**4. Discussion**

The growing interest in intergenerational sex is borne out of the concern for the sexual and reproductive health and rights of young women particularly in sub Saharan Africa where the population bears the highest toll of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. From the several iterations of Demographic and Health Surveys and other studies, intergenerational sex is pervasive and this study based on the 2008 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey confirms the prevalence of the phenomenon in Nigeria. Clearly, from the 2008 NDHS data a sizeable number of young women age 15 – 24 years engage in risky sexual behavior that may contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS. In this study, one-quarter of young women in Nigeria reported having sex with a non-cohabitating and non-marital partners in the last 12 months while 14.6 percent of young women engaged in high risk sexual relationship with a man 10 or more years older than themselves, demonstrating the prevalence of intergenerational sex in the young Nigerian women population and thus the risk of HIV transmission. This estimate seems to be consistent with findings from other studies (Glynn et al., 2001; Kelly et al., 2003; Longfield et al., 2004; NDHS 2003). From this study 16.5 percent of young women aged 15-17 years engaged in intergenerational sex which is almost five-point lower than for women of similar age in the 2003 NDHS. It is too early however to say that the rate is falling. Broadly, this study reveals that the likelihood of engaging in intergenerational sexual relationship varies according to the personal attributes of respondents as well as cultural, attitudinal and behavioral factors.

This study paid particular attention to age of the respondents with regard to sexual risk. The practice of intergenerational sex decreases with age. The study revealed that 16.5 percent of

their interview compared with those young women aged 15-17. The difference remains statistically significant. Other variables statistically significantly associated with intergenerational sex are age at sexual debut, age difference between respondent and their first sexual partner. As can be seen from table under model 4, young women who reported starting sexual intercourse by age 18 and above are less likely to have had intergenerational sex compared with those who reported starting before age 15. For instance, those who reported their sexual debut age to be 18 years and above are 7-times less likely to have had intergenerational sex as compared with those who reported their sexual debut age at less than 15 years. The difference was statistically significant. The statistical significant association between age difference of the respondent and their first sexual partner and

Table 4, model 4 shows that young women who reported having a partner 5 to 9 years and 10 years or more older at first sex were more likely (OR: 3.21 and 159.89 respectively) to have had high risk sexual relationship with a man 10 or more years older compared with young women whose first sexual partners was younger or less than 5 years older. These differences were statistically significant. Other factor statistically significantly associated with intergenerational sex is watching television at least once a week as compared to those who reported to "not at all." The results show that young women residing in the southern region are less likely to engage in intergenerational sexual relationship than those living in the northern region. The statistical significance of the ethnicity disappears when variable on exposure to media (television) was introduced. Wealth index remain non-significant from model 2 to 4 while place of residence (urban vs. rural) remain non-significant since it has

The growing interest in intergenerational sex is borne out of the concern for the sexual and reproductive health and rights of young women particularly in sub Saharan Africa where the population bears the highest toll of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. From the several iterations of Demographic and Health Surveys and other studies, intergenerational sex is pervasive and this study based on the 2008 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey confirms the prevalence of the phenomenon in Nigeria. Clearly, from the 2008 NDHS data a sizeable number of young women age 15 – 24 years engage in risky sexual behavior that may contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS. In this study, one-quarter of young women in Nigeria reported having sex with a non-cohabitating and non-marital partners in the last 12 months while 14.6 percent of young women engaged in high risk sexual relationship with a man 10 or more years older than themselves, demonstrating the prevalence of intergenerational sex in the young Nigerian women population and thus the risk of HIV transmission. This estimate seems to be consistent with findings from other studies (Glynn et al., 2001; Kelly et al., 2003; Longfield et al., 2004; NDHS 2003). From this study 16.5 percent of young women aged 15-17 years engaged in intergenerational sex which is almost five-point lower than for women of similar age in the 2003 NDHS. It is too early however to say that the rate is falling. Broadly, this study reveals that the likelihood of engaging in intergenerational sexual relationship varies according to the personal attributes of

This study paid particular attention to age of the respondents with regard to sexual risk. The practice of intergenerational sex decreases with age. The study revealed that 16.5 percent of

intergenerational sex remains after controlling for all the variables.

respondents as well as cultural, attitudinal and behavioral factors.

been introduced into the equation in model 2.

**4. Discussion** 

young women age 15-17 years, 15.2 percent of those age 18 – 21 years and 12.6 percent of their older peers aged 22-24 years had engaged in higher-risk sexual behaviour in the 12 months with a man 10 years or more years older. The fact that the practice is commonest among 15-17 years is suggestive that the young women are vulnerable to inducements or coercion and those older girls bear the pressure for sex from the older men better. Basically, the younger girls may have little or no knowledge of the implications of their actions; cannot effectively assess the risk involved in the sexual relationship neither do they have the skill to negotiate safer sex. Most girls in this age group are preys and the predators have not spared them. The implications are multiple but essentially speak to the need for the commencement of reproductive health education and life skills programme for young girls early enough so that they are better placed to protect themselves. This is especially important for out – of – school girls as it is assumed that in some of our schools family life education is taught to young people. It is similarly essential to pay particular attention to young girls in the rural areas as intergenerational sexual relationship is **more** common among rural dwellers than young women who reside in urban areas. Another major approach would be to work directly with men to challenge the socio-cultural norms and perceptions that allows for and sanction engagement in intergenerational sex (Leclerc – Madlala 2002, 2003).

The expected result from the two recommended approaches above is to help young girls to increase the age at sexual debut significantly so that they can make informed decision about sex and how to protect themselves. As this study also shows that the odds of engaging in higher risk sexual relationship with a man 10 years or older was significantly lower for young women who had first sexual experience 18 years or more as compared with those who started sexual experience before age 15. The likelihood of having intergenerational sex tends to increase with intergenerational first sexual experience which has been reported to be linked with poor reproductive health outcomes. For instance, examining a longitudinal, representative sample of adolescents in the United States, Ryan and others found that women who initiated sex before age 16 with an older partner had a greater likelihood of testing positive for an STI in young adulthood. It is evident from the paper that intergenerational sexual relation varies according to personal, cultural and behavioral attributes of the respondents. These attributes should be considered when designing programs to promote safe and healthy sexuality and effective HIV/AIDS/STIs prevention,. In addition, the study suggests that several young Nigerians are vulnerable to HIV infection through high risk sexual behaviour and relatively low levels of condom use. HIVprevention efforts should target the entire young population, rather than attempting to identify and focus attention only on high risk groups.

Another significant finding from this study is educational attainment. This is particularly important as we look at environment and structural factors that predispose to poor health outcomes importantly in our case the risk of HIV infection. The study shows that young women with secondary school education and those with post-secondary education were less likely than those with less secondary education to have had high-risk sex with a man 10 or more years older in the past 12 months. The implication is that the more educated the girl child is the higher the likelihood of better health outcomes. Nigeria has Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme which ensures at least nine (9) years of formal education, it is free and compulsory - compelled by law but in practice not enforced. In effect, Nigeria can greatly reduce the prevalence of intergenerational sex by enforcing the law that established Universal Basic Education.

Intergenerational Sexual Relationship in Nigeria:

based and appropriately targeted.

including HIV/AIDS.

Implications for Negotiating Safe Sexual Practices 67

than those from northern minority ethnic groups. However, this influence of cultural norms may be changing due to globalization and education, especially in the cities where people are more likely to abandon traditions because of the heterogeneity of populations. Still for many Nigerians, ethnic affiliation, which is usually a regional element, means shared language and norms governing behaviour and sexuality issues. The results of this study support the view that intergenerational sexual relationships is a function of varied sociocultural factors including religion, level of exposure to formal education, urban-rural residence among others. Based on the notion that intergenerational sex predisposes to HIV infection, it is important for government and other programme planners to factor ethnic differences to HIV prevention programmes and make them more specific to the needs of the various ethnic groups and regions. The bane of HIV programming in Nigeria has always been one size fits all concepts and interventions. It is time that the interventions are evidence

The study results shed further light as regards the challenges facing programmes aimed at improving the reproductive health situation of adolescents and young adults in Nigeria, as well as opportunities for intervention. One major challenge is the sizeable number and diverse nature of factors that appeared to influence young women high risk behaviour. Some of these were particular characteristics of the environment in which they are reared. Therefore, a single, easy-to-implement intervention is unlikely to provide a solution to the risky behavior being engaged upon and its attendant consequences of vulnerability to STI and HIV/AIDS transmission in Nigeria. This is consistent with conclusion that when in a given setting and a multitude of correlates exists, each having a small impact on sexual behaviour, rather than a few correlates, each having a large impact, a single "magic bullet"

These results have important policy implications. Because factors associated with intergenerational sexual behaviour among Nigerian young women vary according to education, ethnic affiliation, age, age at sexual debut, age difference between respondent and her first sexual partner, exposure to media and wealth quintile, programs may need to position intervention differently for different target populations. The study established that there is a relatively high risk sexual activity thus making the sampled population vulnerable to HIV infection. In addition, unwanted pregnancy could lead to termination of education especially the sexual partner refuses to claim the pregnancy; as a result, young women could face a bleak economic and social future. Therefore, behavioural change communication activities should be strengthened with extensive education on safe-sexual behaviour through culturally appropriate messages, as is currently undertaken by various NGOs in the country. In particular, more effort should be made to reach the young women from poor household and rural areas, who typically had earlier sexual debut and also tended to be more engaged in cross-generational sex, with adequate information on behavioural change, prevention of unwanted pregnancy and protection from sexually transmitted infections,

Although this research does not focus on the relationships between intergenerational sex and STI/HIV/AIDS situation in Nigeria, it highlights the importance of intergenerational sexuality in contributing to the spread of STI/HIV/AIDS especially in cultures where women are subjugated to male social hegemony. Furthermore, the ethnic differences in intergenerational sex observed in this study are consistently found in other studies on sexual and reproductive behavior in Africa. Since little is known on how cultural norms and

is unlikely to be found to change adolescent sexual behaviour significantly.

In another age and educated related finding, the result reveals that age has a positive relationship with intergenerational sex particularly in models three and four, the result indicate that older young women who engage in high-risk sexual relationship may be the higher education students. Although the relationship between education and intergenerational sex become non-significant at multivariate analyses in equation 3 and 4, the higher prevalence of intergenerational sex among those in post-secondary schools may be due to the fact that young women exchange sex to get funds to cover education-related expenses and gain connections in social networks (Barker and Rich, 1992; Kaufman et. al., 2001; Meekers and Calves, 1997). This is a converse relationship when compared with young women in intergenerational sex. The older women are not 'victims' in the relationship, as they actively search for and establish such relationships to their advantage; studies reveal 'that many play active roles in seeking and exploiting relationships with older men and do not perceive themselves as victims' (Silberschmidt & Rasch 2000, Leclerc-Madlala 2003, Nkosana 2006)

The practice is consistent within the context of growing economic inequalities and cultural expectations for men to give and women to receive a compensation for sex, paves way for young women to gain materially, affirm self-worth, achieve social/educational goals, increase longer-term life chances, or otherwise add value and enjoyment to life.

It is important to mention it for affirmation, that poverty plays an important role in intergenerational sex such as in commercial sex work. The study reveals, from the regression model, that young women in the second to fifth quintile of the wealth index are less likely to engage in the intergenerational sex as compared with their counterparts in the first quintile of the wealth index. This confirms the link between poverty and risky sexual behavior – such as intergenerational sex, survival sex and prostitution. Young women's vulnerability to HIV is fueled by financial dependence and economic stress makes them susceptible to involvement in intergenerational relationship. As earlier mentioned access to education is a major route out of ongoing poverty and dependence. (Leclerc-Madlala 2003) Greater opportunity should also be given to women empowerment programmes (Odutolu et al 2003).

Broad categories of Northern and Southern regions rather than six geo-political regions and states were included in the models, because the number of cases was too low to allow for either region or state specific analyses. Future in-depth studies should therefore be carried out within region and states because of the heterogeneity of the country. Further evidence of Nigeria heterogeneity exists even within ethnic groups, such as the Yoruba who are made up of sub-ethnic groups with distinctive cultures; therefore, it is important to use caution when making generalizations about Nigerian populations. Although this study examined risk factors on a national level in Nigeria, some of the non-significant associations may have been a result of these intraregional differences, leading to a null association. Quantitative and qualitative state or region-specific studies should be carried out to probe the association between intergenerational sex, individual attributes, behavior and cultural factors so as to help programme implementers and policy makers targeting high risk groups.

The regional patterns of intergenerational sexual relationships found in this study suggest ethnicity may be an important factor to be considered when studying adolescents or young people's sexuality and sexual behavior. Ethnicity is significantly associated with intergenerational sex on controlling other variables. The results support the assumption that sexual behavior is guided by the cultural values and norms of the various ethnic groups. Young Yoruba women are 66 percent less likely to have engaged in cross generational sex

In another age and educated related finding, the result reveals that age has a positive relationship with intergenerational sex particularly in models three and four, the result indicate that older young women who engage in high-risk sexual relationship may be the higher education students. Although the relationship between education and intergenerational sex become non-significant at multivariate analyses in equation 3 and 4, the higher prevalence of intergenerational sex among those in post-secondary schools may be due to the fact that young women exchange sex to get funds to cover education-related expenses and gain connections in social networks (Barker and Rich, 1992; Kaufman et. al., 2001; Meekers and Calves, 1997). This is a converse relationship when compared with young women in intergenerational sex. The older women are not 'victims' in the relationship, as they actively search for and establish such relationships to their advantage; studies reveal 'that many play active roles in seeking and exploiting relationships with older men and do not perceive themselves as victims' (Silberschmidt & Rasch 2000, Leclerc-Madlala 2003,

The practice is consistent within the context of growing economic inequalities and cultural expectations for men to give and women to receive a compensation for sex, paves way for young women to gain materially, affirm self-worth, achieve social/educational goals,

It is important to mention it for affirmation, that poverty plays an important role in intergenerational sex such as in commercial sex work. The study reveals, from the regression model, that young women in the second to fifth quintile of the wealth index are less likely to engage in the intergenerational sex as compared with their counterparts in the first quintile of the wealth index. This confirms the link between poverty and risky sexual behavior – such as intergenerational sex, survival sex and prostitution. Young women's vulnerability to HIV is fueled by financial dependence and economic stress makes them susceptible to involvement in intergenerational relationship. As earlier mentioned access to education is a major route out of ongoing poverty and dependence. (Leclerc-Madlala 2003) Greater opportunity should also be given to women empowerment programmes (Odutolu

Broad categories of Northern and Southern regions rather than six geo-political regions and states were included in the models, because the number of cases was too low to allow for either region or state specific analyses. Future in-depth studies should therefore be carried out within region and states because of the heterogeneity of the country. Further evidence of Nigeria heterogeneity exists even within ethnic groups, such as the Yoruba who are made up of sub-ethnic groups with distinctive cultures; therefore, it is important to use caution when making generalizations about Nigerian populations. Although this study examined risk factors on a national level in Nigeria, some of the non-significant associations may have been a result of these intraregional differences, leading to a null association. Quantitative and qualitative state or region-specific studies should be carried out to probe the association between intergenerational sex, individual attributes, behavior and cultural factors so as to

The regional patterns of intergenerational sexual relationships found in this study suggest ethnicity may be an important factor to be considered when studying adolescents or young people's sexuality and sexual behavior. Ethnicity is significantly associated with intergenerational sex on controlling other variables. The results support the assumption that sexual behavior is guided by the cultural values and norms of the various ethnic groups. Young Yoruba women are 66 percent less likely to have engaged in cross generational sex

increase longer-term life chances, or otherwise add value and enjoyment to life.

help programme implementers and policy makers targeting high risk groups.

Nkosana 2006)

et al 2003).

than those from northern minority ethnic groups. However, this influence of cultural norms may be changing due to globalization and education, especially in the cities where people are more likely to abandon traditions because of the heterogeneity of populations. Still for many Nigerians, ethnic affiliation, which is usually a regional element, means shared language and norms governing behaviour and sexuality issues. The results of this study support the view that intergenerational sexual relationships is a function of varied sociocultural factors including religion, level of exposure to formal education, urban-rural residence among others. Based on the notion that intergenerational sex predisposes to HIV infection, it is important for government and other programme planners to factor ethnic differences to HIV prevention programmes and make them more specific to the needs of the various ethnic groups and regions. The bane of HIV programming in Nigeria has always been one size fits all concepts and interventions. It is time that the interventions are evidence based and appropriately targeted.

The study results shed further light as regards the challenges facing programmes aimed at improving the reproductive health situation of adolescents and young adults in Nigeria, as well as opportunities for intervention. One major challenge is the sizeable number and diverse nature of factors that appeared to influence young women high risk behaviour. Some of these were particular characteristics of the environment in which they are reared. Therefore, a single, easy-to-implement intervention is unlikely to provide a solution to the risky behavior being engaged upon and its attendant consequences of vulnerability to STI and HIV/AIDS transmission in Nigeria. This is consistent with conclusion that when in a given setting and a multitude of correlates exists, each having a small impact on sexual behaviour, rather than a few correlates, each having a large impact, a single "magic bullet" is unlikely to be found to change adolescent sexual behaviour significantly.

These results have important policy implications. Because factors associated with intergenerational sexual behaviour among Nigerian young women vary according to education, ethnic affiliation, age, age at sexual debut, age difference between respondent and her first sexual partner, exposure to media and wealth quintile, programs may need to position intervention differently for different target populations. The study established that there is a relatively high risk sexual activity thus making the sampled population vulnerable to HIV infection. In addition, unwanted pregnancy could lead to termination of education especially the sexual partner refuses to claim the pregnancy; as a result, young women could face a bleak economic and social future. Therefore, behavioural change communication activities should be strengthened with extensive education on safe-sexual behaviour through culturally appropriate messages, as is currently undertaken by various NGOs in the country. In particular, more effort should be made to reach the young women from poor household and rural areas, who typically had earlier sexual debut and also tended to be more engaged in cross-generational sex, with adequate information on behavioural change, prevention of unwanted pregnancy and protection from sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS.

Although this research does not focus on the relationships between intergenerational sex and STI/HIV/AIDS situation in Nigeria, it highlights the importance of intergenerational sexuality in contributing to the spread of STI/HIV/AIDS especially in cultures where women are subjugated to male social hegemony. Furthermore, the ethnic differences in intergenerational sex observed in this study are consistently found in other studies on sexual and reproductive behavior in Africa. Since little is known on how cultural norms and

Intergenerational Sexual Relationship in Nigeria:

Heinemann

4): 51-60.

*Lancet*, 359 (6):319-320.

York: Population Council; (12)

*Planning* 23: 199–210.

(NARHS 2007), Abuja Nigeria

Implications for Negotiating Safe Sexual Practices 69

Akuffo, FO (1987). Teenage pregnancies and school drop-outs: The relevance of family life

Allison P. (1984). Event History Analysis: Regression for Longitudinal Data. Sage. pp 23-34 Barker, Gary Knaul and Susan Rich. 1992. "Influences on Adolescent Sexuality in Nigeria

Blanc AK (2001): The effect of power in sexual relationships on sexual and reproductive health: an examination of the evidence. *Studies in Family Planning*, 32 (10):189-213. Calves, Anne Emmanuele, Gretchen T. Cornwell, and Parfait Eloundou Enyegue. (1996).

*Motivations as Women?* University Park, PA: Population Research Institute. Federal Ministry of Health (2009) National HIV/AIDS and Reproductive Health Survey

Feldman, Douglas A., Peggy O'Hara, K.S., Baboo, Ndashi W. Chitalu, and Ying Lu. (1997):

Gage, AJ. (1998). Sexual activity and contraceptive use: The components of the decision

Glynn, J.R, Carael, M., Auvert, B., Kahindo, M., Chege J., Musonda, R., Kaona, F., and Buve,

Gomez, Anu Manchikanti, Ilene S. Speizer, Heidi Reynolds, Nancy Murray and Harry

Gregson S, Nyamukapa CA, Garnett GP, Mason PR, Zhuwau T, Carael M, Chandiwana SK,

Jewkes R, Levin J, Mbananga N, and Bradshaw D (2002): Rape of girls in South Africa.

Jones, L. (2006). Sexual decision-making by urban youth in AIDS-afflicted Swaziland.

Kaufman CE, Stavrou SE (2002): "Bus Fare, Please": The Economics of Sex and Gifts Among

exposure to HIV infection in rural Zimbabwe. *Lancet*, 359:1896-1903. (5) Gregson, Simon, Constance A. Nyamukapa, Geoffrey P. Garnett, Peter R. Mason, Ton

change model. *Social Science and Medicine*, 44(4): 455-468

making process. *Studies in Family Planning*, 29(2): 154-166

*International Family Planning Prespectives*, 24(2): 65–71.

Infection in Rural Zimbabwe." *The Lancet* 359: 1896–1903.

*African Journal of AIDS Research,* 5(2): 145-157.

education and vocation training to girls' employment opportunities. In Christine Oppong, ed. *Sex roles, population and development in West Africa*. Portsmouth, NH.

and Kenya: Findings from Recent Focus-Group Discussions." *Studies in Family* 

*Adolescent Sexual Activity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Do Men Have the Same Strategies and* 

HIV prevention among Zambian adolescents: Developing a value utilization/norm

A.(2001). Why do young women have a much higher prevalence of HIV than young men? A study in Kisumu, Kenya, and Ndola, Zambia. *AIDS*, 15 (Supplement

Beauvals (2008). "Age difference at sexual debut and subsequent reproductive health: Is there a link"? Reproductive Health, 2008 5:8 doi.10. 1186/742-4755-5-8 Gorgen, Regina, Mohamed Yansane, Michael Marx, and Dominique Millimonunou. (1998).

"Sexual Behaviour and Attitudes Among Unmarried Urban Youths in Guinea.

and Anderson RM (2002): Sexual mixing patterns and sex-differentials in teenage

Zhuwau, Michel Carael, Stephen K. Chandiwana, and Roy M. Anderson. (2002). "Sexual Mixing Patterns and Sex- Differentials in Teenage Exposure to HIV

Adolescents in Urban South Africa. In *Policy Research Division Working Papers*. New

values affect intergenerational sexual behaviors in Nigeria, more research is required to explore these relationships.

The quality of self-reported information particularly the dependent variable may be unreliable. If anything, however, such sexual behavior as high risk sex, ever paid for sex, condom use at last sex and history of STDs would be underreported, biasing the association towards the null. Therefore, any significant association found may be an attenuated one.
