<sup>4</sup>

emission from different rice paddy soils.

. The presence of Ni as Ni-EDTA complex might retard this electron transfer during methanogenesis. Application of Ni as Ni-EDTA complex limited bioaccumulation of Ni by methanogens and that lower Ni content in methanogen biomass significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced the

CH4

rate of CH4

production [53].

application at higher doses may increase CH4

emission flux during submerged rice cultivation.

nal dose to mitigate CH4

**Figure 5.** Cumulative CH4

Methanogen activity in soil is linearly correlated to the Co-M content (r = 0.857\*) of soil and the mean conversion factor between these two parameters is 155.03 ± 14.20 μg CH<sup>4</sup> produced mmol−1 Co-M d−1 [47]. Therefore, it could be stated that both *mcrA* gene copy numbers and the concentration of Co-M could be quantified as biomarkers of methanogens for precise estimation of methanogenic activity in submerged rice paddy soils.

#### **6. Mitigation techniques of CH4 emission**

Rice cultivation under flooded condition is regarded as an important source of CH<sup>4</sup> emission in soil. Methane is produced during decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic condition and simple carbonaceous compounds are biochemically reduced by methanogenic *Archaea* to form CH4 [48]. During this reduction process, an electron donor is required to transfer the electron and availability of such electron donors might control the flux of CH<sup>4</sup> emission in rice paddy soil. Iron (Fe) is a transition metal with partially filled d-orbital in its configuration. Lee et al. [48] observed that Fe in active form (ionic form) may accept electrons required for reductive methanogenesis process and that in turn decreased CH4 emission flux from rice paddy soil. Methane emission from submerged soil may be reduced approximately 14.5% by application of byproduct of steel industry as silicate fertilizers. Those byproducts of steel industry provide adequate silicate ions, which are necessary for higher rice productivity [49] and also for inducing resistance to biotic and abiotic stress [50]. However, Fe present in silicate fertilizers absorbs part of free electrons generated in the system and that restricts the terminal electron transfer during methanogenesis. This property enabled to reduce CH4 emission from conventional (chemical fertilizer treated) rice paddy soils. However, Fe-enriched silicate fertilizer is not a strong mitigating agent; in fact a contrasting effect of silicate fertilizers on CH4 emission was observed in organic matter treated rice paddy soil.

#### **6.1. Effect of EDTA on CH<sup>4</sup> emission**

In the last step of methanogenesis, methyl coenzyme M reductase (MCR) enzyme is involved in the reduction of methyl Co-M to CH4 and nickel (Ni) ion is involved as the cofactor F430 in MCR enzyme [44]. Hence, availability of Ni determined the concentration of cofactor F430, which in turn controls the activity of MCR enzyme [51]. Therefore, the rate of CH4 production is enhanced by addition of Ni-salts to rice paddy soil [52]. Transition metals like Ni form soluble complexes with EDTA and that increases the solubility of Ni in soil. However, Pramanik and Kim [53] revealed that methanogens could not assimilate Ni2+ ions from Ni-EDTA complexes and suffered starvation for Ni2+ ions when stoichiometric amount of Ni salt and EDTA were mixed in culture broth. Finazzo et al. [54] stated that Ni is present as Ni(I) in F430 and conversion of Ni(I) to Ni(II) provides necessary electron for reduction of methyl coenzyme to CH4 . The presence of Ni as Ni-EDTA complex might retard this electron transfer during methanogenesis. Application of Ni as Ni-EDTA complex limited bioaccumulation of Ni by methanogens and that lower Ni content in methanogen biomass significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced the rate of CH4 production [53].

homogenization by vortex shaker and sonication [47]. The Co-M was precipitated from ethanolic solution of the supernatant and re-dissolved in distilled water prior to the HPLC analysis. The precision of this method to quantify Co-M in the soil matrix was >97%. The high recovery rate (90.3 ± 8.1%) indicated that Co-M is not adsorbed to the ionic sites of soil colloids and the measured values are very close to the actual Co-M content in soil (**Figure 4**).

Methanogen activity in soil is linearly correlated to the Co-M content (r = 0.857\*) of soil and

mmol−1 Co-M d−1 [47]. Therefore, it could be stated that both *mcrA* gene copy numbers and the concentration of Co-M could be quantified as biomarkers of methanogens for precise estima-

 **emission**

sion in soil. Methane is produced during decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic condition and simple carbonaceous compounds are biochemically reduced by methanogenic

transfer the electron and availability of such electron donors might control the flux of CH<sup>4</sup> emission in rice paddy soil. Iron (Fe) is a transition metal with partially filled d-orbital in its configuration. Lee et al. [48] observed that Fe in active form (ionic form) may accept electrons

from rice paddy soil. Methane emission from submerged soil may be reduced approximately 14.5% by application of byproduct of steel industry as silicate fertilizers. Those byproducts of steel industry provide adequate silicate ions, which are necessary for higher rice productivity [49] and also for inducing resistance to biotic and abiotic stress [50]. However, Fe present in silicate fertilizers absorbs part of free electrons generated in the system and that restricts the terminal electron transfer during methanogenesis. This property enabled to reduce CH4

sion from conventional (chemical fertilizer treated) rice paddy soils. However, Fe-enriched silicate fertilizer is not a strong mitigating agent; in fact a contrasting effect of silicate fertil-

In the last step of methanogenesis, methyl coenzyme M reductase (MCR) enzyme is involved

MCR enzyme [44]. Hence, availability of Ni determined the concentration of cofactor F430,

is enhanced by addition of Ni-salts to rice paddy soil [52]. Transition metals like Ni form soluble complexes with EDTA and that increases the solubility of Ni in soil. However, Pramanik and Kim [53] revealed that methanogens could not assimilate Ni2+ ions from Ni-EDTA complexes and suffered starvation for Ni2+ ions when stoichiometric amount of Ni salt and EDTA

which in turn controls the activity of MCR enzyme [51]. Therefore, the rate of CH4

emission was observed in organic matter treated rice paddy soil.

[48]. During this reduction process, an electron donor is required to

and nickel (Ni) ion is involved as the cofactor F430 in

Rice cultivation under flooded condition is regarded as an important source of CH<sup>4</sup>

required for reductive methanogenesis process and that in turn decreased CH4

 **emission**

produced

emis-

emission flux

emis-

production

the mean conversion factor between these two parameters is 155.03 ± 14.20 μg CH<sup>4</sup>

tion of methanogenic activity in submerged rice paddy soils.

**6. Mitigation techniques of CH4**

*Archaea* to form CH4

220 Rice Crop - Current Developments

izers on CH4

**6.1. Effect of EDTA on CH<sup>4</sup>**

in the reduction of methyl Co-M to CH4

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is a strong chelating agent and often shows adverse effect on plants when applied in higher doses. Pramanik and Kim [55] established that EDTA application at smaller doses (up to 5.0 ppm) proportionately reduces the flux of CH<sup>4</sup> emission from rice paddy soils without suppressing crop productivity (**Figure 5**). However, EDTA application at higher doses may increase CH4 emission and also adversely affected maturity and productivity of rice. Therefore, application of 5.0 ppm EDTA is possibly the most rational dose to mitigate CH4 flux from rice paddy soil. The activity of methanogens in EDTAtreated soil was significantly lower than that of control treatment. However, activity of all the microorganisms (microbial respiration) in soil was initially decreased due to EDTA application during rice cultivation. Application of EDTA enhances availability of nutrients especially nitrogen content in soil solution and that in turn gradually boosts microbial activity in soil. After 30 days of rice cultivation, microbial respiration of EDTA-treated soils did not differ significantly from that of control soil. Application of EDTA leads up to 18.1% reduction in CH<sup>4</sup> emission flux during submerged rice cultivation.

Unlike Fe-enriched silicate fertilizers, EDTA is also effective to mitigate CH<sup>4</sup> emission from organic amended submerged soils. Application of EDTA did not suppress the rate of organic

**Figure 5.** Cumulative CH4 emission from different rice paddy soils.

matter mineralization; hence, the concentration of labile organic C compounds was not decreased due to EDTA application in soil. In spite of higher abundance of precursor materials (labile organic C compounds) in soil, EDTA application leads up to 22.5% reduction in CH<sup>4</sup> emission from straw incorporated rice paddy soils [56].

**7. Conclusion**

biomarkers in soil.

**Author details**

India

**References**

Cambridge; 2001

Prabhat Pramanik¹ and Pil Joo Kim²\*

\*Address all correspondence to: pjkim@gnu.ac.kr

**Acknowledgements**

organic C compounds into CH4

Soil of submerged rice fields is the most important anthropogenic source of CH<sup>4</sup>

the atmosphere. Methanogens, a group of strictly anaerobic microorganisms, convert labile

methanogens may be quantitatively studied by measuring mcrA gene and/ or coenzymeM

This work was supported by Basis Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2015R1A6A1A03031413).

1 Soils Department, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Tea Research Association, Jorhat, Assam,

[1] IPCC. In: McCarthy JJ, Canziani OF, Leary NA, Dokken DJ, White KS, editors. Climate Change 2001, Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press,

[2] Horton R, De Mel M, Peters D, Lesk C, Bartlett R, Helsingen H, Bader D, Capizzi P, Martin S, Rosenzweig C. Assessing Climate Risk in Myanmar. New York, NY, USA: Center for Climate Systems Research at Columbia University, WWF-US and WWF-Myanmar; 2016

[3] Karl TR, Melillo JM, Peterson TC. Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. U.S. Global Change Research Program. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009

[4] Blasing TJ. Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis

[5] IPCC. Climate Change 2007:Mitigation of Climate Change — Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Center (CDIAC). 2014. http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/current\_ghg.html

2 Division of Applied Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, South Korea

gas and that emits from soil to the atmosphere. Activity of

Methanogens Harboring in Rice Rhizosphere Reduce Labile Organic Carbon Compounds…

emission to

223

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73299

One noticeable drawback of EDTA application is that EDTA-treated soils have higher nitrate N content, which acts as the precursor for nitrous oxide formation under anaerobic reducing of submerged soil condition. Higher nitrate N content enhanced the flux of nitrous oxide, another greenhouse gas having 290 times higher global warming potential than equivalent amount of carbon dioxide. Study revealed that total global warming potential in 5.0 ppm EDTA-treated soil was 14.5% lower than that of control soil (not treated with EDTA) during rice cultivation.

Organic amendment increased C-to-N ratio, which in turn decreased the rate of mineralization and nitrate N content in soil. Therefore, the adverse effect of EDTA application could be minimized by organic amendment in soil. However, incorporation of organic matter in submerged rice paddy soil facilitated the risk of CH<sup>4</sup> emission to the atmosphere. Optimum combination of EDTA and compost may effectively reduce the net global warming potential due to CH4 and N2 O emissions. It was observed that 5.0 Mg organic substrates ha−1 and 5.0 ppm EDTA combination had global warming potential 11186.17 ± 749.35 kg CO2 -equiv. ha−1, which was 20.8% lower than that of only organic amended rice paddy soil (**Figure 6**).

**Figure 6.** Global warming potentials due to methane (CH4 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O) emissions from submerged rice paddy soils.

### **7. Conclusion**

matter mineralization; hence, the concentration of labile organic C compounds was not decreased due to EDTA application in soil. In spite of higher abundance of precursor materials (labile organic C compounds) in soil, EDTA application leads up to 22.5% reduction in CH<sup>4</sup>

One noticeable drawback of EDTA application is that EDTA-treated soils have higher nitrate N content, which acts as the precursor for nitrous oxide formation under anaerobic reducing of submerged soil condition. Higher nitrate N content enhanced the flux of nitrous oxide, another greenhouse gas having 290 times higher global warming potential than equivalent amount of carbon dioxide. Study revealed that total global warming potential in 5.0 ppm EDTA-treated soil was 14.5% lower than that of control soil (not treated with EDTA) during

Organic amendment increased C-to-N ratio, which in turn decreased the rate of mineralization and nitrate N content in soil. Therefore, the adverse effect of EDTA application could be minimized by organic amendment in soil. However, incorporation of organic

Optimum combination of EDTA and compost may effectively reduce the net global warm-

ha−1 and 5.0 ppm EDTA combination had global warming potential 11186.17 ± 749.35 kg


) and nitrous oxide (N2

emission to the atmosphere.

O) emissions from submerged rice

O emissions. It was observed that 5.0 Mg organic substrates

emission from straw incorporated rice paddy soils [56].

matter in submerged rice paddy soil facilitated the risk of CH<sup>4</sup>

and N2

**Figure 6.** Global warming potentials due to methane (CH4

rice cultivation.

222 Rice Crop - Current Developments

CO2

(**Figure 6**).

paddy soils.

ing potential due to CH4

Soil of submerged rice fields is the most important anthropogenic source of CH<sup>4</sup> emission to the atmosphere. Methanogens, a group of strictly anaerobic microorganisms, convert labile organic C compounds into CH4 gas and that emits from soil to the atmosphere. Activity of methanogens may be quantitatively studied by measuring mcrA gene and/ or coenzymeM biomarkers in soil.

### **Acknowledgements**

This work was supported by Basis Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2015R1A6A1A03031413).

### **Author details**

Prabhat Pramanik¹ and Pil Joo Kim²\*

\*Address all correspondence to: pjkim@gnu.ac.kr

1 Soils Department, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Tea Research Association, Jorhat, Assam, India

2 Division of Applied Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, South Korea

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**Chapter 13**

**Provisional chapter**

**Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri**

Increasing health threats is a common problem among both rice growers and consumers in many parts of Sri Lanka and in the Asian region in general. Increasing trends in growing and consuming traditional rice could be observed in searching solutions for these problems. This study explored objectively the factors affecting willingness to grow traditional rice and its varietal selection in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. 100 traditional and 100 non-traditional rice growers were selected using stratified sampling method for the field survey and data were analyzed descriptively, using logistic regression and factor analysis. Results revealed that 67% of the male farmers were willing to cultivate traditional rice over improved varieties and 65.6% traditional rice cultivation was observed among families with non-communicable diseases. Awareness of medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice, land extent, farm gate price, age and education level of farmers, farming experience and farming system significantly affects (P ≤ 0.05) the willingness to cultivate traditional rice while factors related to varietal attributes, personal, market and production, respectively affects selection of traditional rice variety. Results conclude that farmers are willing to cultivate traditional rice in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka and selection of traditional rice varieties is most affected by varietal attributes which are adoptable to existing environmental conditions and personal factors like presence of noncommunicable diseases, age of the farmers, education level and experience for farming.

**Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73082

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Rice production in Sri Lanka has grown into a self-sufficiency level during the last two to three decades. Rice being the staple food of Sri Lankans and having 114 kg per capita

**Keywords:** willingness to cultivate, traditional rice, varieties, rice farmers, Sri Lanka

**Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura District**

**Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura District**

Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara and

Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Sampath Priya Disanayake

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

and Sampath Priya Disanayake

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73082

**Provisional chapter**

### **Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura District Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura District**

**Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73082

Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara and Sampath Priya Disanayake and Sampath Priya Disanayake Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73082

#### **Abstract**

Increasing health threats is a common problem among both rice growers and consumers in many parts of Sri Lanka and in the Asian region in general. Increasing trends in growing and consuming traditional rice could be observed in searching solutions for these problems. This study explored objectively the factors affecting willingness to grow traditional rice and its varietal selection in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. 100 traditional and 100 non-traditional rice growers were selected using stratified sampling method for the field survey and data were analyzed descriptively, using logistic regression and factor analysis. Results revealed that 67% of the male farmers were willing to cultivate traditional rice over improved varieties and 65.6% traditional rice cultivation was observed among families with non-communicable diseases. Awareness of medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice, land extent, farm gate price, age and education level of farmers, farming experience and farming system significantly affects (P ≤ 0.05) the willingness to cultivate traditional rice while factors related to varietal attributes, personal, market and production, respectively affects selection of traditional rice variety. Results conclude that farmers are willing to cultivate traditional rice in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka and selection of traditional rice varieties is most affected by varietal attributes which are adoptable to existing environmental conditions and personal factors like presence of noncommunicable diseases, age of the farmers, education level and experience for farming.

**Keywords:** willingness to cultivate, traditional rice, varieties, rice farmers, Sri Lanka

### **1. Introduction**

Rice production in Sri Lanka has grown into a self-sufficiency level during the last two to three decades. Rice being the staple food of Sri Lankans and having 114 kg per capita

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

consumption plays a major role in providing energy, protein and fat to the whole population [1]. Approximately 1,210,140 hectares of lands was devoted for paddy cultivation in 2015 and 2,992,333 metric tons of total rice availability for human consumption from domestic sources exceeded 2,310,321 metric tons of total rice requirement in 2015 while demonstrating the 129.32% of self-sufficiency rate [2]. Many programmes have been implemented in Sri Lanka to fulfill the national demand for rice through the effectively bred high-yielding varieties which are resistant to different stresses [3]. Nonetheless, people are more health conscious and interested in purchasing nutritional good quality products as the level of human health awareness increases among Sri Lankans. Traditional rice is being considered as more healthy and nutritious among Sri Lankans; a considerable demand is generating for traditional rice varieties in both local and international markets.

Anuradhapura, one of the largest districts in Sri Lanka, is situated in the North Central Province.

land extent under paddy is reported as 254,296 hectares including cultivations under major and minor irrigation and rainfed systems which produced 4612 kg of average paddy yield per hectare which was more or less similar to the country's average paddy production per hectare of 4527 kg. Rice farming is practiced by 65% of the population and nearly 17% of labor force is

At present, there are increasing health threats from non-communicable diseases, namely, diabetes, high blood pressure, renal failures, variety of cancers and high blood cholesterol among both farmers and consumers in dry zone of Sri Lanka where the Anuradhapura district is located specifically and all over the island in general. As both growers and consumers highly believe that these health threats are basically due to unhealthy food habits and poor quality of the food items that they are consuming every day. Therefore, an increasing interest in growing and consuming traditional rice over improved varieties in this district could be observed. Thus, there is an increasing trend of the rice farmers in Anuradhapura district to cultivate traditional rice at least in few perches in their lands to be used for their family consumption, while some farmers are cultivating them in large scale expecting higher price in the market. Different farmers prefer to grow different varieties of traditional rice in their paddy fields, and there is a lack of research and findings on which factors trigger rice farmers to cultivate traditional rice over newly improved or hybrid rice in their paddy lands in different scales and which varieties of traditional rice do they prefer to cultivate over the others. Hence, this study was conducted to identify the factors affecting the willingness to cultivate traditional rice and to select their varieties for cultivation by rice farmers in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka.

This experimental study focused on rice farmers who are growing traditional rice varieties compared to nontraditional rice varieties in Anuradhapura district and was conducted in five divisional secretariat (DS) divisions in Anuradhapura district, namely, *Padaviya, Medawachchiya, Rambewa, Thalawa* and *Rajanganaya*, where most of the farmers are engaged in

Two hundred paddy farmers were interviewed with a pretested questionnaire for identifying willingness to cultivate traditional rice and factors affecting the selection of traditional rice varieties. Three-stage stratified random sampling method was utilized to select 100 traditional rice growers and 100 nontraditional rice growers. At the first stage, five DS divisions were selected purposely where the highest farmers' registration under paddy cultivation has been reported. Accordingly, the *Grama Niladhari* (GN) divisions which reported the highest farmers' registration pertaining to the above five divisions were selected at the second stage, and at the final stage, both traditional rice farmers and nontraditional rice farmers were randomly selected for the questionnaire survey proportionately to the total farmers registered in the above five DS divisions. Additionally, focus group discussion and key personal interviews were conducted during the study. Secondary data were collected from different publications of

engaged with related occupations in rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district [10].

, and the total human population is 856,232. Moreover, cultivated

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Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura…

The total land area is 6664 km<sup>2</sup>

**2. Methodology**

traditional rice cultivation (**Figure 1**).

Sri Lanka is one of Asian countries which had a rich treasure of over 2400 traditional rice varieties [4] with identical nutritional and medicinal values [5]. Besides, these varieties are with varied maturity periods and highly resistant to extreme climatic conditions, pest and disease attacks [1] and adoptable to various soil and geographical conditions in the country. Out of these 2400 varieties, over 400 varieties are popular among Sri Lankan farmers at present. With the introduction of high-yielding newly improved varieties around the 1960s, traditional rice varieties became vanished from the Sri Lankan farming environments [6]. Thanks to the smallscale farmers, seeds of some of these old traditional varieties are still preserved in the gene banks. Moreover, traditional rice cultivation occupies a significant place among the rural communities in dry zone from past to present and even beyond the dry zone mainly due to threatening of people by common health problems like non-communicable diseases. In that scenario, farmers have increased the extent of traditional rice cultivation by adopting indigenous cultivation methods and organic inputs. Some non-governmental organizations have taken initiatives to promote traditional rice cultivation in the country advocating farmers to produce own seed paddy, cultivating rice for own consumption and fulfilling the market demand by selling surplus. Specially, districts like Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Puttalam, Vavuniya, Kurunegala, Kegalle, Matale, Kandy, Rathnapura, Gampaha, Colombo, Galle, Matara, Monaragala, Badulla, Ampara, Batticaloa and Akkaraipattu are predominantly adopted to cultivate traditional rice varieties in the last few decades [7]. Importantly, the tolerance of traditional rice cultivars for submergence and salinity conditions has popularized them among farmers from those problematic areas. Compared to the improved rice varieties, some of traditional rice varieties are capable of being raised in nurseries for 2–3 months and tolerating water scarcities and heavy rainfalls or floods. And also, the strong vigorous stem helps to withstand against the heavy rains, winds and drought conditions. Their vigorous seeds are tolerant to other adverse conditions like waterlogging and drought. Therefore, most of the traditional rice varieties have the potential to cope with the drastic climatic changes which are generally detrimental to paddy cultivation [8]. Further, medicinal values of traditional rice have been experienced by Sri Lankans over few decades [9]. The lower starch hydrolysis rate lowers in vitro digestion rate which is suitable for diabetic patients. Most of the cultivars own officinal properties of preventing diabetic conditions, fatty liver, blood pressure and muscle recovering from free radicals and controlling weight, gallstones and protection against breast cancer. Namely, *Suwandel, Madathawalu, Kaluheenati, Suduheenati, Kuruluthuda, Pachchaperumal, Ma wee, Hatadaa wee, Rathdel, Kahamala* and *Kahawanu* are some of the most popular traditional rice varieties among the rice farmers and among traditional rice consumers in present Sri Lanka.

Anuradhapura, one of the largest districts in Sri Lanka, is situated in the North Central Province. The total land area is 6664 km<sup>2</sup> , and the total human population is 856,232. Moreover, cultivated land extent under paddy is reported as 254,296 hectares including cultivations under major and minor irrigation and rainfed systems which produced 4612 kg of average paddy yield per hectare which was more or less similar to the country's average paddy production per hectare of 4527 kg. Rice farming is practiced by 65% of the population and nearly 17% of labor force is engaged with related occupations in rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district [10].

At present, there are increasing health threats from non-communicable diseases, namely, diabetes, high blood pressure, renal failures, variety of cancers and high blood cholesterol among both farmers and consumers in dry zone of Sri Lanka where the Anuradhapura district is located specifically and all over the island in general. As both growers and consumers highly believe that these health threats are basically due to unhealthy food habits and poor quality of the food items that they are consuming every day. Therefore, an increasing interest in growing and consuming traditional rice over improved varieties in this district could be observed. Thus, there is an increasing trend of the rice farmers in Anuradhapura district to cultivate traditional rice at least in few perches in their lands to be used for their family consumption, while some farmers are cultivating them in large scale expecting higher price in the market. Different farmers prefer to grow different varieties of traditional rice in their paddy fields, and there is a lack of research and findings on which factors trigger rice farmers to cultivate traditional rice over newly improved or hybrid rice in their paddy lands in different scales and which varieties of traditional rice do they prefer to cultivate over the others. Hence, this study was conducted to identify the factors affecting the willingness to cultivate traditional rice and to select their varieties for cultivation by rice farmers in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka.

### **2. Methodology**

consumption plays a major role in providing energy, protein and fat to the whole population [1]. Approximately 1,210,140 hectares of lands was devoted for paddy cultivation in 2015 and 2,992,333 metric tons of total rice availability for human consumption from domestic sources exceeded 2,310,321 metric tons of total rice requirement in 2015 while demonstrating the 129.32% of self-sufficiency rate [2]. Many programmes have been implemented in Sri Lanka to fulfill the national demand for rice through the effectively bred high-yielding varieties which are resistant to different stresses [3]. Nonetheless, people are more health conscious and interested in purchasing nutritional good quality products as the level of human health awareness increases among Sri Lankans. Traditional rice is being considered as more healthy and nutritious among Sri Lankans; a considerable demand is generating for traditional rice

Sri Lanka is one of Asian countries which had a rich treasure of over 2400 traditional rice varieties [4] with identical nutritional and medicinal values [5]. Besides, these varieties are with varied maturity periods and highly resistant to extreme climatic conditions, pest and disease attacks [1] and adoptable to various soil and geographical conditions in the country. Out of these 2400 varieties, over 400 varieties are popular among Sri Lankan farmers at present. With the introduction of high-yielding newly improved varieties around the 1960s, traditional rice varieties became vanished from the Sri Lankan farming environments [6]. Thanks to the smallscale farmers, seeds of some of these old traditional varieties are still preserved in the gene banks. Moreover, traditional rice cultivation occupies a significant place among the rural communities in dry zone from past to present and even beyond the dry zone mainly due to threatening of people by common health problems like non-communicable diseases. In that scenario, farmers have increased the extent of traditional rice cultivation by adopting indigenous cultivation methods and organic inputs. Some non-governmental organizations have taken initiatives to promote traditional rice cultivation in the country advocating farmers to produce own seed paddy, cultivating rice for own consumption and fulfilling the market demand by selling surplus. Specially, districts like Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Puttalam, Vavuniya, Kurunegala, Kegalle, Matale, Kandy, Rathnapura, Gampaha, Colombo, Galle, Matara, Monaragala, Badulla, Ampara, Batticaloa and Akkaraipattu are predominantly adopted to cultivate traditional rice varieties in the last few decades [7]. Importantly, the tolerance of traditional rice cultivars for submergence and salinity conditions has popularized them among farmers from those problematic areas. Compared to the improved rice varieties, some of traditional rice varieties are capable of being raised in nurseries for 2–3 months and tolerating water scarcities and heavy rainfalls or floods. And also, the strong vigorous stem helps to withstand against the heavy rains, winds and drought conditions. Their vigorous seeds are tolerant to other adverse conditions like waterlogging and drought. Therefore, most of the traditional rice varieties have the potential to cope with the drastic climatic changes which are generally detrimental to paddy cultivation [8]. Further, medicinal values of traditional rice have been experienced by Sri Lankans over few decades [9]. The lower starch hydrolysis rate lowers in vitro digestion rate which is suitable for diabetic patients. Most of the cultivars own officinal properties of preventing diabetic conditions, fatty liver, blood pressure and muscle recovering from free radicals and controlling weight, gallstones and protection against breast cancer. Namely, *Suwandel, Madathawalu, Kaluheenati, Suduheenati, Kuruluthuda, Pachchaperumal, Ma wee, Hatadaa wee, Rathdel, Kahamala* and *Kahawanu* are some of the most popular traditional rice varieties among the rice farmers

varieties in both local and international markets.

230 Rice Crop - Current Developments

and among traditional rice consumers in present Sri Lanka.

This experimental study focused on rice farmers who are growing traditional rice varieties compared to nontraditional rice varieties in Anuradhapura district and was conducted in five divisional secretariat (DS) divisions in Anuradhapura district, namely, *Padaviya, Medawachchiya, Rambewa, Thalawa* and *Rajanganaya*, where most of the farmers are engaged in traditional rice cultivation (**Figure 1**).

Two hundred paddy farmers were interviewed with a pretested questionnaire for identifying willingness to cultivate traditional rice and factors affecting the selection of traditional rice varieties. Three-stage stratified random sampling method was utilized to select 100 traditional rice growers and 100 nontraditional rice growers. At the first stage, five DS divisions were selected purposely where the highest farmers' registration under paddy cultivation has been reported. Accordingly, the *Grama Niladhari* (GN) divisions which reported the highest farmers' registration pertaining to the above five divisions were selected at the second stage, and at the final stage, both traditional rice farmers and nontraditional rice farmers were randomly selected for the questionnaire survey proportionately to the total farmers registered in the above five DS divisions. Additionally, focus group discussion and key personal interviews were conducted during the study. Secondary data were collected from different publications of

**Figure 1.** Map of selected Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions.

Department of Census and Statistics, Central Bank of Sri Lanka and relevant research reports, project reports, journal articles and newspaper articles.

The collected data and information were subjected to logistic regression analysis to analyze the factors affecting willingness to grow traditional rice varieties and factor analysis to identify the factors affecting varietal selection.

### **3. Results and discussion**

### **3.1. Demographic characteristics**

Demographic characteristics of the study sample are summarized in **Table 1**. Mean age of the traditional rice-growing farmers was 48 years, while nontraditional rice-growing farmers have 51 years of mean age. Results revealed insignificant differences in household size (four members) and the number of years attained to a particular formal education (10 years) between these two categories of farmers. Moreover, for both farmer categories, at least two family members are available as family labor mainly consisting of the household head and his/her spouse. The land extent under traditional rice cultivation is smaller (1.34 acres) compared to improved rice cultivation (1.91 acres). The reason is that many of the traditional rice growers tend to cultivate traditional rice in their small paddy plots only for their family consumption as they are more health conscious, affected by non-communicable diseases (65.6%) and more aware (100%) on the nutritional and medicinal value of

**Parameter Traditional rice farmers Nontraditional rice farmers**

Household size (number) 4.10 (4) 1.26 3.74 (4) 1.43 Educational level (years) 10.19 (10) 2.31 9.33 (9) 2.87 Available family labor (number) 2.22 (2) 1.07 2.16 (2) 1.095 Land extent (Ac) 1.34 1.90 1.91 1.713 Yield (kg/Ac) 1199.60 521.77 1695.88 701.38 Farm gate price (Rs./kg) 50.24 14.90 31.32 5.28 Farming experience (years) 22.95 12.96 5.96 7.77

Male 67 92.6 Female 33 7.4

Yes 65.6 78.7 No 31.4 21.3

Yes 100 55.6 No 0 44.4

Organic 86.5 1.9 Inorganic 8.1 87.0 Mixed 5.4 11.1

Age of the respondent (years) 47.87 (48\*

Gender of the respondent

diseases

Presence of non-communicable

Awareness of traditional rice

Farming system

**Mean ±SD Mean ±SD**

Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura…

**Percentage (%) Percentage (%)**

) 11.54 51.31 (51) 11.15

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Compared to nontraditional rice varieties (Rs. 31.00), traditional rice varieties have higher farm gate price (Rs. 50.00) which shows comparatively better potential market for traditional rice. With respect to the existing farming systems, 86.5% of traditional rice farmers are practicing organic farming methods in their rice farms which ensure environmental, social and economic

traditional rice varieties.

\*Numbers in parenthesis are rounded numbers.

**Table 1.** Demographic characteristics.


\*Numbers in parenthesis are rounded numbers.

**Table 1.** Demographic characteristics.

Department of Census and Statistics, Central Bank of Sri Lanka and relevant research reports,

The collected data and information were subjected to logistic regression analysis to analyze the factors affecting willingness to grow traditional rice varieties and factor analysis to iden-

Demographic characteristics of the study sample are summarized in **Table 1**. Mean age of the traditional rice-growing farmers was 48 years, while nontraditional rice-growing farmers have 51 years of mean age. Results revealed insignificant differences in household size (four members) and the number of years attained to a particular formal education (10 years) between these two categories of farmers. Moreover, for both farmer categories, at least two family members are available as family labor mainly consisting of the household head and his/her spouse. The land extent under traditional rice cultivation is smaller (1.34

project reports, journal articles and newspaper articles.

**Figure 1.** Map of selected Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions.

tify the factors affecting varietal selection.

**3. Results and discussion**

232 Rice Crop - Current Developments

**3.1. Demographic characteristics**

acres) compared to improved rice cultivation (1.91 acres). The reason is that many of the traditional rice growers tend to cultivate traditional rice in their small paddy plots only for their family consumption as they are more health conscious, affected by non-communicable diseases (65.6%) and more aware (100%) on the nutritional and medicinal value of traditional rice varieties.

Compared to nontraditional rice varieties (Rs. 31.00), traditional rice varieties have higher farm gate price (Rs. 50.00) which shows comparatively better potential market for traditional rice. With respect to the existing farming systems, 86.5% of traditional rice farmers are practicing organic farming methods in their rice farms which ensure environmental, social and economic benefits to the society, while majority of the nontraditional rice farmers (87%) apply inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals in their rice fields expecting a higher yield for better income.

varieties where farmers are able to ascertain more knowledge on the importance of healthy consumption and food habits, awareness of non-communicable diseases and adverse impact of synthetic fertilizer and other chemicals to human and environment through their maturity with age and cumulative farming experiences. Further, the education level of the farmers shows a positive impact toward getting into traditional rice cultivation which emphasized that when people are more educated, they tend to consider their health and nutrition compared to illiterate people. Both traditional and nontraditional rice farmers practice organic and inorganic farming systems and mixture of these two. As revealed by the results, farming

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The presence of non-communicable diseases, yield, gender of the respondent, available family labor and household size were not significantly (*Pr < 0.05*) associated with willingness to

When farmers enhance their awareness on medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (OR = 4.025), nontraditional paddy farmers are also more likely to cultivate traditional paddy varieties (**Table 3**). The results further prove that when farmers increase their land extent by 1 acre (OR = −4.361), many of the traditional rice farmers tend to be relied on nontraditional rice cultivation. Moreover, the odds of being traditional rice cultivator is higher for higher farm gate price (OR = 1.704), old age of the farmers (OR = 1.17), higher educational level of the

Factor analysis was executed to determine the factors affecting varietal selection by traditional rice farmers. Principal component analysis (PCA) emphasized that multiple observed variables

**Parameter Point estimates 95% confidence limits**

**Awareness of traditional rice 4.205 1.105–9.790** Presence of non-communicable diseases in household 2.356 0.882–6.290 **Land extent −4.361 1.066–17.832** Yield 1.002 0.999–1.004 **Farm gate price 1.704 0.544–1.911** Gender of the respondent 1.238 0.746–1.882 **Age of the respondent 1.17 0.948–1.448 Educational level 1.756 0.394–1.851** Family labor availability 0.158 0.019–1.322 Household size 2.047 0.585–7.146 **Farming experience 1.317 1.051–1.656 Farming system 0.001 0.001–0.055**

system has significantly negative effect on willingness to cultivate traditional rice.

farmers (OR = 1.756) and more farming experience of the farmers (OR = 1.317).

**3.3. Factor analysis for selection of traditional rice varieties for cultivation**

cultivate traditional rice.

**Table 3.** Odd ratio of logistic regression analysis.

### **3.2. Factors affecting willingness to grow traditional over nontraditional rice varieties**

Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice by rice farmers. The binomial logistic analysis of measured variations in the outcome explained by predictors was significant (*Pr* < 0.001). Awareness of traditional rice, presence of non-communicable diseases in the household, land extent, yield, farm gate price, gender of respondent, age of the respondent, educational level, family labor availability, household size, farming experience and farming system were included in the logistic regression.

**Table 2** explains the strength and the direction of the effect of each factor on the willingness to cultivate traditional rice. As revealed by the results, awareness of medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (*Pr = 0.0062*) show strong positive associations with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice compared to nontraditional rice. Land extent of rice cultivation shows a negative significant effect (*Pr = 0.0404*) on cultivation of traditional rice. It reveals that when farmers are having increased land extents, they are reluctant to cultivate traditional rice varieties. This is mainly due to the lower potential yield of traditional rice varieties over nontraditional (improved or hybrid) rice varieties. Most importantly, farm gate price shows a positive relationship with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice (*Pr = 0.0076*). Since the selling price is higher, farmers are more willing to go for traditional rice in their paddy fields over nontraditional rice varieties. Age of the respondent (*Pr = 0.0141*) and farming experience (*Pr = 0.0169*) positively affected the decisions-making regarding cultivation of traditional rice


**Table 2.** Maximum likelihood estimates for factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice varieties.

varieties where farmers are able to ascertain more knowledge on the importance of healthy consumption and food habits, awareness of non-communicable diseases and adverse impact of synthetic fertilizer and other chemicals to human and environment through their maturity with age and cumulative farming experiences. Further, the education level of the farmers shows a positive impact toward getting into traditional rice cultivation which emphasized that when people are more educated, they tend to consider their health and nutrition compared to illiterate people. Both traditional and nontraditional rice farmers practice organic and inorganic farming systems and mixture of these two. As revealed by the results, farming system has significantly negative effect on willingness to cultivate traditional rice.

The presence of non-communicable diseases, yield, gender of the respondent, available family labor and household size were not significantly (*Pr < 0.05*) associated with willingness to cultivate traditional rice.

When farmers enhance their awareness on medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (OR = 4.025), nontraditional paddy farmers are also more likely to cultivate traditional paddy varieties (**Table 3**). The results further prove that when farmers increase their land extent by 1 acre (OR = −4.361), many of the traditional rice farmers tend to be relied on nontraditional rice cultivation. Moreover, the odds of being traditional rice cultivator is higher for higher farm gate price (OR = 1.704), old age of the farmers (OR = 1.17), higher educational level of the farmers (OR = 1.756) and more farming experience of the farmers (OR = 1.317).

#### **3.3. Factor analysis for selection of traditional rice varieties for cultivation**

Factor analysis was executed to determine the factors affecting varietal selection by traditional rice farmers. Principal component analysis (PCA) emphasized that multiple observed variables


**Table 3.** Odd ratio of logistic regression analysis.

benefits to the society, while majority of the nontraditional rice farmers (87%) apply inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals in their rice fields expecting a higher yield for better income.

Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice by rice farmers. The binomial logistic analysis of measured variations in the outcome explained by predictors was significant (*Pr* < 0.001). Awareness of traditional rice, presence of non-communicable diseases in the household, land extent, yield, farm gate price, gender of respondent, age of the respondent, educational level, family labor availability, household size, farming experience and farming system were included in the logistic regression.

**Table 2** explains the strength and the direction of the effect of each factor on the willingness to cultivate traditional rice. As revealed by the results, awareness of medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (*Pr = 0.0062*) show strong positive associations with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice compared to nontraditional rice. Land extent of rice cultivation shows a negative significant effect (*Pr = 0.0404*) on cultivation of traditional rice. It reveals that when farmers are having increased land extents, they are reluctant to cultivate traditional rice varieties. This is mainly due to the lower potential yield of traditional rice varieties over nontraditional (improved or hybrid) rice varieties. Most importantly, farm gate price shows a positive relationship with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice (*Pr = 0.0076*). Since the selling price is higher, farmers are more willing to go for traditional rice in their paddy fields over nontraditional rice varieties. Age of the respondent (*Pr = 0.0141*) and farming experience (*Pr = 0.0169*) positively affected the decisions-making regarding cultivation of traditional rice

**Table 2.** Maximum likelihood estimates for factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice varieties.

**3.2. Factors affecting willingness to grow traditional over nontraditional rice** 

**varieties**

234 Rice Crop - Current Developments

have similar patterns of responses because of their association with an underlying latent variable [11]. Accordingly, it examines underlying variable in a number of observed variables of factors which affect selection of varieties.

The variance of the independent variables, explained by each principal component, is given by Eigen values. Any factor with an Eigen value ≥ 1 explains more variance than a single observed variable. **Figure 2** presents the scree plot used to identify six numbers of factors affecting varietal selection of traditional rice farmers where the first five factors (Eigen value ≥ 1) are highly affected factors loading from scree plot (**Table 4**).

The factor analysis revealed that four factors are affecting selection of varieties of traditional rice by rice farmers (**Table 5**). The first factor, namely, the varietal attributes, includes tolerance to pest and diseases, tolerance to drought conditions and tolerance to salinity. Factors, namely, presence of non-communicable diseases, gender, age, educational level and farming experience, are consolidated into the second factor which is named as personal factors. The third factor comprises of market-related attributes such as farm gate price and availability of buyers, while the fourth factor includes production-related resources, namely, cultivated land extent, yield, availability of family labor and farming system.

With the increase of world population and hence the galloping food demand, high-yielding rice varieties were highly popular among the cultivators. This practice hitherto has led to serious "genetic erosion"—the loss of traditional varieties from agroecosystems [12, 13] in the rice production sector. Due to their incredible health benefits, it has made them a pleasing choice for consumers who are suffering from diabetes, overweight or regulating their sugar intake. Cultivation and consumption of traditional rice varieties are not restricted to certain places in Sri Lanka, because consumption of these varieties in both national and international has been very consistent.

People also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body; improving vocal clarity, eyesight and fertility; maintaining body sugar levels; and mitigating rashes. Among the local communities, many of traditional rice varieties are popular due to their inheriting characteristics. For example, *Suwandel* variety which has a milky taste upon cooking is highly recommended to be eaten by hard-working people. According to Ayurvedic medicine, this variety is known to promote fair and glowing skin, improves the functioning of the excretory system, enhances vocal clarity, increases the male sexual potency and helps to control diabetes and constipation. Likewise, variety *Pachchaperumal* is a highly nutritious red rice cultivar which helps to cool the body, is preferred by patients who are suffering from diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular complications and is also good for patients with high blood pressure. Another example is that of variety *Madathawalu*, which is able to remove toxic components especially some cancer causative agents from the human body. This variety can clean the blood circulation system and promote the activity of sweating glands. It strengthens the immune system and adds to the

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Besides, it is known to all that the paddy production system is extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts. Traditional agricultural practices coupled with indigenous rice varieties have proven to be more successful in facing climate change and its related threats such as droughts, floods, attack of pests and disease outbreaks. These traditional rice varieties have strong characteristics that help them survive climate change impacts compared to newer varieties used in conventional paddy cultivation. Hence, the traditional rice cultivation is not only a solution for health concerns but also a way of achieving sustainability via conservation of agricultural

nutritive value of the cooked rice for lactating mothers and infants.

**Table 4.** Total variance explained by factor loadings.

**Figure 2.** Scree plot for components.

Farmers' Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73082 237


**Table 4.** Total variance explained by factor loadings.

have similar patterns of responses because of their association with an underlying latent variable [11]. Accordingly, it examines underlying variable in a number of observed variables of

The variance of the independent variables, explained by each principal component, is given by Eigen values. Any factor with an Eigen value ≥ 1 explains more variance than a single observed variable. **Figure 2** presents the scree plot used to identify six numbers of factors affecting varietal selection of traditional rice farmers where the first five factors (Eigen value

The factor analysis revealed that four factors are affecting selection of varieties of traditional rice by rice farmers (**Table 5**). The first factor, namely, the varietal attributes, includes tolerance to pest and diseases, tolerance to drought conditions and tolerance to salinity. Factors, namely, presence of non-communicable diseases, gender, age, educational level and farming experience, are consolidated into the second factor which is named as personal factors. The third factor comprises of market-related attributes such as farm gate price and availability of buyers, while the fourth factor includes production-related resources, namely, cultivated land

With the increase of world population and hence the galloping food demand, high-yielding rice varieties were highly popular among the cultivators. This practice hitherto has led to serious "genetic erosion"—the loss of traditional varieties from agroecosystems [12, 13] in the rice production sector. Due to their incredible health benefits, it has made them a pleasing choice for consumers who are suffering from diabetes, overweight or regulating their sugar intake. Cultivation and consumption of traditional rice varieties are not restricted to certain places in Sri Lanka, because consumption of these varieties in both national and international

factors which affect selection of varieties.

236 Rice Crop - Current Developments

has been very consistent.

**Figure 2.** Scree plot for components.

≥ 1) are highly affected factors loading from scree plot (**Table 4**).

extent, yield, availability of family labor and farming system.

People also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body; improving vocal clarity, eyesight and fertility; maintaining body sugar levels; and mitigating rashes. Among the local communities, many of traditional rice varieties are popular due to their inheriting characteristics. For example, *Suwandel* variety which has a milky taste upon cooking is highly recommended to be eaten by hard-working people. According to Ayurvedic medicine, this variety is known to promote fair and glowing skin, improves the functioning of the excretory system, enhances vocal clarity, increases the male sexual potency and helps to control diabetes and constipation. Likewise, variety *Pachchaperumal* is a highly nutritious red rice cultivar which helps to cool the body, is preferred by patients who are suffering from diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular complications and is also good for patients with high blood pressure. Another example is that of variety *Madathawalu*, which is able to remove toxic components especially some cancer causative agents from the human body. This variety can clean the blood circulation system and promote the activity of sweating glands. It strengthens the immune system and adds to the nutritive value of the cooked rice for lactating mothers and infants.

Besides, it is known to all that the paddy production system is extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts. Traditional agricultural practices coupled with indigenous rice varieties have proven to be more successful in facing climate change and its related threats such as droughts, floods, attack of pests and disease outbreaks. These traditional rice varieties have strong characteristics that help them survive climate change impacts compared to newer varieties used in conventional paddy cultivation. Hence, the traditional rice cultivation is not only a solution for health concerns but also a way of achieving sustainability via conservation of agricultural


farmers to make crop agronomic and management information and potential marketing information available through government policy interventions in order to empower the traditional rice-cultivating farmers in Anuradhapura district and throughout the country as a whole.

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Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara\* and Sampath Priya Disanayake

[1] Rebeira SP, Wickramasinghe HAM, Samarasinghe WLG, Prashantha BDR. Diversity of grain quality characteristics of traditional rice (*Oryza sativa* L.) varieties in Sri Lanka.

[2] Department of Census and Statistics, Annual Report. 2015. Available from: http://www. statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/Paddy%20Statistics/PaddyStats.htm [Accessed: Feb 15, 2017] [3] Wickramasinghe HAM, Noda T. Physicochemical properties of starches from Sri Lankan

[4] Dharmasena PB. Traditional Rice Farming in Sri Lanka Economic S3 Review April/ May 2010. Available from: http://dl.nsf.ac.lk/bitstream/handle/1/14119/ER-36-(1-2)\_48.

[5] Abeysekera WKSM, Premakumara GAS, Ratnasooriya WD. Antioxidant Properties of Some Sri Lankan Traditional Red Rice (*Oryza sativa L*.). 2011. Available from: http:// www.cmb.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Antioxidant-Properties-Of-Some-Sri-

[6] Morishima H, Oka HI. Genetic erosion in wild and cultivated species. Rice Genetic

[7] Anonymous. SRI Progress in Sri Lanka through Oxfam Australia. 2010. Available from: http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/srilanka/SL\_OxfamAusAACRP\_report\_2010\_11.

[8] Rodrigo C. Use of traditional paddy cultivation as a mean of climate change adaptation

[9] Anonymous. Traditional Rice for a Healthy Life. 2014. Available from: http://laska.asia/

[10] District Statistics Handbook. Anuradhapura District. 2015. Available from: http://www. statistics.gov.lk/DistrictStatHBook.asp?District=Anuradhapura&Year=2015 [Accessed:

buzzzz-247/traditional-rice-for-a-healthy-life/ [Accessed: Jun 20, 2017]

Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

rice varieties. Food Science and Technology Research. 2008;**14**(1):49-54

Lankan-Traditional-Red-Rice.pdf [Accessed: Jun 12, 2017]

in Sri Lanka. The Island Newspaper. Sep 19, 2013

\*Address all correspondence to: sanjeewanieg@gmail.com

Tropical Agricultural Research. 2014;**4**:570-578

pdf?sequence=2 [Accessed: Feb 15, 2017]

Newsletter. 1995;**12**:168-171

pdf [Accessed: Jun 15, 2017]

Sep 6, 2017]

**Author details**

**References**

**Table 5.** Component matrix of factor analysis.

practices which promise more congenial environment for future generation. According to [14], Indian farmers in a district in Uttar Pradesh rediscovered the advantages of traditional rice cultivation which were resistant to drought condition and have not been susceptible to diseases and fetched better market prices. Therefore, traditional rice cultivation does not restrict to a particular region or area. Therefore, findings of this study could be generalized to other areas in Sri Lanka and Asian region as a whole.

### **4. Conclusion**

It seems logical to conclude from this study that awareness of medicinal and nutritional value of traditional rice varieties, land extent, farm gate price, age of the respondent, education level, farming experience and farming system have significant influence on the willingness of farmers to opt traditional rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. The trend in willingness to grow traditional rice in Anuradhapura district showed that 59% of farmers attached to families with non-communicable disease are willing to grow traditional rice compared to farmers from healthier families. The study further revealed that two of the most vital factors responsible for selection of traditional rice variety are personal choices and varietal attributes. Hence, the study brings few recommendations to enhance the structured organization of traditional rice-growing farmers to make crop agronomic and management information and potential marketing information available through government policy interventions in order to empower the traditional rice-cultivating farmers in Anuradhapura district and throughout the country as a whole.

### **Author details**

**Parameter Component**

Presence of non-communicable diseases in the

household

238 Rice Crop - Current Developments

a

**1 2 3 4 5**

−0.330 **0.718** −0.574

Land extent −0.291 −0.260 **0.489** 0.622

Age of the respondent −0.265 **0.710** 0.392

Availability of buyers **0.318** −0.651

practices which promise more congenial environment for future generation. According to [14], Indian farmers in a district in Uttar Pradesh rediscovered the advantages of traditional rice cultivation which were resistant to drought condition and have not been susceptible to diseases and fetched better market prices. Therefore, traditional rice cultivation does not restrict to a particular region or area. Therefore, findings of this study could be generalized to other areas in Sri Lanka

It seems logical to conclude from this study that awareness of medicinal and nutritional value of traditional rice varieties, land extent, farm gate price, age of the respondent, education level, farming experience and farming system have significant influence on the willingness of farmers to opt traditional rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. The trend in willingness to grow traditional rice in Anuradhapura district showed that 59% of farmers attached to families with non-communicable disease are willing to grow traditional rice compared to farmers from healthier families. The study further revealed that two of the most vital factors responsible for selection of traditional rice variety are personal choices and varietal attributes. Hence, the study brings few recommendations to enhance the structured organization of traditional rice-growing

Yield 0.284 **0.586** Farm gate price 0.368 **0.482** −0.360

Family labor availability 0.263 **0.499**

Farming system 0.434 **0.603**

Tolerance to drought **0.576** −0.351 Tolerance to salinity **0.636** −0.300

Gender of the respondent −0.299 **0.433** 0.254

Farming experience −0.329 **0.282** 0.561

Educational level 0.447 **−0.553**

Tolerance to pest and diseases **0.578** 0.302

Extraction method: principal component analysis.

**Table 5.** Component matrix of factor analysis.

and Asian region as a whole.

**4. Conclusion**

Five components extracted.

Ginigaddara Appuhamilage Sanjeewanie Ginigaddara\* and Sampath Priya Disanayake

\*Address all correspondence to: sanjeewanieg@gmail.com

Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

### **References**


[11] Mittal S, Mehar M. Socio-economic factors affecting adoption of modern information and communication technology by farmers in India: Analysis using multivariate probit model. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension. 2015:**22**(2):199-212

**Chapter 14**

Provisional chapter

**Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76112

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy

**Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers**

Market access is a major constraint of smallholder rice producers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. This chapter aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice in innovation platforms in Benin and quantify its impact on household income and food security. Unlike previous studies, we used the local average treatment effect parameter to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Data were collected from a random sample of 257 smallholder rice producers. Results showed that participation in collective marketing increased the income of rice farmers on average by USD 148/ha. Main determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice were membership in a farmer group, training, and agreement on price. This chapter concludes that better training and well-functioning farmer groups sustain the

Keywords: innovation platform, market access, paddy rice, impact assessment, Benin

In perfectly competitive markets, where producers and marketers are assumed to trade goods at publicly known prices, the allocation of goods in the economy is efficient. However, the reality of the sub-Saharan African (SSA) agricultural context is characterized by information asymmetries among various actors [1, 2]. Smallholder farmers, who are mostly in rural areas, often do not have access to information regarding prices in urban areas. They mostly sell at farm-gate prices to local traders who do have access to price and information prevailing in

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers

**in Benin**

in Benin

Aminou Arouna

Abstract

1. Introduction

Aminou Arouna

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

impact of collective marketing of rice on food security.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112


#### **Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers in Benin** Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers in Benin

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76112

#### Aminou Arouna Aminou Arouna

[11] Mittal S, Mehar M. Socio-economic factors affecting adoption of modern information and communication technology by farmers in India: Analysis using multivariate probit

[12] Porceddu E, Ceoloni C, Lafiandra D, Tanzarella O, Scarascia A, Mugnoza GT. Genetic resources and plant breeding: Problems and prospects. In: Miller TE, Koebner RMD, editors. Proceedings of the 7th International Wheat Genetics Symposium. Cambridge

[13] Singh RK. Genetic resource and the role of international collaboration in rice breeding.

[14] Singh V, Prakash S. Indian Farmers Rediscover Advantages of Traditional Rice Varieties. Available from: http://satavic.org/indian-farmers-rediscover-advantages-of-traditional-

model. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension. 2015:**22**(2):199-212

(United Kingdom): Institute of Plant Science Research; 1988. pp. 7-21

Genome. 1999;**42**:635-641

240 Rice Crop - Current Developments

rice-varieties/ [Accessed: Sep 5, 2017]

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112

#### Abstract

Market access is a major constraint of smallholder rice producers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. This chapter aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice in innovation platforms in Benin and quantify its impact on household income and food security. Unlike previous studies, we used the local average treatment effect parameter to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Data were collected from a random sample of 257 smallholder rice producers. Results showed that participation in collective marketing increased the income of rice farmers on average by USD 148/ha. Main determinants of participation in collective marketing of rice were membership in a farmer group, training, and agreement on price. This chapter concludes that better training and well-functioning farmer groups sustain the impact of collective marketing of rice on food security.

Keywords: innovation platform, market access, paddy rice, impact assessment, Benin

### 1. Introduction

In perfectly competitive markets, where producers and marketers are assumed to trade goods at publicly known prices, the allocation of goods in the economy is efficient. However, the reality of the sub-Saharan African (SSA) agricultural context is characterized by information asymmetries among various actors [1, 2]. Smallholder farmers, who are mostly in rural areas, often do not have access to information regarding prices in urban areas. They mostly sell at farm-gate prices to local traders who do have access to price and information prevailing in

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

other markets. Because of market imperfections, smallholder rice farmers in SSA face real difficulties in selling their products in the market. In some cases, it is the markets that do not exist, and in others, there are high transaction costs of participation [3]. In the case of food crops such as rice, the constraint of market access is more pronounced for smallholder producers in SSA than in other parts of the world. Smallholder rice producers receive low prices because they lack information on price and technologies, lack connection to established market actors, engage with distorted input and output markets, and lack access to both consumption and production credits.

The contribution of this chapter to the literature is twofold. First, this study attempts to quantify the impact of the collective marketing on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. It is important to assess whether collective marketing adopted by the members of IPs helped improve their livelihood. Indeed, existing empirical studies have demonstrated the effect of collective marketing only through success stories, without an assessment of the effect of the participation in collective marketing on livelihood [11–13]. Second, this study identified both factors affecting the participation of smallholder rice farmers in collective marketing and the quantity of rice sales through the group. Indeed, factors affecting participation in collective marketing are important for both policymakers and development partners to efficiently increase market access of smallholder farmers. In addition, these factors offer opportunities for effective implementation of collective action to benefit small-

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112

243

The objective of this study was to estimate what would have been the average situation of rice producers who participated in collective marketing if they would have not participated. Unfortunately, we cannot observe these two situations for the same farmer. One cannot observe what would have been the outcome for a participant if he did not participate. This missing value is known as the counterfactual and the impossibility of observing it constitutes the key challenge of impact assessment [14]. To resolve this problem, two approaches are proposed in the impact assessment literature, namely, the "naive" approach and the statistical

The "naive" approach directly compares participants and nonparticipants and is potentially biased [15] because it does not account for self-selection in the participation in collective marketing. Consequently, the statistical and econometric approach based on the counterfactual is used to evaluate the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice on income and household food security of rice farmers. In the counterfactual framework approach, some

• ATE: Average treatment effect measures the average impact of an innovation on the entire population. It also represents the expected impact on a person selected randomly from the

• ATE1: Average treatment effect on the treated determines the average impact of an innovation in the subpopulation of the treated. It also represents the expected impact on

• ATE0: Average treatment effect on nontreated is the average potential impact of an innovation in the subpopulation of the nontreated. It also represents the potential impact

a person selected randomly from the subpopulation of the treated.

on a person selected randomly from the subpopulation of the nontreated.

holder farmers.

2. Methodology

and econometric approach.

population.

parameters of interest are defined as follows:

2.1. Assessing the impact assessment of collective marketing

Transaction cost economics stipulates that information asymmetry is the main reason why markets perform poorly and why transaction costs are high [4]. There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. Collective actions have different forms but mainly involve collective marketing. Collective action refers to action taken by a group either directly or indirectly in pursuit of members' shared interest [5] and occurs when people collaborate in joint action and decisions to accomplish an outcome that involves their common interest. Modern theory of collective action was developed to overcome free-rider problems and to design cooperative solutions for the management of common resources. The notion of collective action has been applied to group activities to enhance production and marketing of agricultural and food products [6, 7]. Thus, collective action is operationalized as an action by members of a group who come together to share market knowledge, sell together, and develop business opportunities [8].

In Benin, collective actions through innovation platforms (IPs) were developed as an organizational arrangement to link producers with traders and the private sector more efficiently by Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and the national agricultural research institute (INRAB). Collective marketing actions in the rice value chain in Benin involve activities such as training of producer groups and other actors in value chain and business development practices, group dynamics, financial management, conflict management, and group marketing. This resulted in the creation and consolidation of group activities, increased negotiation and bargaining skills, and enhanced leadership and entrepreneurial capacity of producer groups. This has led to collective marketing of rice among other activities [9]. Collective marketing is a marketing system that coordinates agricultural production while lowering transaction costs. Collective marketing has the advantages of reducing transaction costs, ensuring a fair income for producers, improving product quality, and improving access to credit [10]. However, collective marketing among farmers is difficult to organize, coordinate, and manage. Organizing farmers face challenges such as establishing rules to guide the operations of groups, securing commitments on the part of the group members to abide by collectively agreed rules, and monitoring as well as enforcing compliance with the rules [10]. The literature has proposed guidelines and conditions to enhance the success of collective marketing. For instance, it is argued that, for it to be effective, voluntary action and cooperation among farmers are important for creating sustainable livelihood options [11]. Whereas much literature and many case studies exist on collective action as a means for increasing smallholder farmers' market access, these studies are most often qualitative and context specific [8, 12]. This study aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective rice marketing in Benin as well as its impact on income and food security.

The contribution of this chapter to the literature is twofold. First, this study attempts to quantify the impact of the collective marketing on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. It is important to assess whether collective marketing adopted by the members of IPs helped improve their livelihood. Indeed, existing empirical studies have demonstrated the effect of collective marketing only through success stories, without an assessment of the effect of the participation in collective marketing on livelihood [11–13]. Second, this study identified both factors affecting the participation of smallholder rice farmers in collective marketing and the quantity of rice sales through the group. Indeed, factors affecting participation in collective marketing are important for both policymakers and development partners to efficiently increase market access of smallholder farmers. In addition, these factors offer opportunities for effective implementation of collective action to benefit smallholder farmers.

## 2. Methodology

other markets. Because of market imperfections, smallholder rice farmers in SSA face real difficulties in selling their products in the market. In some cases, it is the markets that do not exist, and in others, there are high transaction costs of participation [3]. In the case of food crops such as rice, the constraint of market access is more pronounced for smallholder producers in SSA than in other parts of the world. Smallholder rice producers receive low prices because they lack information on price and technologies, lack connection to established market actors, engage with distorted input and output markets, and lack access to both consumption

Transaction cost economics stipulates that information asymmetry is the main reason why markets perform poorly and why transaction costs are high [4]. There is increasing evidence that acting collectively offers one way for smallholders to participate more efficiently in the market. Collective actions have different forms but mainly involve collective marketing. Collective action refers to action taken by a group either directly or indirectly in pursuit of members' shared interest [5] and occurs when people collaborate in joint action and decisions to accomplish an outcome that involves their common interest. Modern theory of collective action was developed to overcome free-rider problems and to design cooperative solutions for the management of common resources. The notion of collective action has been applied to group activities to enhance production and marketing of agricultural and food products [6, 7]. Thus, collective action is operationalized as an action by members of a group who come together to share market knowledge, sell together, and develop business opportunities [8].

In Benin, collective actions through innovation platforms (IPs) were developed as an organizational arrangement to link producers with traders and the private sector more efficiently by Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) and the national agricultural research institute (INRAB). Collective marketing actions in the rice value chain in Benin involve activities such as training of producer groups and other actors in value chain and business development practices, group dynamics, financial management, conflict management, and group marketing. This resulted in the creation and consolidation of group activities, increased negotiation and bargaining skills, and enhanced leadership and entrepreneurial capacity of producer groups. This has led to collective marketing of rice among other activities [9]. Collective marketing is a marketing system that coordinates agricultural production while lowering transaction costs. Collective marketing has the advantages of reducing transaction costs, ensuring a fair income for producers, improving product quality, and improving access to credit [10]. However, collective marketing among farmers is difficult to organize, coordinate, and manage. Organizing farmers face challenges such as establishing rules to guide the operations of groups, securing commitments on the part of the group members to abide by collectively agreed rules, and monitoring as well as enforcing compliance with the rules [10]. The literature has proposed guidelines and conditions to enhance the success of collective marketing. For instance, it is argued that, for it to be effective, voluntary action and cooperation among farmers are important for creating sustainable livelihood options [11]. Whereas much literature and many case studies exist on collective action as a means for increasing smallholder farmers' market access, these studies are most often qualitative and context specific [8, 12]. This study aimed to identify the determinants of participation in collective rice marketing in Benin as well as its impact on income

and production credits.

242 Rice Crop - Current Developments

and food security.

### 2.1. Assessing the impact assessment of collective marketing

The objective of this study was to estimate what would have been the average situation of rice producers who participated in collective marketing if they would have not participated. Unfortunately, we cannot observe these two situations for the same farmer. One cannot observe what would have been the outcome for a participant if he did not participate. This missing value is known as the counterfactual and the impossibility of observing it constitutes the key challenge of impact assessment [14]. To resolve this problem, two approaches are proposed in the impact assessment literature, namely, the "naive" approach and the statistical and econometric approach.

The "naive" approach directly compares participants and nonparticipants and is potentially biased [15] because it does not account for self-selection in the participation in collective marketing. Consequently, the statistical and econometric approach based on the counterfactual is used to evaluate the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice on income and household food security of rice farmers. In the counterfactual framework approach, some parameters of interest are defined as follows:


• LATE: Local average treatment effect is defined as the average impact of the treatment on persons who participate only after one or more of the participation determinants have been changed [16]. This subpopulation is named "compliers."

marketing. In this study, "knowledge of the existence of collective marketing" is used as an instrumental variable. Indeed, knowledge of the existence of collective marketing affects the participation in collective marketing, but it is directly related neither to income nor to food security of the household. Therefore, it can be used as an instrument to estimate the LATE.

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers…

Cov Að Þ ; <sup>Z</sup> <sup>¼</sup> E Yð Þ� <sup>j</sup><sup>Z</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup> E Yð Þ <sup>j</sup><sup>Z</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>0</sup>

Two forms of estimates are used in calculating LATE. They differ in whether or not the instrumental variable Z (knowledge of collective marketing) is completely random. Wald estimator is used if Z is completely random and localized average response function (LARF) is used if the instrumental variable is not random. In this study, "knowledge of the existence of collective marketing" (instrumental variable) depends on membership of an IP and it is not

There are two forms of LARF, namely ordinary least squares (OLS) LARF and exponential LARF. In this study, the OLS LARF fitted the data better. The OLS LARF may be estimated with or without interaction between participation variable and socioeconomic variables. A model with interaction of variables allows accounting for the heterogeneity in impact. OLS LARF both with and without interaction are tested. LATE estimation is based on the following regression:

Y ¼ α<sup>0</sup> þ α1A þ βAX þ μ

where A is participation in the collective marketing of rice; X is the vector of other independent variables; α0, α1, and β are vectors of parameters to be estimated; and μ is the error term.

To analyze the food and nutrition situation of rice farmers, the food consumption score (FCS) was used as a proxy. The FCS, developed by the World Food Programme (WFP) [20], is a composite score used as a proxy of food security. It is a weighted score based on dietary diversity, food frequency, and the nutritional importance of the food groups consumed. It is an indicator that reflects availability of, access to, and consumption of food at the household level. The FCS is a score calculated using the weighted frequency of intake of eight food groups (cereals and tubers, pulses, vegetables, fruit, meat and fish, milk, sugar, and oil) during 7 days before the survey. The weighted FCS has a range of 0–112. WFP advises a recall of 7 days to ensure both good time coverage and reliability of respondents' memory [20]. Based on these

> FCS <sup>¼</sup> <sup>X</sup> 8

> > i¼1

where i is the food group, x is the frequency of consumption of different food groups consumed by a household during 7 days before the survey, and a is the weight. Based on the

ð Þ aixi

E Að Þ� j Z ¼ 1 E Að Þ jZ ¼ 0

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112

245

LATE through the instrumental variable method is estimated by [18]:

LATE <sup>¼</sup> Cov Yð Þ ;<sup>Z</sup>

random. Therefore, LATE in this study is estimated using LARF.

2.2. Calculation of food consumption score

groups of foods, the FCS is estimated as follows:

To overcome the fundamental problem of the impact assessment (i.e., the inability to observe the counterfactual) and to have reliable results, two classes of methods are proposed in the literature: experimental methods and nonexperimental methods.

Experimental methods entail gathering a group of persons who have agreed to participate in the treatment (collective marketing) and assigning them randomly to two groups: treatment group and non-beneficiaries group (control group). Participants in the experiment are therefore selected randomly and all differences with nonparticipants are only due to treatment. For this reason, experimental approaches are generally considered as being more reliable (unbiased estimates) and as giving the easiest-to-interpret results. However, in the case of social phenomena, the use of this method poses ethical challenges.

Therefore, economists use the nonexperimental approach, relying on economic and econometric theories to guide the analysis and minimize potential bias in impact assessment. Parameters can be estimated by either parametric or semi-parametric methods.

Suppose a binary variable is Ai that indicates participation of a farmer i in collective marketing of rice with Ai ¼ 1 for participants and Ai ¼ 0 for nonparticipants. And y1<sup>i</sup> and y0<sup>i</sup> are two variables representing the level of outcome indicators (income and food security) for individual i if they participated or not in collective marketing, respectively.

The semi-parametric method is based on the conditional independence assumption [17]. According to this assumption, the adoption variable Ai and the couple yi1; yi<sup>0</sup> � � are independent to each other, given observable characteristics Xi. This approach is used to reduce counterfactualrelated bias. Under the semi-parametric method, ATE and ATE1 are given by [16]:

$$\text{ATE} = \text{E}\left(\frac{\mathbf{y}\left(\mathbf{A}\_{\text{i}} - \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\mathbf{p}(\mathbf{x})\left(1 - \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{x})\right)}\right)$$

$$\text{ATE1} = \frac{1}{\mathbf{p}(\mathbf{A}\_{\text{i}} = 1)}\text{E}\left(\frac{\mathbf{y}\left(\mathbf{A}\_{\text{i}} - \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{1 - \mathbf{p}(\mathbf{x})}\right)$$

where p xð Þ is the conditional probability of participation in the collective marketing (i.e., the propensity score); Ai indicates participation in collective marketing of rice with Ai ¼ 1 for participants and Ai ¼ 0 for nonparticipants; y is the outcome (income and food security); and E is the mathematical expectation.

The parametric method comprises simple regression, propensity score regression, and the use of instrumental variables. The instrumental variable is used in this study because it helps avoid bias due to both observable and non-observable characteristics [18, 19]. This method supposes the existence of at least one instrument (Z) which influences the participation in collective marketing but not the outcome variables (income and food security). In other words, the instrument influences income and food security only through participation to collective marketing. In this study, "knowledge of the existence of collective marketing" is used as an instrumental variable. Indeed, knowledge of the existence of collective marketing affects the participation in collective marketing, but it is directly related neither to income nor to food security of the household. Therefore, it can be used as an instrument to estimate the LATE.

LATE through the instrumental variable method is estimated by [18]:

• LATE: Local average treatment effect is defined as the average impact of the treatment on persons who participate only after one or more of the participation determinants have

To overcome the fundamental problem of the impact assessment (i.e., the inability to observe the counterfactual) and to have reliable results, two classes of methods are proposed in the

Experimental methods entail gathering a group of persons who have agreed to participate in the treatment (collective marketing) and assigning them randomly to two groups: treatment group and non-beneficiaries group (control group). Participants in the experiment are therefore selected randomly and all differences with nonparticipants are only due to treatment. For this reason, experimental approaches are generally considered as being more reliable (unbiased estimates) and as giving the easiest-to-interpret results. However, in the case of social

Therefore, economists use the nonexperimental approach, relying on economic and econometric theories to guide the analysis and minimize potential bias in impact assessment. Parameters

Suppose a binary variable is Ai that indicates participation of a farmer i in collective marketing of rice with Ai ¼ 1 for participants and Ai ¼ 0 for nonparticipants. And y1<sup>i</sup> and y0<sup>i</sup> are two variables representing the level of outcome indicators (income and food security) for individ-

The semi-parametric method is based on the conditional independence assumption [17].

to each other, given observable characteristics Xi. This approach is used to reduce counterfactual-

ATE <sup>¼</sup> <sup>E</sup> y Ai � p xð Þ � �

where p xð Þ is the conditional probability of participation in the collective marketing (i.e., the propensity score); Ai indicates participation in collective marketing of rice with Ai ¼ 1 for participants and Ai ¼ 0 for nonparticipants; y is the outcome (income and food security); and

The parametric method comprises simple regression, propensity score regression, and the use of instrumental variables. The instrumental variable is used in this study because it helps avoid bias due to both observable and non-observable characteristics [18, 19]. This method supposes the existence of at least one instrument (Z) which influences the participation in collective marketing but not the outcome variables (income and food security). In other words, the instrument influences income and food security only through participation to collective

p xð Þ <sup>1</sup> � p xð Þ � � !

p Að Þ <sup>i</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>E</sup> y Ai � p xð Þ � �

1 � p xð Þ � � � � are independent

been changed [16]. This subpopulation is named "compliers."

literature: experimental methods and nonexperimental methods.

244 Rice Crop - Current Developments

phenomena, the use of this method poses ethical challenges.

can be estimated by either parametric or semi-parametric methods.

ual i if they participated or not in collective marketing, respectively.

According to this assumption, the adoption variable Ai and the couple yi1; yi<sup>0</sup>

ATE1 <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup>

E is the mathematical expectation.

related bias. Under the semi-parametric method, ATE and ATE1 are given by [16]:

$$\text{LATE} = \frac{\text{Cov}(\mathbf{Y}, \mathbf{Z})}{\text{Cov}(\mathbf{A}, \mathbf{Z})} = \frac{\text{E}(\mathbf{Y} \mid \mathbf{Z} = 1) - \text{E}(\mathbf{Y} \mid \mathbf{Z} = 0)}{\text{E}(\mathbf{A} \mid \mathbf{Z} = 1) - \text{E}(\mathbf{A} \mid \mathbf{Z} = 0)}$$

Two forms of estimates are used in calculating LATE. They differ in whether or not the instrumental variable Z (knowledge of collective marketing) is completely random. Wald estimator is used if Z is completely random and localized average response function (LARF) is used if the instrumental variable is not random. In this study, "knowledge of the existence of collective marketing" (instrumental variable) depends on membership of an IP and it is not random. Therefore, LATE in this study is estimated using LARF.

There are two forms of LARF, namely ordinary least squares (OLS) LARF and exponential LARF. In this study, the OLS LARF fitted the data better. The OLS LARF may be estimated with or without interaction between participation variable and socioeconomic variables. A model with interaction of variables allows accounting for the heterogeneity in impact. OLS LARF both with and without interaction are tested. LATE estimation is based on the following regression:

$$\mathbf{Y} = \alpha\_0 + \alpha\_1 \mathbf{A} + \beta A X + \mu$$

where A is participation in the collective marketing of rice; X is the vector of other independent variables; α0, α1, and β are vectors of parameters to be estimated; and μ is the error term.

#### 2.2. Calculation of food consumption score

To analyze the food and nutrition situation of rice farmers, the food consumption score (FCS) was used as a proxy. The FCS, developed by the World Food Programme (WFP) [20], is a composite score used as a proxy of food security. It is a weighted score based on dietary diversity, food frequency, and the nutritional importance of the food groups consumed. It is an indicator that reflects availability of, access to, and consumption of food at the household level. The FCS is a score calculated using the weighted frequency of intake of eight food groups (cereals and tubers, pulses, vegetables, fruit, meat and fish, milk, sugar, and oil) during 7 days before the survey. The weighted FCS has a range of 0–112. WFP advises a recall of 7 days to ensure both good time coverage and reliability of respondents' memory [20]. Based on these groups of foods, the FCS is estimated as follows:

$$\text{FCS} = \sum\_{i=1}^{8} \left( \mathbf{a}\_{i} \mathbf{x}\_{i} \right)^{2}$$

where i is the food group, x is the frequency of consumption of different food groups consumed by a household during 7 days before the survey, and a is the weight. Based on the


Table 1. Food groups and weights for estimation of FCS.

nutritional importance of each food group, the weight assigned to each food group is presented in Table 1 [20].

#### 2.3. Data collection

The study was conducted in the southwest of Benin where two IPs were installed by AfricaRice and INRAB in 2009. In total, five villages were selected for this study comprising three treatment villages and two control villages. The latter two villages were selected to be as similar as possible to the treated villages based on characteristics such as infrastructure, production systems, and population. Indeed, the control villages were also eligible for the IP, but they were not included because of funding restrictions. From the list of rice producers in each village, 300 rice farmers were randomly selected from the scope of this study with an average of 60 farmers per village. Finally, 257 rice farmers were surveyed in 2015 and used for analysis because some farmers had left the villages or were not available for interview.

Two structured questionnaires were used for data collection. A village-level questionnaire was used in the focus-group discussion to collect information on the general characteristics of the village, agricultural production, access to services, and infrastructure. A household questionnaire was used to interview households on participation in collective marketing of rice, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, and inputs used in and outputs of rice production.

low (0.33 ha) for both participants and nonparticipants. The rice yield of participants was 3.5 t/ha, while that of nonparticipants was only 2.71 t/ha. Net annual income per hectare of participants in collective marketing of rice (USD 614 per ha) was higher than that of nonparticipants. The difference can be explained by both the yield and the price. Indeed, one of the advantages of collective marketing is the possibility of selling rice at a higher price compared to individual selling. However, this difference should not be interpreted as an impact of collective marketing.

Participants (n = 102)

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers…

Age of the household head (years) 45.33 (14.92) 42.85 (11.82) 43.84 (13.17) 2.48\* Household size 4.75 (2.37) 4.47 (1.67) 4.58 (1.98) 0.27 Formal education (%) 37.25 (48.59) 46.45 (50.03) 42.80 (49.58) 9.20\* Years of experience in rice production (years) 7.69 (5.99) 6.50 (5.76) 6.97 (5.86) 1.19\* Distance to the nearest market (km) 9.31 (4.41) 10.45 (3.26) 9.99 (3.79) 1.13\*\* Access to credit (%) 16.67 (37.45) 9.68 (29.66) 12.45 (33.08) 6.98\*\* Market access via an asphalt road (%) 45.10 (50) 21.29 (41.07) 30.74 (46.23) 0.24\*\*\* Having received training in rice production (%) 83.33 (37.45) 36.77 (48.38) 55.25 (49.82) 0.47\*\*\* Use of irrigated lowland (%) 93.13 (25.41) 54.19 (49.99) 69.65 (49.82) 0.39\*\*\* Experience in use of contract (%) 50 (50.26) 5.81 (23.46) 23.35 (42.38) 0.44\*\*\* Membership of group or association (%) 91.18 (28.50) 67.10 (47.14) 76.66 (42.39) 0.24\*\*\* Total available area for rice (ha) 2.70 (6.31) 0.74 (1.91) 1.50 (4.34) 1.99\*\*\* Rice cultivated area (ha) 0.33 (0.41) 0.33 (60.66) 0.33 (0.54) 0.002 Yield (t/ha) 3.50 (1.67) 2.71 (1.53) 3.03 (1.63) 0.79\*\*\* Food consumption score (FCS) 74.55 (28.77) 74.01 (26.08) 74.22 (27.13) 0.54

Net agricultural income (USD/ha) 614.08 (580.09) 367.80 (415.41) 463.02

Non-participants (n = 155)

All rice farmers

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(527.46)

246.28\*\*\*

Difference between participants and nonparticipants

247

Probit model was used to identify the determinants of farmers' participation in collective marketing of rice. Results showed that the model was significant at 1% (Table 3). In addition, the value of McFadden's Pseudo R<sup>2</sup> was high (0.75) showing a good fit of the model. In

3. Results and discussion

Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics of rice producers.

\*Significant at 10%. \*\*Significant at 5%. \*\*\*Significant at 1%. ( ) = Standard deviation.

3.1. Determinants of participation in collective marketing

Socioeconomic characteristics of sampled households are presented in Table 2. Differences between participants in collective marketing and nonparticipants were tested using student's ttest. This test showed that there were significant differences between participants and nonparticipants for many variables. This shows that there is a self-selection in participation in collective marketing of rice. Therefore, a simple mean difference of the outcomes (naïve method) would yield biased estimation of the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice.

The experience in rice farming was 7 years; participants had slightly more experience in rice production (8 years cf. nonparticipants' 6 years). However, the average rice cultivated area was

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112 247


\*\*Significant at 5%.

nutritional importance of each food group, the weight assigned to each food group is

Food items Food group Weight

Beans, peas, groundnuts and cashew nuts Pulses 3 Vegetables and leaves Vegetables 1 Fruits Fruit 1 Beef, goat, poultry, pork, eggs and fish Meat and fish 4 Milk, yogurt and other diaries Milk 4 Sugar and sugar products Sugar 0.5 Oils, fats and butter Oil 0.5

Main staples 2

The study was conducted in the southwest of Benin where two IPs were installed by AfricaRice and INRAB in 2009. In total, five villages were selected for this study comprising three treatment villages and two control villages. The latter two villages were selected to be as similar as possible to the treated villages based on characteristics such as infrastructure, production systems, and population. Indeed, the control villages were also eligible for the IP, but they were not included because of funding restrictions. From the list of rice producers in each village, 300 rice farmers were randomly selected from the scope of this study with an average of 60 farmers per village. Finally, 257 rice farmers were surveyed in 2015 and used for

analysis because some farmers had left the villages or were not available for interview.

yield biased estimation of the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice.

The experience in rice farming was 7 years; participants had slightly more experience in rice production (8 years cf. nonparticipants' 6 years). However, the average rice cultivated area was

Two structured questionnaires were used for data collection. A village-level questionnaire was used in the focus-group discussion to collect information on the general characteristics of the village, agricultural production, access to services, and infrastructure. A household questionnaire was used to interview households on participation in collective marketing of rice, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, and inputs used in and outputs of rice production. Socioeconomic characteristics of sampled households are presented in Table 2. Differences between participants in collective marketing and nonparticipants were tested using student's ttest. This test showed that there were significant differences between participants and nonparticipants for many variables. This shows that there is a self-selection in participation in collective marketing of rice. Therefore, a simple mean difference of the outcomes (naïve method) would

presented in Table 1 [20].

Source: Word Food Programme [20].

Table 1. Food groups and weights for estimation of FCS.

Maize, rice, sorghum, millet, pasta, bread cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes and other cereals and tubers

246 Rice Crop - Current Developments

2.3. Data collection

\*\*\*Significant at 1%.

( ) = Standard deviation.

Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics of rice producers.

low (0.33 ha) for both participants and nonparticipants. The rice yield of participants was 3.5 t/ha, while that of nonparticipants was only 2.71 t/ha. Net annual income per hectare of participants in collective marketing of rice (USD 614 per ha) was higher than that of nonparticipants. The difference can be explained by both the yield and the price. Indeed, one of the advantages of collective marketing is the possibility of selling rice at a higher price compared to individual selling. However, this difference should not be interpreted as an impact of collective marketing.

### 3. Results and discussion

#### 3.1. Determinants of participation in collective marketing

Probit model was used to identify the determinants of farmers' participation in collective marketing of rice. Results showed that the model was significant at 1% (Table 3). In addition, the value of McFadden's Pseudo R<sup>2</sup> was high (0.75) showing a good fit of the model. In


agreement on the price for collective marketing is an important criterion for producers. This can be explained by the fact that poor market access and low prices are the main reasons behind the collective marketing initiative. Therefore, collective marketing will only be interesting for rice farmers if higher price can be obtained. Therefore, farmers want to be confident of

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers…

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249

The type and condition of roads to the nearest market also had positive effects on the participation in collective marketing. Results showed that farmers living in villages with bad roads to markets are willing to participate in collective marketing. Bad road condition increases both travel time and transportation cost. To reduce these transaction costs, farmers preferred collective marketing.

The rice yield had a significant effect on the participation of producers in collective marketing. This result is explained by the fact that high yield increases the market orientation of the farmers as they need to sell the surplus of their production. Farmers perceived collective marketing as an opportunity for them to increase their production to take part in this new marketing channel. This result confirmed the findings of many other empirical studies [23–25].

When rice farmers decide to market rice through collective marketing, they have also to decide on the quantity they will supply. The quantity is an important determinant of the success of collective marketing: the greater the quantity of rice, the greater the bargaining power of the farmer group to get a high price. Therefore, it is important to analyze factors that affect the quantity of rice sold through the collective marketing by a given farmer. Tobit model was used to identify the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing. Results showed that important determinants of quantity of rice supply were quantity of paddy produced, existence of market, price of paddy, and experience in rice production (Table 4).

The quantity of rice produced had a positive and significant effect on the quantity supplied through collective marketing. This shows that the more farmers produced, the more they sold through collective marketing. Indeed, with the increase in quantity produced, farmers have a large surplus, and collective marketing is a good opportunity for them. This result confirms

The price of paddy in collective marketing had a significant effect on the quantity supplied. This means that when the agreed price via collective marketing is high, farmers will sell more rice through this channel. This shows that the price was not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be sold through the channel. Thus, the price agreed through collective marketing will determine the sustainability of this channel. This result confirms the findings by Omiti et al. [25] who found

Net rice income was used as a proxy for income to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Wald test for heterogeneity was significant showing that the impact of collective marketing

that output price is an incentive for sellers to supply more products to the market.

3.3. Impact of participation in collective marketing on income

achieving a higher price before engaging in any collective marketing of paddy rice.

3.2. Determinants of the quantity of rice supply through collective marketing

findings by others [23, 24].

Table 3. Determinants of participation in collective marketing.

general, six variables affected farmers' participation in collective marketing: membership in a farmer group, training, agreement on the rice price, condition of roads to the nearest market, availability of suitable land for rice and yield.

Effect of membership of farmer group on participation in collective marketing was positive and significant at the 10% level. In addition, the marginal effect of membership in a farmer group was 0.24 meaning that membership in a farmer group increased the probability of participation in collective marketing by 24%. These results can be explained by the fact that groups are social networks where producers have access to information and can easily be informed about the existence and advantage of collective marketing opportunities. These results are similar to those obtained by other studies [21, 22] who found that farmer groups are good platforms for social capital strengthening and by which smallholders can obtain information on the market. This information can help farmers reduce transaction costs and sell their products at a high price. Indeed, higher price is an important factor for farmers' decision to participate in collective marketing. The agreement on the price of paddy rice had a positive and significant influence on participation in collective marketing. This result showed that agreement on the price for collective marketing is an important criterion for producers. This can be explained by the fact that poor market access and low prices are the main reasons behind the collective marketing initiative. Therefore, collective marketing will only be interesting for rice farmers if higher price can be obtained. Therefore, farmers want to be confident of achieving a higher price before engaging in any collective marketing of paddy rice.

The type and condition of roads to the nearest market also had positive effects on the participation in collective marketing. Results showed that farmers living in villages with bad roads to markets are willing to participate in collective marketing. Bad road condition increases both travel time and transportation cost. To reduce these transaction costs, farmers preferred collective marketing.

The rice yield had a significant effect on the participation of producers in collective marketing. This result is explained by the fact that high yield increases the market orientation of the farmers as they need to sell the surplus of their production. Farmers perceived collective marketing as an opportunity for them to increase their production to take part in this new marketing channel. This result confirmed the findings of many other empirical studies [23–25].

### 3.2. Determinants of the quantity of rice supply through collective marketing

When rice farmers decide to market rice through collective marketing, they have also to decide on the quantity they will supply. The quantity is an important determinant of the success of collective marketing: the greater the quantity of rice, the greater the bargaining power of the farmer group to get a high price. Therefore, it is important to analyze factors that affect the quantity of rice sold through the collective marketing by a given farmer. Tobit model was used to identify the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing. Results showed that important determinants of quantity of rice supply were quantity of paddy produced, existence of market, price of paddy, and experience in rice production (Table 4).

The quantity of rice produced had a positive and significant effect on the quantity supplied through collective marketing. This shows that the more farmers produced, the more they sold through collective marketing. Indeed, with the increase in quantity produced, farmers have a large surplus, and collective marketing is a good opportunity for them. This result confirms findings by others [23, 24].

The price of paddy in collective marketing had a significant effect on the quantity supplied. This means that when the agreed price via collective marketing is high, farmers will sell more rice through this channel. This shows that the price was not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be sold through the channel. Thus, the price agreed through collective marketing will determine the sustainability of this channel. This result confirms the findings by Omiti et al. [25] who found that output price is an incentive for sellers to supply more products to the market.

#### 3.3. Impact of participation in collective marketing on income

general, six variables affected farmers' participation in collective marketing: membership in a farmer group, training, agreement on the rice price, condition of roads to the nearest market,

Variables Coefficients Standard error Marginal effect

Age of household head (years) 0.02 0.02 0.01 Membership in farmer group (0 = no, 1 = yes) 0.86\* 0.45 0.24\*\* Number of years of residence in the village 0.01 0.02 0.01 Training on rice farming (0 = no, 1 = yes) 0.76\*\* 0.38 0.24\*\* Agreement made on the price (0 = no, 1 = yes) 3.60\*\*\* 0.46 0.93\*\*\* Poor condition of roads to the nearest market (0 = no, 1 = yes) 2.35\*\*\* 0.45 0.76\*\*\* Household size 0.05 0.09 0.02 Available area for rice production (ha) 0.15\*\*\* 0.06 0.05\*\* Yield (t/ha) 0.28\*\* 0.11 0.09\*\* Formal education (0 = no, 1 = yes) 0.22 0.36 0.07 Number of years of experience in rice production 0.06 0.06 0.02 Access to credit (0 = no, 1 = yes) 0.18 0.49 0.06 Gender (0 = female, 1 = male) 0.13 0.37 0.04

Constant 4.57\*\*\* 0.98

Number of observations 257 Log likelihood 43.77 Wald Chi<sup>2</sup> (DF = 9) 257.73\*\*\* McFadden Pseudo-R<sup>2</sup> 0.75

Effect of membership of farmer group on participation in collective marketing was positive and significant at the 10% level. In addition, the marginal effect of membership in a farmer group was 0.24 meaning that membership in a farmer group increased the probability of participation in collective marketing by 24%. These results can be explained by the fact that groups are social networks where producers have access to information and can easily be informed about the existence and advantage of collective marketing opportunities. These results are similar to those obtained by other studies [21, 22] who found that farmer groups are good platforms for social capital strengthening and by which smallholders can obtain information on the market. This information can help farmers reduce transaction costs and sell their products at a high price. Indeed, higher price is an important factor for farmers' decision to participate in collective marketing. The agreement on the price of paddy rice had a positive and significant influence on participation in collective marketing. This result showed that

availability of suitable land for rice and yield.

Table 3. Determinants of participation in collective marketing.

\*Significant at 10%. \*\*Significant at 5%. \*\*\*Significant at 1%.

248 Rice Crop - Current Developments

Net rice income was used as a proxy for income to assess the impact of collective marketing of rice. Wald test for heterogeneity was significant showing that the impact of collective marketing


be organized to increase the impact of collective marketing on the livelihood of smallholder

Parameter Estimation Z test

Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers…

ATE 147.951\*\*\* 5.19 ATE1 248.6242\*\*\* 7.92 ATE0 81.701\*\* 2.56 Selection bias 100.673\*\*\* 5.87

LATE 179.391\*\*\* 9.03

Wald test (heterogeneous impact) F (4, 461) = 15.45\*\*\*

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251

Wald test (heterogeneous impact) F (1, 120) = 6.9e + 09\*\*\*

The impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS) was estimated using the OLS-LARF function with interaction. The Wald test showed that the impact of collective marketing was heterogeneous (Table 6). This means that the impact of collective marketing

The average treatment effect (ATE) was significant at 1% and estimated at 7.32. This shows that participation in collective marketing allowed farmers to increase their FCS by 7.32 points.

Parameter Estimation Z test

ATE 7.32\*\*\* 1.73 ATE1 11.41\*\*\* 3.21 ATE0 4.66 0.55 Selection bias 4.08\*\*\* 2.96

LATE 12.33\*\*\* 3.34

Wald test (heterogeneous impact) F (5, 442) = 3.10\*\*\*

Wald test (heterogeneous impact) F (2, 115) = 6.4e + 07\*\*\*

on food consumption score varied from one rice farmer to another.

Table 5. Impact of participation in collective marketing on income.

Table 6. Impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS).

rice producers.

\*\*\*Significant at 1%. \*\*Significant at 5%.

ATE (OLS) Double robust

LARF (OLS) parametric

ATE (OLS) Double robust

LARF (OLS) parametric

\*\*\*Significant at 1%.

3.4. Impact on food security

Table 4. Determinants of the quantity of paddy sold through collective marketing.

was heterogeneous (Table 5). Consequently, the OLS-LARF function with interaction was used to estimate the impact of collective marketing. Four parameters were calculated: ATE, ATE1, ATE0, and LATE.

Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice is estimated at USD 148/ha for a farmer randomly selected in the population. Considering only the population of actual participants, the collective marketing had bigger impact—estimated at USD 249/ha. The potential impact in the population of nonparticipants was USD 81/ha; thus, nonparticipants would benefit if they decided to participate in collective marketing of rice. This shows that both actual participants and nonparticipants had an advantage to engage in collective marketing. This result confirms findings by other studies [23, 24]. However, the impact on actual participants in this study is bigger, showing that there is a good target of the collective marketing of rice in the study area.

The LATE with interaction was significant at 1% (Table 5). This means that collective marketing had a positive impact on the income of compliers. Indeed, the potential impact of collective marketing was USD 179/ha for the population of those who would participate if they were aware. The high value of this impact showed that widespread awareness of collective marketing is likely to have most impact. This indicates that a widespread awareness campaign should Assessing the Impact of Collective Marketing of Paddy Rice in Innovation Platforms by Smallholder Producers… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76112 251


Table 5. Impact of participation in collective marketing on income.

be organized to increase the impact of collective marketing on the livelihood of smallholder rice producers.

#### 3.4. Impact on food security

was heterogeneous (Table 5). Consequently, the OLS-LARF function with interaction was used to estimate the impact of collective marketing. Four parameters were calculated: ATE, ATE1,

Variable Coefficient Standard error

Age of household head (years) 9.30 6.21 Formal education (0 = no, 1 = yes) 82.28 192.44 Agriculture as main activity (0 = no, 1 = yes) 129.02 277.56 Experience in rice production (years) 64.96\*\* 31.92 Existence of market (0 = no, 1 = yes) 2026.93\*\*\* 285.58 Price of paddy (USD/kg) 14.46\*\* 6.56 Quantity of paddy produced (kg) 0.13\* 0.07 Gender (0 = female, 1 = male) 99.94 191.30 Commercial production (0 = no, 1 = yes) 1095.07\*\*\* 319.63 Produce for consumption (0 = no, 1 = yes) 400.52 432.29 Constant 3843.18\*\*\* 1055.46 Sigma 902.38\*\* 65.07

Number of observations 257 Log likelihood 856.70 Wald Chi<sup>2</sup> (df = 8) 239.24\*\*\* McFadden Pseudo-R<sup>2</sup> 0.13

Table 4. Determinants of the quantity of paddy sold through collective marketing.

Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice is estimated at USD 148/ha for a farmer randomly selected in the population. Considering only the population of actual participants, the collective marketing had bigger impact—estimated at USD 249/ha. The potential impact in the population of nonparticipants was USD 81/ha; thus, nonparticipants would benefit if they decided to participate in collective marketing of rice. This shows that both actual participants and nonparticipants had an advantage to engage in collective marketing. This result confirms findings by other studies [23, 24]. However, the impact on actual participants in this study is bigger, showing that there is a good target of the collective

The LATE with interaction was significant at 1% (Table 5). This means that collective marketing had a positive impact on the income of compliers. Indeed, the potential impact of collective marketing was USD 179/ha for the population of those who would participate if they were aware. The high value of this impact showed that widespread awareness of collective marketing is likely to have most impact. This indicates that a widespread awareness campaign should

ATE0, and LATE.

\*Significant at 10%. \*\*Significant at 5%. \*\*\*Significant at 1%.

250 Rice Crop - Current Developments

marketing of rice in the study area.

The impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS) was estimated using the OLS-LARF function with interaction. The Wald test showed that the impact of collective marketing was heterogeneous (Table 6). This means that the impact of collective marketing on food consumption score varied from one rice farmer to another.

The average treatment effect (ATE) was significant at 1% and estimated at 7.32. This shows that participation in collective marketing allowed farmers to increase their FCS by 7.32 points.


Table 6. Impact of collective marketing on food consumption score (FCS).

Considering only the population of participants in the collective marketing, the impact on the FCS was 11.41. However, the potential impact on the subpopulation of nonparticipants (ATE0) was not significant.

Union, and the Rice Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Research Program (RICE CRP) for providing financial support for collecting the data used in

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[3] Sadoulet E. Marchés imparfaits et modélisation des comportements des ménages paysans: où en sommes-nous? L'Actualité Economique, Revue d'Analyse Economique. 2000;76(4):

[4] Kherallah M, Kirsten JF. The new institutional economics: Applications for agricultural

[5] Gyau A, Takoutsing B, Franzel S. Farmers' perception of collective action in kola supply chain: Cluster analysis results. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 2012;4(4):117-128 [6] Mathenge M, Place F, Olwande J, Mithöfer D. Participation in Agricultural Markets among the Poor and Marginalized: Analysis of Factors Influencing Participation and Impacts on Income and Poverty in Kenya. 2010. Available from: http://www.tegemeo. org/images/ downloads/publications/technical\_reports/TR6.pdf. (Accessed March 15,

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[8] Devaux A, Horton D, Velasco C, Thiele G, Lopez G, Bernet T, Reinoso I, Ordinola M. Collective action for market chain innovation in the Andes. Food Policy. 2008;34:31-38 [9] Africa Rice Centre (AfricaRice). Realizing the agricultural potential of inland valley lowlands in sub-Saharan Africa while maintaining their environmental services (RAP). Final

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this chapter.

Author details

Aminou Arouna

References

459-489

2017)

Address all correspondence to: a.arouna@cgiar.org

Tropicultura. 2017;35(3):180-191

Report. Cotonou, Benin. 2015. 130p

Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Bouake, Cote d'Ivoire

Similar to ATE and ATE1, the LATE was significant at 1%. This means that participation in collective marketing had a positive impact on the FCS of compliers. Indeed, the impact of collective marketing was high in the subpopulation of those who would participate if they were aware. This confirms that large diffusion of collective marketing initiative will have a positive effect on food security. This result confirms the findings of other studies [26].

### 4. Conclusions

This study analyzed the determinants of participation of rice farmers in collective marketing and determined the impact of this new marketing channel on their livelihoods. Food security and income were used as proxies for livelihood. Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice was positive and significant on both income and food security. Participation in collective marketing of rice allowed farmers to increase their income by USD 148/ha on average. In addition, using collective marketing helps farmers to increase their food consumption score. However, to take more advantage of these benefits, farmers need to participate in and supply large quantities of rice through collective marketing. Results showed that the main determinants of participation in collective marketing of paddy rice were membership in a farmer group, training, agreement on rice price, condition of roads to the nearest market, availability of suitable land for rice, and yield. In addition, the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing were rice production, price of paddy, and experience in rice production. These results showed that price is not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be supplied through collective marketing. Market access also influences both participation and quantity of paddy rice sold through collective marketing. Therefore, collective marketing will be sustainable if it allows farmers better access to markets and high prices. Better market access can be achieved through better training and well-functioning farmer groups. The training must include, in addition to rice production management, technical skills on value chain and business development practices, partnership, group dynamics, financial management, marketing and conflict management. Wide-scale awareness campaigns should be organized to increase the impact of collective marketing.

### Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the project realizing the agricultural potential of inland valley lowlands in sub-Saharan Africa while maintaining their environmental services regional agricultural policies (RAP) funded by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the UEMOA-PAU project funded by West African Economic and Monetary Union, and the Rice Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Research Program (RICE CRP) for providing financial support for collecting the data used in this chapter.

### Author details

Considering only the population of participants in the collective marketing, the impact on the FCS was 11.41. However, the potential impact on the subpopulation of nonparticipants (ATE0)

Similar to ATE and ATE1, the LATE was significant at 1%. This means that participation in collective marketing had a positive impact on the FCS of compliers. Indeed, the impact of collective marketing was high in the subpopulation of those who would participate if they were aware. This confirms that large diffusion of collective marketing initiative will have a

This study analyzed the determinants of participation of rice farmers in collective marketing and determined the impact of this new marketing channel on their livelihoods. Food security and income were used as proxies for livelihood. Results showed that the impact of participation in collective marketing of rice was positive and significant on both income and food security. Participation in collective marketing of rice allowed farmers to increase their income by USD 148/ha on average. In addition, using collective marketing helps farmers to increase their food consumption score. However, to take more advantage of these benefits, farmers need to participate in and supply large quantities of rice through collective marketing. Results showed that the main determinants of participation in collective marketing of paddy rice were membership in a farmer group, training, agreement on rice price, condition of roads to the nearest market, availability of suitable land for rice, and yield. In addition, the determinants of quantity of rice supply through collective marketing were rice production, price of paddy, and experience in rice production. These results showed that price is not only an important factor for a farmer to participate in collective marketing but also a determinant of the quantity to be supplied through collective marketing. Market access also influences both participation and quantity of paddy rice sold through collective marketing. Therefore, collective marketing will be sustainable if it allows farmers better access to markets and high prices. Better market access can be achieved through better training and well-functioning farmer groups. The training must include, in addition to rice production management, technical skills on value chain and business development practices, partnership, group dynamics, financial management, marketing and conflict management. Wide-scale awareness campaigns should be organized to increase

The author would like to thank the project realizing the agricultural potential of inland valley lowlands in sub-Saharan Africa while maintaining their environmental services regional agricultural policies (RAP) funded by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the UEMOA-PAU project funded by West African Economic and Monetary

positive effect on food security. This result confirms the findings of other studies [26].

was not significant.

252 Rice Crop - Current Developments

4. Conclusions

the impact of collective marketing.

Acknowledgements

Aminou Arouna

Address all correspondence to: a.arouna@cgiar.org

Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Bouake, Cote d'Ivoire

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