**6. Organs, blood, tissue donors and occupational health workers**

Prior to 1985 (PPHS/MMWR, 1985; MMWR, 1985), when screening of blood, organ and tissue donors for HIV-1 antibody became available, several reports have documented the transmission of HIV-1 by transplantation of kidney (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988), liver (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988; Samuel et al., 1988), heart (Erice et al., 1991; Dummer et al., 1989), pancreas (Erice et al., 1991), bone (MMWR, 1988a) and possibly skin(Clarke, 1987) and In most cases involving donors whose serum had not been tested for HIV-1 antibody (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988; Samuel et al., 1988; Dummer et al., 1989; MMWR, 1988a; Clarke, 1987).

As proposed by Simonds et al (1992), approaches to prevention could include: the screening of prospective donors and laboratory markers for HIV1 infection (MMWR, 1985); the inactivation of HIV-1 in allograft through processing techniques (Hilfenhaus et al., 1990; Kitchen et al., 1989; Wells et al., 1986) and the quarantining of tissues from living donors until repeated antibody testing more definitely excludes the possibility of subsequent seroconversion in the donor (MMWR, 1988a ; MMWR, 1988b).

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002) reported that in the health care industry there have been 57 confirmed cases and an additional 139 possible cases of health care workers in the U.S. who have become HIV positive from exposure to HIV in the work place. The Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network (2001) has also reported two of such cases in the laboratory workers and one health-care provider in Canada.

#### **7. Horizontal (heterosexual) transmission**

These could be through unprotected and protected sexual process. Ma et al (2010) reported that the probability of unprotected heterosexual transmission may vary with population and be influenced by many factors, these could include: the type of sex (Mastro et al., 1994: De Vincenzi, 1994; Varghese et al., 2002); bleeding during intercourse (Royce et al., 1997),

Prior to Groopman and Greenspan (1996) report of oral manifestation of AIDS which increases the potentials of HIV transmission through several lesions which form exists for virus into the saliva, it was assumed that about 10% of both free virus and infected cells report in saliva were not very important in the spread of HIV (Groopman et al., 1984). Dean et al (1988) and Mundy et al (1987) reported none or low level of pathogens in urine, sweat, breast milk, branchoalvolar lavage fluid, amniotic fluid, synovial fluid, faeces and tears which were not thought to be important source in virus transmission (Fujikawa et al., 1985), but this assumption has also changed with the report of Groopman and Greenspan (1996); Amory et al. (1992); Scarlatti (1996); van da Perre et al. (1991). Though not a natural source of HIV transmission, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in neurologic patients have been shown to contain large amount of virus when compared to other body fluids (Hollander and

**6. Organs, blood, tissue donors and occupational health workers** 

seroconversion in the donor (MMWR, 1988a ; MMWR, 1988b).

in the laboratory workers and one health-care provider in Canada.

**7. Horizontal (heterosexual) transmission** 

Prior to 1985 (PPHS/MMWR, 1985; MMWR, 1985), when screening of blood, organ and tissue donors for HIV-1 antibody became available, several reports have documented the transmission of HIV-1 by transplantation of kidney (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988), liver (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988; Samuel et al., 1988), heart (Erice et al., 1991; Dummer et al., 1989), pancreas (Erice et al., 1991), bone (MMWR, 1988a) and possibly skin(Clarke, 1987) and In most cases involving donors whose serum had not been tested for HIV-1 antibody (MMWR, 1987; Kumar et al., 1987; Erice et al., 1991; Schwartz et al., 1987; Prompt et al., 1985; L'age-Stehr et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1987; Quarto et al., 1989; Carbone et al., 1988; Samuel et al., 1988; Dummer et al., 1989; MMWR, 1988a; Clarke, 1987). As proposed by Simonds et al (1992), approaches to prevention could include: the screening of prospective donors and laboratory markers for HIV1 infection (MMWR, 1985); the inactivation of HIV-1 in allograft through processing techniques (Hilfenhaus et al., 1990; Kitchen et al., 1989; Wells et al., 1986) and the quarantining of tissues from living donors until repeated antibody testing more definitely excludes the possibility of subsequent

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002) reported that in the health care industry there have been 57 confirmed cases and an additional 139 possible cases of health care workers in the U.S. who have become HIV positive from exposure to HIV in the work place. The Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network (2001) has also reported two of such cases

These could be through unprotected and protected sexual process. Ma et al (2010) reported that the probability of unprotected heterosexual transmission may vary with population and be influenced by many factors, these could include: the type of sex (Mastro et al., 1994: De Vincenzi, 1994; Varghese et al., 2002); bleeding during intercourse (Royce et al., 1997),

**5. Parental, saliva and other body fluids** 

Levy, 1987; Ho et al., 1989).

semen viral load (Gupta et al., 1997; Tachet et al., 1999; Kalichman et al., 2008; Butler et al., 2008), stage of HIV infection (Mastro et al., 1994; Fauci et al., 1996; Wawer et al., 2005), comorbid sexually transmitted diseases (Royce et al., 1997), vaginal or anal canal, co-occurring psychosocial risk factors (Safren et al., 2010).

Sexual forms of transmission are seen as a major portal of entry of HIV as 10-30% of seminal/vaginal fluids have transmissible virus (Royce et al., 1997; Henin et al., 1993).

In semen viral load, the males HIV-1 infected cells forms about 104 of the 106 leucocytes per ejaculation (Winkelstein et al., 1987), which confirms AIDS first association with sexual route, with the high prevalence in homosexual men. The virus subsequently became synonymous with heterosexual activity and is now attributed to the AIDS pandemic (UNAIDS 1986; Nkowane 1991; Stoneburner et al., 1990). Bouvier et al (1997) believes that vaginal pH neutralization by semen is a co-factor of HIV transmission.

The chances of transmission also depends on the type of sexually transmitted infections (STI), as co-infection with genital ulcers have been reported to increase the chances of transmission by increasing the susceptibility to HIV infection which also depends on HIV subtypes efficient (Gray et al., 2001; Mahiane et al., 2009; Limpakarnianarat et al., 1993; Wang, 2009; Xu, 2009).

Male circumcision have been documented to decrease the chances of HIV transmission (Mahiane et al., 2009; Lavreys et al., 1999; Gray et al., 2000; Reynolds et al., 2004; Gray et al., 2007; Donoval et al., 2006), but this also depends on the country (Ben et al., 2008; Sullivan et al., 2009; Ruan et al., 2009; Wawer et al., 2009).

The high level of heterosexual spread of HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa and developing countries where genital ulcers from existing venereal diseases (e.g. Chanchroid Chlamydia, Syphilis or Herpes virus infections) are aligned with increased HIV seroprevalence (UNAIDS, 1998, Hook et al., 1992; Plummer et al., 1991) could be tight to abrasions at the site of entry in the vagina or anal canal. Heise et al (1991) however reported that HIV could directly infect the bowel mucosa and perhaps cervical epithelium without the need for ulcerations which gave clue to the relatively low risk of the mucosal lining of the foreskin, urethral canal and oral genital contact (through minimal) to be implicated (Winkelstein et al., 1987).

Men having Sex with Men (MSM) have been reported as one of the first way of transmission of HIV. Various authors have showed evidence that the involvement of MSM could be traced to psychosocial behaviour (PB). These PB are said to be depression, violent victimisation, substance abuse, alcohol, psychiatric disorders, psychological distress, lower perceived social support (Berlan et al., 2010; King et al., 2008; Meyer , 2003; Cochran et al., 2003; Cochran and Mays, 2000; Gilman et al., 2001., Marshal et al., 2008; Mimiaga et al., 2009a; b; Safren and Heimberg, 1999; Stall et al., 2001; Chesney et al., 2003; The EXPLORE Study Team, 2004; Herbst et al., 2005). Although some studies have shown how substance use and high risk of HIV transmission are correlated (Stall et al., 2001; Hirshfield et al., 2004), most recent studies are now focussing on how *'syndemic'*- a situation where these diverse psychosocial issues could interact to enhance HIV risky behaviour among MSM (Mustanski et al., 2007; 2010; Stall et al., 2008; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). However, varieties of cognitive behavioural interventions have been studied and validated for the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Barlow, 2008) behavioural activation therapy and HIV risk reduction counselling in MSM who abuse crystal methamphetamine (Mimiaga et al., 2010).

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission 53

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Addressing co-occurring psychosocial behaviour is a means to increase the effective size of current HIV prevention intervention and allow for more effective uptake by MSM, since they have been reported to be more than 44 times more likely to be newly diagnosed with HIV than other men (Purcell et al., 2010) and the focus on ameliorating disparities in HIV infection is essential for enhancing the health of MSM at the population level (Sanfren et al., 2010).

The Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC, 2007) reported the prevalence rate among heterosexual African American (AA) women and men with data indicating that more heterosexual AA women having a 74% HIV/AIDS prevalence as compared to the 27% in their male counterpart.

Myths and misperceptions of HIV/AIDS such as HIV being a genocide, suspicion of government information, belief that it is possible to identify risky partners by odour and appearance, belief that partners reported histories are accurate, misperceptions about the meaning of safe sex and the believe that specific classes of people (not one self) are at risk of HIV that resulted from sexual risk contributes to the risky behaviours of HIV transmission (Essien et al.,2002; Catania et al.,1994; Smith et al., 2000; Coleman et al., 2010; Coleman and Ball, 2007; Coleman, 2007).

The increase in the number of sexual partners also increases HIV transmission (Stranford, 1999; Coleman, 2007; Catania et al., 1994; Smith et al., 2000; Coleman et al., 2010; Coleman and Ball, 2007) with most under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

Unprotected oral and vaginal sex have been reported as a risk factor in the transmission of HIV especially where it is carried out in high risk settings, having sex more often under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs (Milam et al., 2006; Catania et al., 1994; Smith et al., 2000).

Even under protection for example the use of condoms, many cases has been reported where the barrier has failed especially where risky behaviours are undertaken. A case in study which made the People Living With HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in Nigeria to sue the Federal Government of Nigeria to Court for promotion of condoms (Ogundele, 2010).

Though Tenofovir gel has been advocated for women to prevent HIV transmission (Karim et al., 2010).

The nature of HIV transmission from anecdotal records has not changed neither is a new means of transmission of the virus recorded. In view of this development, it is the earnest desire of this write up to bring to fore genealogical reports of the transmission of HIV and to also continue to write on the various modes of transmission as a way of curtailing the spread of the dreaded virus.

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**0**

**4**

*Zimbabwe*

C.P. Bhunu\*and S. Mushayabasa

*National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo*

**HIV/AIDS Transmission Dynamics in Male Prisons**

The imprisonment of large numbers of drug addicts has the potential to create environments within which social networks that enhances the transmission of infectious diseases form (7–11; 14). About 668,000 men and women are incarcerated in sub-Saharan Africa with South Africa having the highest prison population with 157,402 people behind bars in the region and 335 prisoners per 100,000 of the national population; it has the ninth largest prison population in the world (21). International data show that HIV prevalence among prisoners is between six to fifty times higher than that of the general adult population. For example, in the USA the ratio is 6:1, in France it is 10:1; in Switzerland 27:1 and in Mauritius 50:1 (17). On a global scale, the prison population is growing rapidly, with high incarceration rates leading to overcrowding, which largely stems from national law and criminal justice policies. In most countries, overcrowding and poor physical conditions prevail (20). This phenomenon poses significant health concerns with regard to control of infectious diseases-and HIV prevention and care most of all (21). Prisons are high risk settings for HIV transmission. However, HIV prevention, treatment are not adequately developed and implemented to respond to HIV in prisons (13). There is evidence to show that health programmes for the particular needs of imprisoned drug users are not enough in USA and Canada (15; 22). In Russia, a study of intravenous drug users demonstrated the critical role of prisons in the transmission of HIV

through high levels of needle (syringes) sharing among the imprisoned (23).

\*Visiting Fellow, Clare Hall College, University of Cambridge

Prison populations are predominantly male and most prisons are male-only institutions, including the prison staff. In such a gender exclusive environment, male-to-male sexual activity (prisoner-to-prisoner and guard-to-prisoner) is frequent (18). While much of the sex among men in prisons is consensual, rape and sexual abuse are often used to exercise dominance in the culture of violence that is typical of prison life (19). Inmate rape, including male rape, is considered one of the most ignored crimes. Sexual and physical abuse in custody remains a tremendous human rights problem (1). Intravenous drug use, tattooing and the following aspects of man-to-man sexual activity in prison make it a high risk for HIV transmission: anal intercourse, rape and the presence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Related problems in prisons across Southern Africa include overcrowding, shortages, corruption, and the presence of juveniles alongside adult prisoners. The potential for the spread of HIV is also increased by a lack of information and education, and a lack of proper medical care. STIs, if left untreated, can greatly increase a person's vulnerability to HIV

**1. Introduction**

*Department of Applied Mathematics, Modelling Biomedical Systems Research Group*

