**3.2. Agroecosystem energy balances**

**Figure 4** shows the composed average net radiation (Rn) values for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

The lowest Rn pixel values are in the middle of the year, when reached close to 6.0 MJ m−2 d−1, while the maximum ones were above 10 MJ m−2 d−1. All ecosystems averaged 9.0 MJ m−2d−1; however, with small spatial variation, one can see from the SD values with range from 0.3 to 1.5 MJ m−2 d−1. The highest end of this range was for the coffee (CO) class, in DOY 225–240 (August), period of the year coexisting plants inside Phases 2 and 6.

To see the energy availability in detail for the different agroecosystems along the year, **Figure 5** presents the Rn average values (a) and their fractions to RG (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (CO), during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

The strong dependence of Rn on RG is clear for all analyzed agroecosystems (see **Figures 3c** and **5a**). The Rn trends for the sugarcane (SC) and natural vegetation (NV) classes were similar, but values for coffee (CO) were a little lower, at the start and at the end of the year, during

The Use of MODIS Images to Quantify the Energy Balance in Different Agroecosystems in Brazil http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72798 113

from May to July, coincide with the sugarcane Phase 3, favoring cane elongation reduction

Then, the highest atmosphere demands in sugarcane could be probably attributed to low air

The thermohydrological conditions also strongly affect the coffee crop stages [17]. As the growing cycle takes 2 years, some coffee phases will coexist. Rainfall should be well distributed for good yield. At the start of the year, for the period involving Phases 1 and 4, there was only a 16-day (DOY 001–016) period with P lower than 10 mm in January. In Phase 2 rainfall is important for the transformation of the vegetative to reproductive buds. During this period, P declined until values close to zero at the end of July (DOY 209–224). In Phase 3 (September–November), some water stress is desirable, as the main flowering happens during a period of water stress following by good water availability. However, only two 16-day periods with low rainfall amounts are verified from September to October (DOY 257–288). In Phase 4, water stress may wilt the fruits, but only during the period from DOY 001 to 016 the rainfall amount was low, bellow 10 mm. In Phase 5 the water requirements declined, and some water deficit during this phase could have favored the coffee plant growth. The period

growth and reproductive buds, being high values associated with water deficit during booming the reason for flower abortion and growth reduction [23]. However, the higher values,

**Figure 4** shows the composed average net radiation (Rn) values for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeast-

The lowest Rn pixel values are in the middle of the year, when reached close to 6.0 MJ m−2 d−1, while the maximum ones were above 10 MJ m−2 d−1. All ecosystems averaged 9.0 MJ m−2d−1; however, with small spatial variation, one can see from the SD values with range from 0.3 to 1.5 MJ m−2 d−1. The highest end of this range was for the coffee (CO) class, in DOY 225–240

To see the energy availability in detail for the different agroecosystems along the year, **Figure 5** presents the Rn average values (a) and their fractions to RG (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (CO), during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São

The strong dependence of Rn on RG is clear for all analyzed agroecosystems (see **Figures 3c** and **5a**). The Rn trends for the sugarcane (SC) and natural vegetation (NV) classes were similar, but values for coffee (CO) were a little lower, at the start and at the end of the year, during

with low rainfall amounts from May to June was also inside this phase.

reducing water consumption in coffee areas. Air temperature (T<sup>a</sup>

above 23°C, occurred under conditions of good rainfall availability.

(August), period of the year coexisting plants inside Phases 2 and 6.

, the differences among the agroecosystems were smaller than those

levels from May to August coincided with low P amounts, thus

) regulates the vegetative

, with average annual values around 17 MJ m−2 day−1 and 23.0°C, respectively.

during this phase.

for P and ET0

In relation to RG and T<sup>a</sup>

112 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

Conditions of low RG and ET0

**3.2. Agroecosystem energy balances**

Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

ern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

humidity and/or high wind speed conditions.

**Figure 4.** Composed net radiation (Rn) average values for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations (SD).

Phases 1 and 4 of coffee plants. However, at the middle of the year, CO values were higher, when the plant stages were in mixed stages of the Phases 2, 5, and 6.

Regarding the ratio Rn/RG (**Figure 5b**), the higher mean pixel values were for the coffee (CO) class, mainly in the middle of the year. The values ranged from 0.49 to 0.55, from 0.50 to 0.57, and from 0.50 to 0.56, for, respectively, the SC, CO, and NV agroecosystems. The average annual Rn/RG of 50–55% is in agreement with field measurements in fruit crops and natural vegetation in the Northeast Region of Brazil [11] and with studies involving other distinct agroecosystems around the world [24, 25]. These results of similarities with national and international studies give confidence to the large-scale remote sensing methods tested here by coupling the MOD13Q1 product and agrometeorological stations.

**Figure 5.** Daily net radiation (Rn) and their ratios to global solar radiation (RG) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations (SD).

The composed latent heat flux (λE) values in the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 6**.

**Figure 7** presents the latent heat flux (λE) average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015. Considering the three studied agroecosystems, the λE values started with short values, below 5.0 MJ m−2 d−1, at the first half of January (2.0 mm d−1), due to the low rainfall amounts (see **Figures 3a** and **7a**). After the first rains, λE followed the RG levels but dropping again in August because a short water scarcity spell. Clearly, one could see that in almost all periods of the year, for the coffee (CO) class, λE values were the highest ones, while for sugarcane (SC), they were the lowest ones. Natural vegetation (NV) presented intermediary λE values.

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115

Energy balance differences among the agroecosystems were also noticed for the λE/Rn ratio. This last ratio is an index of the soil moisture in the root zones, and its behavior along the year evidenced two low-water availability periods in the root zones, with λE/Rn values below 0.60. One of these conditions was at the first half of January; however, for the sugarcane (SC) class, there was a longer period with low λE/Rn, from the first half of August to the end of October,

Considering λE in terms of mm of waters, the evapotranspiration (ET) rates were from 0.7 to 3.6 mm d−1, from 1.2 to 4.1 mm d−1, and from 1.2 to 3.7 mm d−1 for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, respectively. The corresponding annual average values were 2.5, 3.2, and 2.8 mm d−1. Eksteen et al. [26] reported ET daily values for sugarcane (SC) between 1.6 and 2.9 mm d−1, involving different varieties and soil moisture conditions, while in Florida (USA), Omary and Izuno [27] found a daily range from 0.7 to 4.6 mm d−1. Regarding coffee (CO) crop, Vila Nova et al. [28] reported in Brazil, for the complete grain maturation, the mean ET rates of 3.5 mm d−1, while Oliveira et al. [29] found an average of 2.9 mm d−1. The ET values for the SC and CO agroecosystems in the current

The higher λE values for coffee (CO) than for sugarcane (SC) in the northeastern São Paulo state, Brazil, mean a larger annual water consumption for the first crop that should be considered under the conditions of water competition by agriculture and other sectors. Even with the cropland masks involving different stages of the agroecosystems in the current study, the similarity of our Rn and λE values with those from national and international literature provides confidence for the large-scale energy balance analyses by applying the SAFER algo-

Considering the soil heat flux as a fraction of Rn, the sensible heat flux (H) was spatially retrieved by residue in the energy balance equation. The composed H values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside

The sensible heat flux (H) values among the agroecosystems are also well differentiated according to the time of the year, but in this case with the highest values corresponding to the driest soil moisture conditions. They ranged from negative values as low as −3 MJ m−2 d−1 to high positive ones close to 13 MJ m−2 d−1. The lowest ones were for the coffee (CO) class, which presented an average annual value of 0.6 ± 1.7 MJ m−2 d−1, followed by natural vegetation (NV), 1.4 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1, and sugarcane (SC), with the highest average rate of 2.4 ± 2.2 MJ m−2 d−1. Besides the highest H, the SC agroecosystem presented also the largest H spatial variation.

the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 8**.

research are similar to these national and international studies.

rithm throughout the MOD13Q1 product.

dropping below 0.20.

Much more distinct of both λE and SD values among the agroecosystems are noticed than in the case of Rn, with λE ranging from close to zero to becoming higher than 13 MJ m−2 d−1. The lowest values were for the sugarcane (SC) class, with an average λE of 6.1 ± 2.2 MJ m−2 d−1, followed by natural vegetation (NV), 6.9 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1, and coffee (CO) with the highest average of 7.8 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1. Besides the lowest λE, the SC class presented also the largest spatial variation. Considering all agroecosystems, the highest and the lowest λE rates were, respectively, in January and at the end of October.

**Figure 6.** Composed latent heat flux (λE) values for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations.

**Figure 7.** Average pixel values for the latent heat flux (λE) and their ratios to net radiation (Rn) for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

**Figure 7** presents the latent heat flux (λE) average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015.

Considering the three studied agroecosystems, the λE values started with short values, below 5.0 MJ m−2 d−1, at the first half of January (2.0 mm d−1), due to the low rainfall amounts (see **Figures 3a** and **7a**). After the first rains, λE followed the RG levels but dropping again in August because a short water scarcity spell. Clearly, one could see that in almost all periods of the year, for the coffee (CO) class, λE values were the highest ones, while for sugarcane (SC), they were the lowest ones. Natural vegetation (NV) presented intermediary λE values.

Energy balance differences among the agroecosystems were also noticed for the λE/Rn ratio. This last ratio is an index of the soil moisture in the root zones, and its behavior along the year evidenced two low-water availability periods in the root zones, with λE/Rn values below 0.60. One of these conditions was at the first half of January; however, for the sugarcane (SC) class, there was a longer period with low λE/Rn, from the first half of August to the end of October, dropping below 0.20.

Considering λE in terms of mm of waters, the evapotranspiration (ET) rates were from 0.7 to 3.6 mm d−1, from 1.2 to 4.1 mm d−1, and from 1.2 to 3.7 mm d−1 for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, respectively. The corresponding annual average values were 2.5, 3.2, and 2.8 mm d−1. Eksteen et al. [26] reported ET daily values for sugarcane (SC) between 1.6 and 2.9 mm d−1, involving different varieties and soil moisture conditions, while in Florida (USA), Omary and Izuno [27] found a daily range from 0.7 to 4.6 mm d−1. Regarding coffee (CO) crop, Vila Nova et al. [28] reported in Brazil, for the complete grain maturation, the mean ET rates of 3.5 mm d−1, while Oliveira et al. [29] found an average of 2.9 mm d−1. The ET values for the SC and CO agroecosystems in the current research are similar to these national and international studies.

The higher λE values for coffee (CO) than for sugarcane (SC) in the northeastern São Paulo state, Brazil, mean a larger annual water consumption for the first crop that should be considered under the conditions of water competition by agriculture and other sectors. Even with the cropland masks involving different stages of the agroecosystems in the current study, the similarity of our Rn and λE values with those from national and international literature provides confidence for the large-scale energy balance analyses by applying the SAFER algorithm throughout the MOD13Q1 product.

Considering the soil heat flux as a fraction of Rn, the sensible heat flux (H) was spatially retrieved by residue in the energy balance equation. The composed H values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 8**.

λE (MJ m-2 d-1)

1.0

(SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

001-016 081-096 161-176 241-256 321-336

SC CO NV





0 300 km

0 300 km


E 3.7 2.3 λ sc = ± E 6.8 1.9 λ co = ±

**Figure 6.** Composed latent heat flux (λE) values for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over

E 7.9 1.9 λ sc = ± E 9.1 1.6 λ co = ±



3.4

5.8

8.2

10.6

13.0

0 300 km

0 300 km





Day of the Year - DOY

**Figure 7.** Average pixel values for the latent heat flux (λE) and their ratios to net radiation (Rn) for the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo

0.00

001-016 081-096 161-176 241-256 321-336


E 8.0 2.6 λ sc = ± E 9.0 2.3 λ co = ±

E 6.4 2.2 λ sc = ± E 7.9 1.6 λ co = ±

(a) (b)

0.26

0.52

0.78

λE/Rn

The composed latent heat flux (λE) values in the sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside the northeastern side of São Paulo

Much more distinct of both λE and SD values among the agroecosystems are noticed than in the case of Rn, with λE ranging from close to zero to becoming higher than 13 MJ m−2 d−1. The lowest values were for the sugarcane (SC) class, with an average λE of 6.1 ± 2.2 MJ m−2 d−1, followed by natural vegetation (NV), 6.9 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1, and coffee (CO) with the highest average of 7.8 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1. Besides the lowest λE, the SC class presented also the largest spatial variation. Considering all agroecosystems, the highest and the lowest λE rates were,



DOY: 161-176

DOY: 353-365 13.5

10.9

λE (MJ m-2 d-1)

8.3

5.7

3.1

0.5





DOY: 097-112

DOY: 289-304 -24o

0 300 km

0 300 km



(SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 6**.

respectively, in January and at the end of October.

DOY: 033-048

DOY: 225-240

bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations.


114 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

E 8.8 2.4 λ sc = ± E 10.0 1.9 λ co = ±

E 5.1 2.8 λ sc = ± E 8.1 2.4 λ co = ±

1.04

1.30

The sensible heat flux (H) values among the agroecosystems are also well differentiated according to the time of the year, but in this case with the highest values corresponding to the driest soil moisture conditions. They ranged from negative values as low as −3 MJ m−2 d−1 to high positive ones close to 13 MJ m−2 d−1. The lowest ones were for the coffee (CO) class, which presented an average annual value of 0.6 ± 1.7 MJ m−2 d−1, followed by natural vegetation (NV), 1.4 ± 1.8 MJ m−2 d−1, and sugarcane (SC), with the highest average rate of 2.4 ± 2.2 MJ m−2 d−1. Besides the highest H, the SC agroecosystem presented also the largest H spatial variation. Taking into account all agroecosystem classes, the largest H values were during the driest conditions of the year, in the first half of January and from the second half of September to the end of October. The lowest ones, even negative, were at the end of the first rains, from April to the second half of July, when the root zones of the agroecosystems were moistier.

values happened in the sugarcane (SC) class, reaching to the average of 8 MJ m−2 d−1 during the second half of September (DOY 257–252), when H represented 74% of Rn (**Figure 9b**). The lowest H values happened in the coffee (CO) class, during DOY 129–144, in May, when the average 16-day value was −1.5 MJ m−2 d−1. During the year, the average annual H/Rn fractions were 0.07, 0.16, and 0.27 for coffee (CO), natural vegetation (NV), and sugarcane (SC), respectively. These results may represent cooling and warming microclimate effects as consequences of the replacement of the natural vegetation by coffee and sugarcane, respectively. Although sugarcane plants consume less water than the coffee ones, which is a positive aspect under the water scarcity conditions, the higher H rates for the sugarcane (SC) class have to be considered

The Use of MODIS Images to Quantify the Energy Balance in Different Agroecosystems in Brazil

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117

Completing the energy balance, the composed ground heat flux (G) values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside the

Ground heat fluxes (G) among the agroecosystems are well distinct according to the time of the year, but with lower magnitudes than those for λE and H. The average pixel values ranged from 0.0 to 1.0 MJ m−2 d−1. The spatial variations are low, with SD staying around 0.1 MJ m−2 d−1. The average annual G values for sugarcane (SC) and coffee (CO) were the same (0.5 MJ m−2 d−1), but for natural vegetation (NV), it was a little higher, with a mean value of 0.6 MJ m−2 d−1. **Figure 11** presents the ground heat flux (G) daily average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the

The shapes of the curves pictured in **Figure 11** were somewhat similar of those for the latent heat flux (λE), but the values for the natural vegetation (NV) class moved from intermediary to the highest values. Lower G and of its ratio to net radiation (Rn) for the sugarcane (SC) class


G 0.5 0.1 sc = ± G 0.5 0.1 co = ±


0 300 km

0 300 km


**Figure 10.** Composed ground heat flux (G) values for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over

G 0.5 0.2 sc = ± G 0.5 0.2 co = ±



DOY: 033-048

DOY: 225-240

bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations.





G 0.4 0.2 sc = ± G 0.6 0.2 co = ±


G 0.5 0.2 sc = ± G 0.5 0.2 co = ±



DOY: 097-112

DOY: 289-304 -24o




G 0.4 0.1 sc = ± G 0.5 0.1 co = ±

0 300 km

0 300 km


G 0.6 0.3 sc = ± G 0.5 0.3 co = ± -21o

DOY: 161-176

DOY: 353-365 1.0

G (MJ m-2 d-1)

0.6

0.8

0.4

0.2

0.0




northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 10**.

under the coupled effects of warming and land use change contexts.

year 2015.




0 300 km

0 300 km


**Figure 9** presents the H average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

In the middle of the year, negative H indicated horizontal heat advection from the drier and hotter natural areas to the wetter and colder cropped areas (**Figure 9a**). The highest positive

**Figure 8.** Composed sensible heat flux (H) values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) ecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations (SD).

**Figure 9.** Average pixel values for the sensible heat flux (H) and their ratios to net radiation (Rn) in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) ecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

values happened in the sugarcane (SC) class, reaching to the average of 8 MJ m−2 d−1 during the second half of September (DOY 257–252), when H represented 74% of Rn (**Figure 9b**). The lowest H values happened in the coffee (CO) class, during DOY 129–144, in May, when the average 16-day value was −1.5 MJ m−2 d−1. During the year, the average annual H/Rn fractions were 0.07, 0.16, and 0.27 for coffee (CO), natural vegetation (NV), and sugarcane (SC), respectively. These results may represent cooling and warming microclimate effects as consequences of the replacement of the natural vegetation by coffee and sugarcane, respectively. Although sugarcane plants consume less water than the coffee ones, which is a positive aspect under the water scarcity conditions, the higher H rates for the sugarcane (SC) class have to be considered under the coupled effects of warming and land use change contexts.

Completing the energy balance, the composed ground heat flux (G) values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015 inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil, are shown in **Figure 10**.

Ground heat fluxes (G) among the agroecosystems are well distinct according to the time of the year, but with lower magnitudes than those for λE and H. The average pixel values ranged from 0.0 to 1.0 MJ m−2 d−1. The spatial variations are low, with SD staying around 0.1 MJ m−2 d−1. The average annual G values for sugarcane (SC) and coffee (CO) were the same (0.5 MJ m−2 d−1), but for natural vegetation (NV), it was a little higher, with a mean value of 0.6 MJ m−2 d−1.

**Figure 11** presents the ground heat flux (G) daily average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015.

The shapes of the curves pictured in **Figure 11** were somewhat similar of those for the latent heat flux (λE), but the values for the natural vegetation (NV) class moved from intermediary to the highest values. Lower G and of its ratio to net radiation (Rn) for the sugarcane (SC) class

H (MJ


Southeast Brazil.

001-016 081-096 161-176 241-256 321-336

SC CO NV


showed together with standard deviations (SD).

H 3.5 2.7 sc = ± H 1.0 2.1 co = ±


116 Multi-purposeful Application of Geospatial Data

H 1.1 2.3 sc = ± H 0.3 1.8 co = − ±


2.2

4.8

7.4

10.0

Day of the Year - DOY

**Figure 9.** Average pixel values for the sensible heat flux (H) and their ratios to net radiation (Rn) in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) ecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state,


001-016 081-096 161-176 241-256 321-336



H 0.5 2.1 sc = − ± H 1.5 1.2 co = − ±

0 300 km

0 300 km


H 1.6 2.5 sc = ± H 0.2 2.2 co = ± -21o

DOY: 161-176

DOY: 353-365 10.0

H (MJ m-2 d-1)

4.8

7.4

2.2

0.4





(a) (b)


0.16

H/Rn


**Figure 8.** Composed sensible heat flux (H) values in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) ecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages

H 6.8 2.3 sc = ± H 3.7 1.9 co = ±

Taking into account all agroecosystem classes, the largest H values were during the driest conditions of the year, in the first half of January and from the second half of September to the end of October. The lowest ones, even negative, were at the end of the first rains, from April to

**Figure 9** presents the H average values (a) and their fractions to Rn (b) for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the north-

In the middle of the year, negative H indicated horizontal heat advection from the drier and hotter natural areas to the wetter and colder cropped areas (**Figure 9a**). The highest positive


H 0.2 1.9 sc = ± H 0.8 1.5 co = − ±


0 300 km

0 300 km

the second half of July, when the root zones of the agroecosystems were moistier.

eastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.



DOY: 033-048

DOY: 225-240 -24o



0.44

0.72

1.00



DOY: 097-112

DOY: 289-304 -24o


m-2 d-1)




0 300 km

0 300 km


**Figure 10.** Composed ground heat flux (G) values for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, inside the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil. The over bars mean averages showed together with standard deviations.

**Author details**

Gustavo Bayma-Silva2

**References**

Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira1

\*Address all correspondence to: heriberto.teixeira@embrapa.br

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/828169

10.1126/science.1153103

2 Embrapa Satellite Monitoring, Campinas-SP, Brazil

\*, Janice F. Leivas2

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**Figure 11.** Ground heat flux (G) and their ratios to net radiation (Rn) in sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, during the year 2015, in the northeastern side of São Paulo (SP) state, Southeast Brazil.

were found, mainly in the period of DOY 097–304 (April to the end of October). The average values of Rn partitioned as G were, respectively, 5, 6, and 7% for sugarcane (SC), coffee (CO), and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems.
