**2.4. Nivalenol**

Nivalenol are the main mycotoxins produced by *F. cerealis*, *F. poae*, *F. nivale*, *F. culmorum* and *F. graminearum*. Maize red ear rot throughout is caused by nivalenol [21]. As expected, they reportedly also share many toxicological properties, such as the inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of interleukin-8 secretion and the involvement of stress-activated MAPKs and nuclear factor-κΒ in the signal transduction pathways of toxicities [15].

#### **2.5. Zearalenone**

Zearalenone is a mycotoxin, which have a structure of estrogenic lactone; they have sufficient structural similarity and these synthesized by various *Fusarium* species—*F. graminearum*, *F. culmorum* and *F. crookwellense*. Zearalenone is found in cereals, mainly maize, and processed foods and these are a non-highly toxic mycotoxin [10, 22]. These mycotoxins have been producing of estrogenic effects in animals and the stimulation of human breast cancer cells growth. Zearalenone is a mycotoxin producing of host-contaminated corn [9]. Also, inhibiting the gene expression caused by zearalenone produced severe hepatic illness. Zearalenone has been shown to be immunotoxin and hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic and an enhancer of lipid peroxidation [19, 23].

#### **2.6. Fumonisins**

*Fusarium verticillioides* and *F. moniliforme* produced by Fumonisins (A, B, C, P) are toxic secondary metabolites, mycotoxins non-fluorescent, common fungal contaminants in grains and agricultural commodities [24]. These are analogous to sphingolipids, and intake of contaminated foods with fumonisins B1 has been associated with equine leukoencephalomalacia, porcine pulmonary edema and liver cancer in rats and decreased body weights in chickens [8, 23]. The exposure levels ranging from 0.02 to 0.2 mg/kg in body weight have been found of fumonisin concentration; these are within the limit of intake. Although fumonisins are relatively thermal stability, these may undergo reactions in food systems that alter their chemical structure and toxicity and is potentially hazardous to the health of both humans and animals [25].
