**Meet the editors**

Dr.–Ing. Abdelfatteh Haidine received his PhD from the *Technische Universität Dresden* in Germany with a focus on the planning and optimisation of telecommunications networks. He has worked as a consultant and manager of big companies (KEMA Consulting GmbH, Accenture PLC) for the deployment of smart metering systems and smart grid applications. Currently, he is an assistant

professor with "Laboratory of Information Technologies" at the National School of Applied Sciences, Morocco.

His research interests include different issues related to machine-to-machine and Internet-of-Things communications, networking technologies for smart city and smart grid applications, etc. This covers LPWA networks and their techno-economical aspects. In recent years, he has been dealing with application of combinatorial optimization as well as the game theory paradigm in network planning/migration and resource allocation in broadband mobile networks.

Dr. Abdelhak Aqqal received a joint PhD degree in Sciences and Technologies of Information and Communication (STIC) from Darmstadt University of Technology (Germany) and Chouaib Doukkali University (Morocco) under the DAAD Sandwich Program. In 2010, he joined the Department of Telecommunications, Networks and Computer Science at the National School of Applied

Sciences of El Jadida (Morocco), teaching engineering students in the area of telecommunications and networking with a focus on cloud computing and IT for business.

His research interests include ICT for smart cities and innovative approaches using green and smart technologies. He also has extensive experience and research in E-learning and technology-enhanced teaching in higher education. He has been involved in various research projects and is the author of several research studies published in national and international journals, conference proceedings and book chapters.

Contents

**Preface IX**

Chapter 1 **Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks**

**as Core for the Future Internet Societies 1** Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal

Chapter 2 **Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications 11** Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez

Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque

**Technologies 43**

**Communications 59**

**Beamforming 77**

**Deployments 99**

Sheng Xu

Chapter 4 **5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging**

Chapter 5 **Radio Access Network Backhauling Using Power Line**

Francesco Marcuzzi and Andrea M. Tonello

Chapter 6 **Co-Channel Interference Cancellation for 5G Cellular Networks Deploying Radio-over-Fiber and Massive MIMO**

Chapter 7 **Transport Protocol Performance and Impact on QoS while on the Move in Current and Future Low Latency**

Eneko Atxutegi, Jose Oscar Fajardo and Fidel Liberal

Chapter 3 **Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and**

**Electromagnetic Compatibility with Existent Technologies 27**

**Section 1 Wireless/Mobile Broadband Network 9**

## Contents

### **Preface XIII**



Chapter 8 **Network Coding-Assisted Retransmission Scheme for Video-Streaming Services over Wireless Access Networks 123** Aleš Švigelj and Melisa Junuzović

Chapter 17 **Planning of FiWi Networks to Support Communications**

Contents **VII**

Chapter 18 **Economic Interests and Social Problems in Realization of**

Chapter 19 **Techniques for Reducing Redundant Unicast Traffic in HSR**

Jong Myung Rhee and Nguyen Xuan Tien

Chapter 20 **Mobile Broadband Scaling and Enhancement for Fast**

Vipin Balyan, Mario Ligwa and Ben Groenewald

Chapter 21 **On the Energy Efficiency of Virtual Machines' Live Migration in Future Cloud Mobile Broadband Networks 407**

Raad S. Alhumaima, Shireen R. Jawad and H.S. Al-Raweshidy

**Infrastructure of SG and SC 317**

**Broadband Network 343**

Arturo G. Peralta

Milan Ivanović

**Networks 373**

**Moving Trains 395**


Chapter 17 **Planning of FiWi Networks to Support Communications Infrastructure of SG and SC 317** Arturo G. Peralta

Chapter 8 **Network Coding-Assisted Retransmission Scheme for Video-**

Chapter 10 **Ka-Band HTS System User Uplink SNIR Probability Models 159**

Chapter 13 **An Integrated SDN-Based Architecture for Passive Optical**

Chapter 14 **FTTx Access Networks: Technical Developments and**

**Section 3 Practical Aspects of Broadband Networking 267**

Chapter 16 **Smart Connected City for Holistic Services 297** Hyun Jung Lee and Myungho Kim

Chapter 15 **Metrics for Broadband Networks in the Context of the Digital**

Aleš Švigelj and Melisa Junuzović

Liping Ai and Hermann J. Helgert

Chapter 11 **High-Speed Optical In-House Networks Using**

**Polymeric Fibers 181**

Haupt and Sebastian Höll

Chapter 12 **Content Defined Optical Network 199**

**Networks 143**

**VI** Contents

Gintaras Valusis

**Section 2 Optical Networks 179**

Hui Yang

Piney

Mert

**Networks 215**

**Standardization 239** Krzysztof Borzycki

**Economies 269**

Chapter 9 **Atmospheric Attenuation of the Terahertz Wireless**

**Streaming Services over Wireless Access Networks 123**

Milda Tamosiunaite, Stasys Tamosiunas, Mindaugas Zilinskas and

Ulrich H.P. Fischer-Hirchert, Matthias Haupt, Mladen Joncic, Stefanie

Hamzeh Khalili, David Rincón, Sebastià Sallent and José Ramón

Salman M. Al-Shehri, Pavel Loskot, Tolga Numanoğlu and Mehmet


Preface

tions engineering.

Nowadays, the Internet plays a vital role in our lives. It is always changing, and so is the world. As the base of the digital transformation that has made our world a global village, the Internet is currently one of the most effective media that is shifting to reach into all areas in today's society, including transportation, medicine and healthcare, industries, education, business administration and finance, among others. It has a distinguished record for bring‐ ing together many emerging technologies from a variety of different disciplines and facilitat‐ ing innovations that are practically changing our daily lifestyle. Topics about web services and IT operations that use the phrase 'Internet technology' become front page news. As we move into the next decade, the future holds many fast-moving technologies‑from Internet of things (IoT), cloud solutions, automation and artificial intelligence (AI), big data, machine learning, virtual reality, 5G and mobile technologies to connected vehicles, connected homes, and smart cities. All of these technologies are highly dependent on Internet connec‐ tivity and broadband communications. Consequently, recent surveys and research looking at digital mutations of our society and Internet-driven business trends by 2020 and beyond have revealed an exponential growth in information exchange, feature-rich communica‐ tions, and large/integrated traffic over a huge number of fixed and mobile end-devices. The demand for mobile and faster Internet connectivity is on the rise as the voice, video, and data continue to converge to speed up business operations and to improve every aspect of human life. As a result, the broadband communication networks, which connect everything on the Internet, are considered now as a complete ecosystem routing all Internet traffic. In fact, just few years ago, they were well‐known bottlenecks when it comes to fixed Internet connections. But in the age of mobile broadband, the information superhighway delivers

With all this in mind, drawing on research experiences and lessons from over the globe, this book explores the latest research and developments in the broadband communication net‐ works associated with multiservice modes and architectures in support of many emerging paradigms/applications of global Internet from the traditional architecture to the incorpora‐ tion of smart applications. Consequently, this book may be used as a reference book on broadband communication networks as well as on the practical uses of wired/wireless broadband communications. Committed to bridging the gap between theory and practice, this book is also a concise guide for students and readers interested in studying Internet con‐ nectivity, mobile/optical broadband networks, and concepts/applications of telecommunica‐

Overall, this book is comprised of 21 chapters authored by specialists in the field. After an introductory chapter on the background of broadband communication networks, the re‐ maining chapters are organized into three main parts: "Wireless/Mobile Broadband Net‐

Internet data faster and more flexibly than ever before.

## Preface

Nowadays, the Internet plays a vital role in our lives. It is always changing, and so is the world. As the base of the digital transformation that has made our world a global village, the Internet is currently one of the most effective media that is shifting to reach into all areas in today's society, including transportation, medicine and healthcare, industries, education, business administration and finance, among others. It has a distinguished record for bring‐ ing together many emerging technologies from a variety of different disciplines and facilitat‐ ing innovations that are practically changing our daily lifestyle. Topics about web services and IT operations that use the phrase 'Internet technology' become front page news. As we move into the next decade, the future holds many fast-moving technologies‑from Internet of things (IoT), cloud solutions, automation and artificial intelligence (AI), big data, machine learning, virtual reality, 5G and mobile technologies to connected vehicles, connected homes, and smart cities. All of these technologies are highly dependent on Internet connec‐ tivity and broadband communications. Consequently, recent surveys and research looking at digital mutations of our society and Internet-driven business trends by 2020 and beyond have revealed an exponential growth in information exchange, feature-rich communica‐ tions, and large/integrated traffic over a huge number of fixed and mobile end-devices. The demand for mobile and faster Internet connectivity is on the rise as the voice, video, and data continue to converge to speed up business operations and to improve every aspect of human life. As a result, the broadband communication networks, which connect everything on the Internet, are considered now as a complete ecosystem routing all Internet traffic. In fact, just few years ago, they were well‐known bottlenecks when it comes to fixed Internet connections. But in the age of mobile broadband, the information superhighway delivers Internet data faster and more flexibly than ever before.

With all this in mind, drawing on research experiences and lessons from over the globe, this book explores the latest research and developments in the broadband communication net‐ works associated with multiservice modes and architectures in support of many emerging paradigms/applications of global Internet from the traditional architecture to the incorpora‐ tion of smart applications. Consequently, this book may be used as a reference book on broadband communication networks as well as on the practical uses of wired/wireless broadband communications. Committed to bridging the gap between theory and practice, this book is also a concise guide for students and readers interested in studying Internet con‐ nectivity, mobile/optical broadband networks, and concepts/applications of telecommunica‐ tions engineering.

Overall, this book is comprised of 21 chapters authored by specialists in the field. After an introductory chapter on the background of broadband communication networks, the re‐ maining chapters are organized into three main parts: "Wireless/Mobile Broadband Net‐

work", "Optical Networks", and "Practical Aspects of Broadband Networking". The first part discusses some key challenges, uses cases from the field of wireless/mobile broadband networks and focuses on the following emerging areas/questions: the fundamental aspects, the evolution and techniques that increase the overall performance of the broadband com‐ munications over wireless access networks (Chapter 2 and Chapters 7 to 10). Moreover, this first part also includes a discussion on requirements, challenges, and emerging technologies of the future 5th generation (5G) cellular networks as the most recent technologies of the mobile broadband network (Chapters 3, 4, and 6). The fifth chapter addresses how power line communications (PLC) and small-cell network technologies can be brought together in a unified model to foster future small-cell technology.

The second part provides a review and technical information about optical broadband inter‐ connection and the design of optical networks as one of the high-speed and fast network technologies used to adapt the needs of large-scale data in Internet usage, with the advan‐ tages of large capacity, high bandwidth, and high efficiency (Chapters 11 to 14). Finally, the third part provides some of the latest research and practical aspects of broadband network‐ ing in the context of the digital economies (Chapter 15), with respect to economic interests and social problems in realization of broadband network (Chapter 18), in the areas of smart connected city (Chapter 16), and FiWi Networks (Chapter 17). The third part highlights in‐ novative strategies and techniques to enhance the performance of cutting-edge technologies in mobile broadband networks for the case of fast moving trains (Chapter 20), in HSR net‐ works (Chapter 19) and in future cloud mobile broadband networks (Chapter 21).

To conclude, the editors are grateful to all colleagues who authored the chapters of this book and contributed with valuable references and interesting results related to their current re‐ search and applications. We are also grateful to the members of the support team at Inte‐ chOpen for their help and professionalism. Special thanks are due to the reviewers for their willingness to review the chapters and provide useful feedback to the authors. We would particularly like to thank our colleague Asmaa El Hannani for her thorough feedback in or‐ der to improve the quality of the publication.

**Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal**

Laboratory of Information Technologies National School of Applied Sciences Chouaib Doukkali University, Morocco **Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband**

The Internet traffic is an ongoing explosive increasing from year to year, so that the annual global IP traffic surpassed the zettabytes threshold in 2016. Furthermore, it is predicted that the overall IP traffic will grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 24% from 2016 to 2021 [1]. Different factors are alimenting this growth, such as the increasing number of connected devices from different types, as illustrated by **Figure 1**. This continuous growth has a big impact on different level of networking, such as the wide area network, metro (metropolitan) network, access networks and the home (in-house/in-home) networks. Along the evolution of telecom networks, the access networks were always the "weak point" of the infrastructure and therefore referred to as "the bottleneck". Consequently, one of the first challenges in the era of Internet is the realisation of high-speed "broadband access networks". Basically, the concept and the term "Broadband Communications Networks" refers to any type of networks/ access technologies used by Internet Service Providers (ISP) to provide a broadband Internet access for a multimedia content delivery/distribution according to technical considerations and requirements such as guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). So many technologies were/ are developed to support Broadband Communications in different connection forms such as Dial-up, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Optical fibre, cable, Broadband over Powerline, Mobile and wireless Internet access and satellite Internet. There are also quite a few other broadband options available for the Internet connection. Both wired and wireless broadband solutions exist, but none is universally considered optimal for all use cases and products configuration. In fact, the quantification of the meaning of "broadband access" in Mbps is evolving with the time depending on user-experiences in using or consuming the offered data services. With the apparition of the notion "broadband" access, systems had to guarantee at least a capacity of 2 Mbps. This was achieved in a first stage through the successful rollout of Asymmetric Digital

**Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband** 

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80508

**Networks as Core for the Future Internet Societies**

**Networks as Core for the Future Internet Societies**

Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal

Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**1. Introduction: evolution of the needs for "broadband"**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508

#### **Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet Societies Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet Societies**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80508

Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508

work", "Optical Networks", and "Practical Aspects of Broadband Networking". The first part discusses some key challenges, uses cases from the field of wireless/mobile broadband networks and focuses on the following emerging areas/questions: the fundamental aspects, the evolution and techniques that increase the overall performance of the broadband com‐ munications over wireless access networks (Chapter 2 and Chapters 7 to 10). Moreover, this first part also includes a discussion on requirements, challenges, and emerging technologies of the future 5th generation (5G) cellular networks as the most recent technologies of the mobile broadband network (Chapters 3, 4, and 6). The fifth chapter addresses how power line communications (PLC) and small-cell network technologies can be brought together in a

The second part provides a review and technical information about optical broadband inter‐ connection and the design of optical networks as one of the high-speed and fast network technologies used to adapt the needs of large-scale data in Internet usage, with the advan‐ tages of large capacity, high bandwidth, and high efficiency (Chapters 11 to 14). Finally, the third part provides some of the latest research and practical aspects of broadband network‐ ing in the context of the digital economies (Chapter 15), with respect to economic interests and social problems in realization of broadband network (Chapter 18), in the areas of smart connected city (Chapter 16), and FiWi Networks (Chapter 17). The third part highlights in‐ novative strategies and techniques to enhance the performance of cutting-edge technologies in mobile broadband networks for the case of fast moving trains (Chapter 20), in HSR net‐

works (Chapter 19) and in future cloud mobile broadband networks (Chapter 21).

To conclude, the editors are grateful to all colleagues who authored the chapters of this book and contributed with valuable references and interesting results related to their current re‐ search and applications. We are also grateful to the members of the support team at Inte‐ chOpen for their help and professionalism. Special thanks are due to the reviewers for their willingness to review the chapters and provide useful feedback to the authors. We would particularly like to thank our colleague Asmaa El Hannani for her thorough feedback in or‐

> **Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal** Laboratory of Information Technologies National School of Applied Sciences Chouaib Doukkali University, Morocco

unified model to foster future small-cell technology.

X Preface

der to improve the quality of the publication.

### **1. Introduction: evolution of the needs for "broadband"**

The Internet traffic is an ongoing explosive increasing from year to year, so that the annual global IP traffic surpassed the zettabytes threshold in 2016. Furthermore, it is predicted that the overall IP traffic will grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 24% from 2016 to 2021 [1]. Different factors are alimenting this growth, such as the increasing number of connected devices from different types, as illustrated by **Figure 1**. This continuous growth has a big impact on different level of networking, such as the wide area network, metro (metropolitan) network, access networks and the home (in-house/in-home) networks. Along the evolution of telecom networks, the access networks were always the "weak point" of the infrastructure and therefore referred to as "the bottleneck". Consequently, one of the first challenges in the era of Internet is the realisation of high-speed "broadband access networks". Basically, the concept and the term "Broadband Communications Networks" refers to any type of networks/ access technologies used by Internet Service Providers (ISP) to provide a broadband Internet access for a multimedia content delivery/distribution according to technical considerations and requirements such as guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). So many technologies were/ are developed to support Broadband Communications in different connection forms such as Dial-up, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Optical fibre, cable, Broadband over Powerline, Mobile and wireless Internet access and satellite Internet. There are also quite a few other broadband options available for the Internet connection. Both wired and wireless broadband solutions exist, but none is universally considered optimal for all use cases and products configuration. In fact, the quantification of the meaning of "broadband access" in Mbps is evolving with the time depending on user-experiences in using or consuming the offered data services. With the apparition of the notion "broadband" access, systems had to guarantee at least a capacity of 2 Mbps. This was achieved in a first stage through the successful rollout of Asymmetric Digital

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Subscriber Line (ADSL). With the increasing data traffic, the fastest version of DSL, Very high bit rate DSL—VDSL, has partially fulfilled the requirements of intensive data traffic by offering 25 Mbps, but it is limited by the weak coverage of its signal transmission, which does not go over 300 m. Currently, it is expected that the speed of broadband access will merely double by 2021, so that the global fixed broadband speed will reach 53 Mbps, up from 27.5 Mbps in 2016 [1].

Technically, UMTS was designed to offer up to 2 Mbps for the end-users; however, in the field only about 300 kbps were possible. From the economical aspect, the fees of spectrum licences have reached some astronomical levels that bring strong imbalance in the business model.

Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508

3

The failed targets of 3G were partially corrected through the new versions of UMTS, like the High-Speed packet Access (HSAP or 3G+, some references use 3.5G). However, the real breakthrough of mobile broadband has been brought by the fourth generation of mobile technology based on 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) that allows capacities up to 300 Mbps. This speed increased significantly with the extension to LTE-Advanced and LTE-Advanced Pro (referred to as 4.5G). With the successful rollout of 4G around the world (except in some developing countries), the mobile broadband data traffic grew 70% between Q1 2016 and Q1 2017 and a further stronger increase in number of mobile/wireless connected device at their

Mobile communications are experiencing a major revolution catalysed by the change in the way our today's society creates, shares and consumes information. While the preparation for massive deployment of 5G by 2020 is still ongoing, researchers are already talking about the "Beyond 5G" (B5G) mobile communications era. It is widely agreed that B5G network should achieve greater system capacity (<1000 times) in terms of data rate (terabits per second) and user density (the Internet-of-things and nano-things) [4]. Accordingly, three ways are considered to realise several orders of increase in throughput gain: the extreme densification of infrastructure, large quantities of new bandwidth and a large number of antennas, allowing a

The telecommunications operators, especially the mobile services providers, have experienced one of the main mutation in the telecom markets, as the voice-dominated services are no longer making the main revenue for their business. In fact, in the period between 2006 and 2008 the operators' revenues were data dominated. At that period, the data traffic started its exponential growth, while the price stagnated accompanied with the economic recession. To balance their business model, operators started to converge their infrastructure to all-over-IP services, by the elimination of the circuit-switched infrastructure, which requires high OPEX and a wasting resources/bandwidth per excellence [5]. This was triggered by the adoption of 3GPP LTE as fourth generation mobile technology that transmits the voice service over IP packets (VoIP). The rollout of 4G has solved the main challenges that were facing the operators, but in the after-4G era, new challenges and requirements must be met such as more bandwidth, shorter latency and ultra-high reliable (UHR) communications. This is resulting either from new services/businesses or caused by a change in user or societal behaviour. As major pillars in new services or applications, we can cite the video, smart cities, big data and Mobile Big data (MBD), Internet-of-things (IoT), Car-to-X communications or Internet-of-vehicles (IoV), etc.

According to the mobile traffic analysis by application, the increased viewing of video on mobile devices, embedded video and emerging video formats will extremely drive data

generated traffic is foreseen for the next years [3].

throughput gain in the spatial dimension.

**2. Changing applications landscape**

The classical paradigm requiring the high speed for downlink connection, which was the reason for the success of ADSL, is not valid anymore for the current broadband access networks. For the cloud services, the end-users also need high-speed uplink to be able to upload their data to the cloud server(s). Furthermore, services and businesses based on big data are nourished by huge data volumes, which are collected in different forms (video, location information, sensing information, software logs, etc.). These two aspects concern both wired as well wireless network access.

The realisation of broadband for downlink and uplink can always be achieved by using optical fibres in the access domain guaranteeing very high speeds. However, it remains in most case economically unfeasible/unprofitable. Thus, the deployment of fibre in access networks, either as fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) or through fibre-to-the-building (FTTB) remains low and extremely different from one country to another, even in the industrial western countries. For example, according to most recent statistics from FTTH Council Europe, fibre access penetration in France does not go over 14.9% of households (with 3% through FTTH and remaining 11.9% through FTTB); while in Germany, this rate reaches 2.3% of households (with 1% FTTH plus 1.3% using FTTB) [2].

Beside the high speeds, the mobility is the second major key requirements of today's society, which makes from the "Broadband Mobile Internet" the headache for mobile operators. The age of Mobile Internet has started with the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), i.e. the third generation of mobile communications—3G. However, this start did not reach the expected success. Among the main causes for this start failure, two facts can be cited:

**Figure 1.** Global devices and connections [1].

Technically, UMTS was designed to offer up to 2 Mbps for the end-users; however, in the field only about 300 kbps were possible. From the economical aspect, the fees of spectrum licences have reached some astronomical levels that bring strong imbalance in the business model.

The failed targets of 3G were partially corrected through the new versions of UMTS, like the High-Speed packet Access (HSAP or 3G+, some references use 3.5G). However, the real breakthrough of mobile broadband has been brought by the fourth generation of mobile technology based on 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) that allows capacities up to 300 Mbps. This speed increased significantly with the extension to LTE-Advanced and LTE-Advanced Pro (referred to as 4.5G). With the successful rollout of 4G around the world (except in some developing countries), the mobile broadband data traffic grew 70% between Q1 2016 and Q1 2017 and a further stronger increase in number of mobile/wireless connected device at their generated traffic is foreseen for the next years [3].

Mobile communications are experiencing a major revolution catalysed by the change in the way our today's society creates, shares and consumes information. While the preparation for massive deployment of 5G by 2020 is still ongoing, researchers are already talking about the "Beyond 5G" (B5G) mobile communications era. It is widely agreed that B5G network should achieve greater system capacity (<1000 times) in terms of data rate (terabits per second) and user density (the Internet-of-things and nano-things) [4]. Accordingly, three ways are considered to realise several orders of increase in throughput gain: the extreme densification of infrastructure, large quantities of new bandwidth and a large number of antennas, allowing a throughput gain in the spatial dimension.

## **2. Changing applications landscape**

Subscriber Line (ADSL). With the increasing data traffic, the fastest version of DSL, Very high bit rate DSL—VDSL, has partially fulfilled the requirements of intensive data traffic by offering 25 Mbps, but it is limited by the weak coverage of its signal transmission, which does not go over 300 m. Currently, it is expected that the speed of broadband access will merely double by 2021, so that the global fixed broadband speed will reach 53 Mbps, up from 27.5 Mbps in

2 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

The classical paradigm requiring the high speed for downlink connection, which was the reason for the success of ADSL, is not valid anymore for the current broadband access networks. For the cloud services, the end-users also need high-speed uplink to be able to upload their data to the cloud server(s). Furthermore, services and businesses based on big data are nourished by huge data volumes, which are collected in different forms (video, location information, sensing information, software logs, etc.). These two aspects concern both wired as

The realisation of broadband for downlink and uplink can always be achieved by using optical fibres in the access domain guaranteeing very high speeds. However, it remains in most case economically unfeasible/unprofitable. Thus, the deployment of fibre in access networks, either as fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) or through fibre-to-the-building (FTTB) remains low and extremely different from one country to another, even in the industrial western countries. For example, according to most recent statistics from FTTH Council Europe, fibre access penetration in France does not go over 14.9% of households (with 3% through FTTH and remaining 11.9% through FTTB); while in Germany, this rate reaches 2.3% of households (with 1% FTTH

Beside the high speeds, the mobility is the second major key requirements of today's society, which makes from the "Broadband Mobile Internet" the headache for mobile operators. The age of Mobile Internet has started with the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), i.e. the third generation of mobile communications—3G. However, this start did not reach the expected success. Among the main causes for this start failure, two facts can be cited:

2016 [1].

well wireless network access.

plus 1.3% using FTTB) [2].

**Figure 1.** Global devices and connections [1].

The telecommunications operators, especially the mobile services providers, have experienced one of the main mutation in the telecom markets, as the voice-dominated services are no longer making the main revenue for their business. In fact, in the period between 2006 and 2008 the operators' revenues were data dominated. At that period, the data traffic started its exponential growth, while the price stagnated accompanied with the economic recession. To balance their business model, operators started to converge their infrastructure to all-over-IP services, by the elimination of the circuit-switched infrastructure, which requires high OPEX and a wasting resources/bandwidth per excellence [5]. This was triggered by the adoption of 3GPP LTE as fourth generation mobile technology that transmits the voice service over IP packets (VoIP). The rollout of 4G has solved the main challenges that were facing the operators, but in the after-4G era, new challenges and requirements must be met such as more bandwidth, shorter latency and ultra-high reliable (UHR) communications. This is resulting either from new services/businesses or caused by a change in user or societal behaviour. As major pillars in new services or applications, we can cite the video, smart cities, big data and Mobile Big data (MBD), Internet-of-things (IoT), Car-to-X communications or Internet-of-vehicles (IoV), etc.

According to the mobile traffic analysis by application, the increased viewing of video on mobile devices, embedded video and emerging video formats will extremely drive data consumption; as stated in the recent Mobility Report [3]. As stated in this report, mobile video traffic is forecast to grow by around 50% annually through 2023 to account for 75% of all mobile data traffic. Social networking is also expected to grow—increasing by 34% annually over the next 6 years. However, its relative share of traffic will decline from 12% in 2017 to around 8% in 2023, as a result of the stronger growth of video traffic. The position of video in mobile data consumption is illustrated in **Figure 2**. Furthermore, streaming videos are available in different resolutions to increase the user experience and satisfaction by using more high-resolution videos, which will certainly affect data traffic consumption to a high degree. Accordingly, watching HD video (1080p) rather than video at a standard resolution (480p) typically increases the data traffic volume by around 4 times. An emerging trend with increased streaming of immersive video formats, such as 360-degree video, would also impact data traffic consumption. For example, a YouTube 360° video consumes 4–5 times as much bandwidth as a normal YouTube video at the same resolution [3]. In addition, the emergence of new applications and changes in consumer behaviour can shift the forecast relative traffic volumes.

The world knows currently a strong urbanisation of today's societies, where more people are living in cities than in rural areas. This generates a pressure on different resources, which are always available or generated in limited volumes and/or capacity, such as energy, water, road, spaces, transport means, hospitals, etc. Therefore, the decision-makers developed roadmaps for building smart cities, with the goal of an optimal generation and utilisation/ consumption of these resources. The roadmaps differ from one country to another, but they all agree that the Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) platforms will constitute the core of these smart cities. In some visions, smart cities consists in developing different smart domains, such as smart grid, smart parking, smart building/homes, smart education,

e-administrations, etc. One of the visions is depicted in **Figure 3**, representing an early version of the smart cities from the German government's point of view, where broadband networks are the cornerstone in the ICT infrastructure [6]. A more complex and detailed recent version

Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508

5

of this structure, which includes security and big data, can be found in [7].

**Figure 3.** Broadband networks as core of future smart cities – German government's point of view [6].

**3. Technologies to build the next generation of broadband networks**

In spite of the above-cited challenges, the future mobile generation (5G) has found new emerging technologies to overcome all the boundaries, as explained in different chapters of this book. As key technologies of 5G, we can cite massive multiple-input multiple-output (massive-MIMO), network densification (or Ultra Network Densification), Cloud-based Radio Access Network (C-RAN), virtualisation, improved energy efficiency by energy-aware communication and energy harvesting, etc. However, mobile/wireless communications alone cannot be successful without the support from optical fibre, especially for the backhauling. This later is one of major parts of 5G as well as new spectrum parts, among others. The issues related to backhauling in 5G are discussed in Chapter 4 "5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies" and Chapter 5 "Radio Access Network Backhauling Using Power Line Communications", while spectrum issues are discussed in Chapter 3 "Spectrum usage for 5G mobile communication systems and electromagnetic compatibility with existent technologies". One of the key success factors of next mobile broadband networks is the finding of new locations in the spectrum (Unlicensed, mmWave and THz). In a first step, operators have

**Figure 2.** Increasing dominance of video content in mobile data [3].

Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508 5

**Figure 3.** Broadband networks as core of future smart cities – German government's point of view [6].

consumption; as stated in the recent Mobility Report [3]. As stated in this report, mobile video traffic is forecast to grow by around 50% annually through 2023 to account for 75% of all mobile data traffic. Social networking is also expected to grow—increasing by 34% annually over the next 6 years. However, its relative share of traffic will decline from 12% in 2017 to around 8% in 2023, as a result of the stronger growth of video traffic. The position of video in mobile data consumption is illustrated in **Figure 2**. Furthermore, streaming videos are available in different resolutions to increase the user experience and satisfaction by using more high-resolution videos, which will certainly affect data traffic consumption to a high degree. Accordingly, watching HD video (1080p) rather than video at a standard resolution (480p) typically increases the data traffic volume by around 4 times. An emerging trend with increased streaming of immersive video formats, such as 360-degree video, would also impact data traffic consumption. For example, a YouTube 360° video consumes 4–5 times as much bandwidth as a normal YouTube video at the same resolution [3]. In addition, the emergence of new applications and

The world knows currently a strong urbanisation of today's societies, where more people are living in cities than in rural areas. This generates a pressure on different resources, which are always available or generated in limited volumes and/or capacity, such as energy, water, road, spaces, transport means, hospitals, etc. Therefore, the decision-makers developed roadmaps for building smart cities, with the goal of an optimal generation and utilisation/ consumption of these resources. The roadmaps differ from one country to another, but they all agree that the Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) platforms will constitute the core of these smart cities. In some visions, smart cities consists in developing different smart domains, such as smart grid, smart parking, smart building/homes, smart education,

changes in consumer behaviour can shift the forecast relative traffic volumes.

4 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

**Figure 2.** Increasing dominance of video content in mobile data [3].

e-administrations, etc. One of the visions is depicted in **Figure 3**, representing an early version of the smart cities from the German government's point of view, where broadband networks are the cornerstone in the ICT infrastructure [6]. A more complex and detailed recent version of this structure, which includes security and big data, can be found in [7].

### **3. Technologies to build the next generation of broadband networks**

In spite of the above-cited challenges, the future mobile generation (5G) has found new emerging technologies to overcome all the boundaries, as explained in different chapters of this book. As key technologies of 5G, we can cite massive multiple-input multiple-output (massive-MIMO), network densification (or Ultra Network Densification), Cloud-based Radio Access Network (C-RAN), virtualisation, improved energy efficiency by energy-aware communication and energy harvesting, etc. However, mobile/wireless communications alone cannot be successful without the support from optical fibre, especially for the backhauling. This later is one of major parts of 5G as well as new spectrum parts, among others. The issues related to backhauling in 5G are discussed in Chapter 4 "5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies" and Chapter 5 "Radio Access Network Backhauling Using Power Line Communications", while spectrum issues are discussed in Chapter 3 "Spectrum usage for 5G mobile communication systems and electromagnetic compatibility with existent technologies".

One of the key success factors of next mobile broadband networks is the finding of new locations in the spectrum (Unlicensed, mmWave and THz). In a first step, operators have started to restructure their network to offload their traffic in the unlicensed bands. The 3GPP new technologies of Licenced Assisted Access (LAA) and LTE in unlicensed band (LTE-U) employ an unlicensed radio interface that operates over the 5 GHz unlicensed band to leverage the radio resources for operators' transmission [8, 9]. In a second step, to overcome the increase demand for wireless communication and scarcity of the spectrum bands, new land or parts of the spectrum are currently under exploration. Specifically, millimetre-wave (mmWave) communications systems (30–300 GHz) have been officially adopted in the fifth generation (5G) cellular systems, and several mmWave sub-bands have been allocated for licenced communications. However, the total consecutive available bandwidth for mmWave systems is still less than 10 GHz, which makes it difficult to go to the next step of the evolution and support data rates of the terabit per second. This pushes the researchers' community to explore the terahertz band (0.1–10 THz) communication, which is now envisioned as a key wireless technology to fulfil the future demands within 5G and beyond. Detailed discussion of this topic is given in Chapter 9 "Atmospheric attenuation of the terahertz wireless networks".

**Author details**

**References**

July 25, 2018]

Anwendungen. Essen; 2012

(in German); 2014

36889-d00; 2015

94, 95

Abdelfatteh Haidine\* and Abdelhak Aqqal

ity-wp.pdf [Accessed: July 25, 2018]

FINAL.2.pdf [Accessed: July 22, 2018]

Doukkali University, Morocco

\*Address all correspondence to: haidine.a@ucd.ac.ma

Laboratory of Information Technologies, National School of Applied Sciences, Chouaib

Introductory Chapter: Next Generation of Broadband Networks as Core for the Future Internet…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80508

7

[1] Cisco. The Zettabyte Era: Trends and Analysis. Cisco's White Paper—Part of Part of the Cisco Visual Networking. June 2017. Available from: https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/ solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/vni-hyperconnectiv-

[2] FTTH Council Europe. FTTH/B European Ranking—Sep 2017 [Internet]. February 2018. Available from: http://www.ftthcouncil.eu/documents/FTTH%20GR%2020180212\_

[3] Ericsson AB. Ericsson Mobility Report. Ericsson's Reports. November 2017. Available from: https://www.ericsson.com/en/mobility-report/reports/november-2017 [Accessed:

[4] Saidu-Huq KM, Jornet J, Gerstacker W, Al-Dulaimi A, Zhou Z, Aulin J. THz communications for mobile heterogeneous networks. IEEE Communications Magazine. 2018;**56**(6):

[5] Nutaq. Towards 5G—Business Model Innovations [Internet]. Available from: https://

[6] Nationaler IT Gipfel-AG2. Empfehlungen für eine nationale Strategie Intelligente Netze. Report (in German) Arbeitsgruppe 2-Digitale Infrastrukturen als Enabler für innovative

[7] Arbeitsgruppe 2 des Nationalen IT-Gipfels. Digitale Infastrukturen - Schwerpunkte und Zielbilder für die Digitale Agenda Deutschlands. Arbeitsgruppe 2, Jahrbuch 2013/2014

[8] Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Technical Specifications Group radio Network; Study on Licensed-Assisted Access to Unlicensed. Technical report 3GPP-

[9] Zhou Z, Mumtaz S, Huq KMS, Al-Dulaimi A, Chandra K, Rodriquez J. Cloud miracles: Heterogeneous cloud RAN for fair coexistence of LTE-U and Wi-Fi in ultra dense 5G

www.nutaq.com/towards-5g-business- [Accessed: July 21, 2018]

networks. IEEE Communications Magazine. 2018;**56**(6):64-71

Optical fibre is forcing its way to go beyond the backhauling domain and FTTB, since so many countries have recognised the importance of high-speed broadband networks. The passive version of optical access network had a big part in lowering the deployment costs, besides the utilisation of software defined network (SN) technology. Discussion of the aspects related to "how to force the way for fibre" near to the end-user can be found in Part 2 of the book.

### **4. Conclusion**

Broadband communication networks are currently a real need for today's society, and not more just a trend or luxury. In general, there is a lot of conferences and documentation in the literature about Broadband Communications Networks, but only few are interested in making it very transparent and accessible to others according to a broad perspective, cutting across wired/wireless technologies and Internet sectors. For example, what kind of Internet access do we need to have when moving to new Internet-driven applications of business and/ or for specific computing contexts/smart environments? High Speed? Broadband? Wireless connection? Satellite? Optical Fibre? Mobile networks? What are the lessons we need to know about the practice in order to get fresh innovative ideas to speed up business operations and to improve every aspect of the human life? What are recent advances and notable emerging technologies, which will make us look beyond the horizon? Providing answers to these questions, based on the latest research and developments of the broadband communications technologies, is the focus of the following chapters.

With all this in mind, drawing on research experiences and lessons from over the globe, this book explores the latest research and developments of the broadband communications technologies associated with broadband communications network architectures in support of many emerging paradigms/applications of the global Internet from the traditional architecture to the incorporation of smart applications.

### **Author details**

started to restructure their network to offload their traffic in the unlicensed bands. The 3GPP new technologies of Licenced Assisted Access (LAA) and LTE in unlicensed band (LTE-U) employ an unlicensed radio interface that operates over the 5 GHz unlicensed band to leverage the radio resources for operators' transmission [8, 9]. In a second step, to overcome the increase demand for wireless communication and scarcity of the spectrum bands, new land or parts of the spectrum are currently under exploration. Specifically, millimetre-wave (mmWave) communications systems (30–300 GHz) have been officially adopted in the fifth generation (5G) cellular systems, and several mmWave sub-bands have been allocated for licenced communications. However, the total consecutive available bandwidth for mmWave systems is still less than 10 GHz, which makes it difficult to go to the next step of the evolution and support data rates of the terabit per second. This pushes the researchers' community to explore the terahertz band (0.1–10 THz) communication, which is now envisioned as a key wireless technology to fulfil the future demands within 5G and beyond. Detailed discussion of this topic is given in Chapter 9 "Atmospheric attenuation of

6 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

Optical fibre is forcing its way to go beyond the backhauling domain and FTTB, since so many countries have recognised the importance of high-speed broadband networks. The passive version of optical access network had a big part in lowering the deployment costs, besides the utilisation of software defined network (SN) technology. Discussion of the aspects related to "how to force the way for fibre" near to the end-user can be found in Part 2 of the book.

Broadband communication networks are currently a real need for today's society, and not more just a trend or luxury. In general, there is a lot of conferences and documentation in the literature about Broadband Communications Networks, but only few are interested in making it very transparent and accessible to others according to a broad perspective, cutting across wired/wireless technologies and Internet sectors. For example, what kind of Internet access do we need to have when moving to new Internet-driven applications of business and/ or for specific computing contexts/smart environments? High Speed? Broadband? Wireless connection? Satellite? Optical Fibre? Mobile networks? What are the lessons we need to know about the practice in order to get fresh innovative ideas to speed up business operations and to improve every aspect of the human life? What are recent advances and notable emerging technologies, which will make us look beyond the horizon? Providing answers to these questions, based on the latest research and developments of the broadband communications

With all this in mind, drawing on research experiences and lessons from over the globe, this book explores the latest research and developments of the broadband communications technologies associated with broadband communications network architectures in support of many emerging paradigms/applications of the global Internet from the traditional architec-

the terahertz wireless networks".

technologies, is the focus of the following chapters.

ture to the incorporation of smart applications.

**4. Conclusion**

Abdelfatteh Haidine\* and Abdelhak Aqqal

\*Address all correspondence to: haidine.a@ucd.ac.ma

Laboratory of Information Technologies, National School of Applied Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University, Morocco

### **References**


**Section 1**

**Wireless/Mobile Broadband Network**

**Wireless/Mobile Broadband Network**

**Chapter 2**

**Provisional chapter**

**Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks:**

**Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks:** 

With the rapid increase in users' demand for flexibility and scalability of communication services, broadband communication networks are facing an ongoing challenge of providing various broadband services using a single communication architecture. This leads to the evolution of a challenging field of multiservice broadband network architectures. This chapter discusses the basic concepts associated with broadband communication network architectures with emphasis on provision of multiservice, and it also focuses on the evolution of broadband communication networks from the traditional architecture to the incorporation of virtualization services, that is, cloud computing. Another important aspect, which relates to the multiservice broadband network, is the "applications" which, as this chapter highlights, are a key-driving factor for the evolution of broadband communication networks. Moreover, this chapter also includes a discussion on New Zealand's government initiatives to provide improved network coverage within

**Keywords:** broadband, communication network, evolution, applications, architecture

Broadband communication networks have become increasingly popular. These are the networks, which give telecommunications a new perspective by supporting traffic of multiple types, that is voice, video and data (also known as multimedia), but also communicating these to the end user using a single packet. Some of the networks which started with the provision of multimedia capabilities include asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and Frame

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73590

**Architecture and Applications**

**Architecture and Applications**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez

**Abstract**

the country.

**1. Introduction**

Relay [1].

Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73590

#### **Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73590

Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez Sonia Gul and Jairo Gutierrez

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73590

#### **Abstract**

With the rapid increase in users' demand for flexibility and scalability of communication services, broadband communication networks are facing an ongoing challenge of providing various broadband services using a single communication architecture. This leads to the evolution of a challenging field of multiservice broadband network architectures. This chapter discusses the basic concepts associated with broadband communication network architectures with emphasis on provision of multiservice, and it also focuses on the evolution of broadband communication networks from the traditional architecture to the incorporation of virtualization services, that is, cloud computing. Another important aspect, which relates to the multiservice broadband network, is the "applications" which, as this chapter highlights, are a key-driving factor for the evolution of broadband communication networks. Moreover, this chapter also includes a discussion on New Zealand's government initiatives to provide improved network coverage within the country.

**Keywords:** broadband, communication network, evolution, applications, architecture

### **1. Introduction**

Broadband communication networks have become increasingly popular. These are the networks, which give telecommunications a new perspective by supporting traffic of multiple types, that is voice, video and data (also known as multimedia), but also communicating these to the end user using a single packet. Some of the networks which started with the provision of multimedia capabilities include asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and Frame Relay [1].

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Broadband communication networks are regarded as aggregated networks (providing voice, video and data) over the wired network including Ethernet and fibre. The multiservice support of these networks not only opened a new era in telecommunications but rather also has challenged the network operator's abilities and capacities.

In this chapter, a tutorial background on broadband communication networks is provided. The challenges faced and the techniques adopted by the service providers are described with the insight into the evolution of broadband communication networks starting from ATM to the virtualization of broadband services.

### **2. Broadband communication networks**

During the 1980s, the telecommunication industry started to work towards the concept of providing any type of information to anyone, anywhere. This concept pushed the evolution of wireless networks including both cellular networks and wireless local area networks (WLANs). The WLANs have then evolved supporting faster data rates, higher throughput and better roaming capabilities, hence a more efficient communication network for offices, home and other purposes. Similar to WLANs, cellular networks have also gone into the transition from 2G to the current 5G efforts mainly targeting the communication needs of mobile users. All these advancements brought up a range of technologies including ATM, International Mobile Telecommunication (ITM)-2000 systems [2], wireless IP networks, WLANs, and 4G and 5G networks (ITM-2020).

the applications that require high data rates. As per the standard (802.16-2004) broadband refers to "having instantaneous bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s" [6]. Lately, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has increased

2003 IEEE 802.11F, g 2012 IEEE 802.11 aa, ad, ae, 802.11-2012

Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications

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13

2007 IEEE 802.11-2007 2016 IEEE 802.11 ai, ah, 802.11-2016 2008 IEEE 802.11k, r, y 2017 (in progress) IEEE 802.11 aj, aq, ak, ax, ay, az, ba

Broadband communication networks are still considered as one of the vital factors which may help businesses throughout the world to achieve their goals for sustainable development, by 2030 [8]. A number of broadband technologies are required to work together to meet this goal. These technologies include, but are not limited to, mobile and fixed broadband, backhaul satellite networks, Wi-Fi (unlicensed) technologies and cellular (licensed)

With the advancements in technology, wireless networks are able to support almost the same data rates as those of some wired networks (including cable modems and asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL). Therefore, both fixed and wireless broadband networks have grown tremendously in previous years [9]. In **Table 3**, the broadband technologies to date are sum-

2003 UMTS, W-CDMA

WiMAX 2.1

the download and upload speeds to at least 25 and 3 Mbits/s, respectively [7].

**Year Cellular network standards Year Cellular network standards**

1992 GSM, CSD, HSCSD, CDMA, D-AMPS 2005 HSPA, HSPA+, LTE, WiMAX, Flash-OFDM 2000 GPRS, EDGE, CDMA2000 2011–2013 LTE Advanced/Pro, WiMAX (IEEE 802.16m),

**Year WLAN standards Year WLAN standards** IEEE 802.11-1997 2009 IEEE 802.11 n, w IEEE 802.11b 2010 IEEE 802.11z IEEE 802.11 a, c, d 2011 IEEE 802.11 s, u, v

2004 IEEE 802.11h, i, j 2013 IEEE 802.11 ac 2005 IEEE 802.11e 2014 IEEE 802.11af

networks.

marized for easy reference.

ETACS

1985 AMPS (TIA, EIA), N-AMPS, TACS,

**Table 2.** Popular cellular network standard summary [10].

**Table 1.** IEEE WLAN standard summary [5].

### **2.1. History: standardization point of view**

The evolution of broadband communication networks can be seen as a competition between two technological domains, namely WLAN and cellular. The international standardization organizations have been working hard to progress each of these technological domains that are taking over the broadband communication era [3]. A number of standards under both domains are being set, published and provided to the market to be used commercially. In **Tables 1** and **2**, we summarize the standards to date for both technological domains.

### **2.2. Technological view point**

The terminology "band" has been used for a long time by engineers, and it started with the definition referring to a set of channels and/or frequencies. Later, this term has been used with other adjectives to make it sound more understandable, for example, baseband, passband, etc. In the 1980s, the term wideband started to be used very frequently when referring to a number of channels [4].

In telecommunications, broadband communications are achieved using a wideband of channels. This allows channels to have more capacity, and hence they can support communications from


**Table 1.** IEEE WLAN standard summary [5].

Broadband communication networks are regarded as aggregated networks (providing voice, video and data) over the wired network including Ethernet and fibre. The multiservice support of these networks not only opened a new era in telecommunications but rather also has

In this chapter, a tutorial background on broadband communication networks is provided. The challenges faced and the techniques adopted by the service providers are described with the insight into the evolution of broadband communication networks starting from

During the 1980s, the telecommunication industry started to work towards the concept of providing any type of information to anyone, anywhere. This concept pushed the evolution of wireless networks including both cellular networks and wireless local area networks (WLANs). The WLANs have then evolved supporting faster data rates, higher throughput and better roaming capabilities, hence a more efficient communication network for offices, home and other purposes. Similar to WLANs, cellular networks have also gone into the transition from 2G to the current 5G efforts mainly targeting the communication needs of mobile users. All these advancements brought up a range of technologies including ATM, International Mobile Telecommunication (ITM)-2000 systems [2], wireless IP networks, WLANs, and 4G

The evolution of broadband communication networks can be seen as a competition between two technological domains, namely WLAN and cellular. The international standardization organizations have been working hard to progress each of these technological domains that are taking over the broadband communication era [3]. A number of standards under both domains are being set, published and provided to the market to be used commercially. In

The terminology "band" has been used for a long time by engineers, and it started with the definition referring to a set of channels and/or frequencies. Later, this term has been used with other adjectives to make it sound more understandable, for example, baseband, passband, etc. In the 1980s, the term wideband started to be used very frequently when referring to a

In telecommunications, broadband communications are achieved using a wideband of channels. This allows channels to have more capacity, and hence they can support communications from

**Tables 1** and **2**, we summarize the standards to date for both technological domains.

challenged the network operator's abilities and capacities.

12 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

ATM to the virtualization of broadband services.

**2. Broadband communication networks**

and 5G networks (ITM-2020).

**2.2. Technological view point**

number of channels [4].

**2.1. History: standardization point of view**

the applications that require high data rates. As per the standard (802.16-2004) broadband refers to "having instantaneous bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s" [6]. Lately, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has increased the download and upload speeds to at least 25 and 3 Mbits/s, respectively [7].

Broadband communication networks are still considered as one of the vital factors which may help businesses throughout the world to achieve their goals for sustainable development, by 2030 [8]. A number of broadband technologies are required to work together to meet this goal. These technologies include, but are not limited to, mobile and fixed broadband, backhaul satellite networks, Wi-Fi (unlicensed) technologies and cellular (licensed) networks.

With the advancements in technology, wireless networks are able to support almost the same data rates as those of some wired networks (including cable modems and asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL). Therefore, both fixed and wireless broadband networks have grown tremendously in previous years [9]. In **Table 3**, the broadband technologies to date are summarized for easy reference.


**Table 2.** Popular cellular network standard summary [10].


• High level of quality of service (QoS), security, reliability, scalability and availability

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15

In the early 2000s, there was an increasing demand for voice, data and video (triple play) services especially for residential purposes. Based on the demand, the network architecture started to evolve towards providing these triple play services using Ethernet technology [18–21]. One major requirement which turns up for the provision of the said service aggregation is multicast forwarding which is designed to minimize the number of network links

On one side, the use of multicast enhances the performance and reduces the network load, while, on the other hand, using it with the traditional Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) sessions makes the big picture more complex [22, 23]. To address this issue, the use of a more dynamic protocol, that is, DHCP is introduced instead of PPP for IP [24]. In broadband networks the sessions using DHCP started to prove their worth by proving simple and

This aggregated multicast networks proved so successful for residential clients that soon service providers started to offer these for businesses. This led to the next step of its evolution where the same network architecture is used to transport both mobile and fixed traffic. This was enabled with the introduction of backhauling for mobile traffic of 2G/3G networks, a

Internet Protocol/Multiprotocol Label Switching (IP/MPLS) is a well-adopted technology [27, 28]. However, based on its flexible nature, it was initially used for backbone and core networks. Later on, this technology also started to spread in the aggregated service network domain and started to support the service access layer which connects IP-based service nodes

The success of IP/MPLS in the access layer of multiservice broadband networks opened new horizons for building a unified network architecture using commonly used technologies. This allowed service providers to use the same technology throughout their network including at

Based on the need and functionality of access node (AN), two implementation models for IP/

capability that was later moved to work with 4G/LTE networks [25, 26].

the access, aggregation and core levels, which results in [29, 30]:

• Effective management of services • Support for virtualization services

used for media streams.

always-on connections for residential users.

and customer premises equipment (CPEs).

• Flexibility in the placement of service nodes

• Simple provision of aggregated services

• Better scalability of the network

MPLS have been mainly used [17]:

**3.2. IP to MPLS-based routing**

**3.1. Triple play services: aggregated services using multicast**

**Table 3.** Popular broadband technology summary.

### **3. Multiservice-broadband network architecture evolution**

The evolution of multiservice broadband network architectures extends from the digital subscriber line (DSL) architecture [14, 15]. The network architecture has evolved to fulfill the increasing demands of service, not only for residential users but also for wholesale markets and businesses. Based on these the focus is not only of the provision of quality of service (QoS) but also on availability and reliability. This leads to a whole list of new motivations about the services which were expected from the multiservice broadband network architecture including a simpler network design architecture, unified connectivity, enhancements and improvements in operations, independent provision of services, improved availability, improved scalability and efficient support for multi-edge services [15, 16].

Multiservice broadband architectures evolve to address the needs of triple play and converged broadband networks. This evolution provides a pathway for service providers to face the upcoming broadband network challenges in an effective and efficient manner. Some of these challenges are listed below [17]:


#### **3.1. Triple play services: aggregated services using multicast**

In the early 2000s, there was an increasing demand for voice, data and video (triple play) services especially for residential purposes. Based on the demand, the network architecture started to evolve towards providing these triple play services using Ethernet technology [18–21]. One major requirement which turns up for the provision of the said service aggregation is multicast forwarding which is designed to minimize the number of network links used for media streams.

On one side, the use of multicast enhances the performance and reduces the network load, while, on the other hand, using it with the traditional Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) sessions makes the big picture more complex [22, 23]. To address this issue, the use of a more dynamic protocol, that is, DHCP is introduced instead of PPP for IP [24]. In broadband networks the sessions using DHCP started to prove their worth by proving simple and always-on connections for residential users.

This aggregated multicast networks proved so successful for residential clients that soon service providers started to offer these for businesses. This led to the next step of its evolution where the same network architecture is used to transport both mobile and fixed traffic. This was enabled with the introduction of backhauling for mobile traffic of 2G/3G networks, a capability that was later moved to work with 4G/LTE networks [25, 26].

#### **3.2. IP to MPLS-based routing**

**3. Multiservice-broadband network architecture evolution**

2011 WiMAX 30 Mbits/s–1 Gbits/s 2011 LTE Advanced 200–300 Mbits/s

2015 LTE Advanced Pro 1 Gbits/s

\*Satellites are also being used for broadband communications.

**Table 3.** Popular broadband technology summary.

**Year Broadband technologies Data rate (max)**

2008 FTTH-FTTX 2.5 Gbits/s–622 Mbits/s [12]

1998 LMDS 64 kbits/s–155 Mbits/s [13]

 Hybrid fibre coaxial (HFC) 400 Mbits/s 1990s Broadband over power lines (BPL) 3 Mbits/s [11] ADSL 12.0–1.8 Mbits/s ADSL2+ 24.0–3.3 Mbits/s

14 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

1947 Microwave 800 Mbits/s

 MMDS 27–38 Mbits/s W-CDMA, CDMA2000 153 kbits/s FSO 10 Gbits/s LTE (standard) 144 Mbits/s

**Fixed line**

**Wireless**

scalability and efficient support for multi-edge services [15, 16].

these challenges are listed below [17]:

• Support of IP-based applications

The evolution of multiservice broadband network architectures extends from the digital subscriber line (DSL) architecture [14, 15]. The network architecture has evolved to fulfill the increasing demands of service, not only for residential users but also for wholesale markets and businesses. Based on these the focus is not only of the provision of quality of service (QoS) but also on availability and reliability. This leads to a whole list of new motivations about the services which were expected from the multiservice broadband network architecture including a simpler network design architecture, unified connectivity, enhancements and improvements in operations, independent provision of services, improved availability, improved

Multiservice broadband architectures evolve to address the needs of triple play and converged broadband networks. This evolution provides a pathway for service providers to face the upcoming broadband network challenges in an effective and efficient manner. Some of

• Easy and quick provision of services for both business and residential users

Internet Protocol/Multiprotocol Label Switching (IP/MPLS) is a well-adopted technology [27, 28]. However, based on its flexible nature, it was initially used for backbone and core networks. Later on, this technology also started to spread in the aggregated service network domain and started to support the service access layer which connects IP-based service nodes and customer premises equipment (CPEs).

The success of IP/MPLS in the access layer of multiservice broadband networks opened new horizons for building a unified network architecture using commonly used technologies. This allowed service providers to use the same technology throughout their network including at the access, aggregation and core levels, which results in [29, 30]:


Based on the need and functionality of access node (AN), two implementation models for IP/ MPLS have been mainly used [17]:

### *3.2.1. Seamless MPLS model*

Seamless MPLS model extended only limited functionality to the AN. This model used the simplest form of IP routing, that is, static routes between aggregation nodes and the access nodes. To get better scalability, the label distribution feature of MPLS is used.

### *3.2.2. Full MPLS model*

On the other hand, full MPLS model extended the complete functionality of Layer 3, that is, dynamic routing to AN.This makes access nodes and aggregation nodes functionally equivalent.

The choice of model depends on the specific requirements and the current network structure.

### **3.3. Architecture-supported functions**

Based on the challenges mentioned in the previous section, the functions of the multiservice broadband architecture are defined. These functions are defined keeping in mind the main objective, that is, provision of all these services using a common network infrastructure [31]:

• Layering functions include forwarding (relaying layer information) and termination/adaptation functions (mapping user information to a specific layer).

**3.5. Trend of fixed mobile convergence**

**Figure 1.** Multiservice broadband network's service layers.

• Convergence of business needs and services

• Convergence of network technologies and infrastructure

• Convergence of end user devices and management

anyone regardless of type of the access network.

convergence [34].

The need for ubiquitous service delivery between fixed and mobile networks has emerged with the advancement in technology, specifically the availability of IP-based mobile handsets/devices. The number of mobile devices' users continues to grow, and the demand for service availability regardless of the type (i.e. fixed or wireless) of the access network has increased. This laid the basis for a new trend in technology, that is, fixed mobile network

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Several aspects have been considered for the internetworking of fixed and mobile network

The broadband forum has produced a technical report considering all the challenges and aspects of the internetworking of fixed and mobile networks [35]. The main aim is to provide a converged network architecture that will support the provision of any service, anywhere to

For the convergence of network technologies and infrastructure, one of the emerging solutions is the use of fibre wireless (FiWi) networks. Wired networks based on fibre optics are considered as having potential to deliver huge bandwidth to the end users; however, the technology has limitations in terms of supporting end user roaming requirements. While the networks using wireless-access technologies are supporting easy roaming and mobility, they are not supporting high-bandwidth and long-distance solutions. Fibre wireless (FiWi) has

architectures, but mainly the standardization bodies have focused on the following:


### **3.4. Service layers**

The unique multiservice nature allows the provision of services at various layers. This yield to the design of various service layers as follows:


Cloud computing and virtualization services do not get across to all the above-mentioned layers. **Figure 1** depicts the view of the discussion above.

Evolution of Broadband Communication Networks: Architecture and Applications http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73590 17

**Figure 1.** Multiservice broadband network's service layers.

#### **3.5. Trend of fixed mobile convergence**

*3.2.1. Seamless MPLS model*

*3.2.2. Full MPLS model*

ture [31]:

**3.4. Service layers**

etc.

**3.3. Architecture-supported functions**

Seamless MPLS model extended only limited functionality to the AN. This model used the simplest form of IP routing, that is, static routes between aggregation nodes and the access

On the other hand, full MPLS model extended the complete functionality of Layer 3, that is, dynamic routing to AN.This makes access nodes and aggregation nodes functionally equivalent. The choice of model depends on the specific requirements and the current network structure.

Based on the challenges mentioned in the previous section, the functions of the multiservice broadband architecture are defined. These functions are defined keeping in mind the main objective, that is, provision of all these services using a common network infrastruc-

• Layering functions include forwarding (relaying layer information) and termination/adap-

• Filtering and scheduling involve filtering of data (e.g. using ACL-access control lists) and

The unique multiservice nature allows the provision of services at various layers. This yield

• IP-service layer: These include the IP-layer services which can be seen directly by the end user. Such services include VPNs, Internet access for business and residential purposes,

• Ethernet-service layer: These are the services which provide transport capabilities based on the service, for example, service aware, such as Ethernet access services (some are defined by Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF)), etc. [32, 33]. This is mainly achieved by using the concept

• Support-aggregation layer: These services support to map Ethernet services on top of other

Cloud computing and virtualization services do not get across to all the above-mentioned

• Synchronization functions deal with frequency, phase and time synchronization.

tation functions (mapping user information to a specific layer).

• Control functions include session control and resource control.

scheduling considering priorities, policies, etc.

to the design of various service layers as follows:

of Infrastructure Virtual Circuit (IVC).

technologies, for example, IP/MLPS, etc.

layers. **Figure 1** depicts the view of the discussion above.

nodes. To get better scalability, the label distribution feature of MPLS is used.

16 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

The need for ubiquitous service delivery between fixed and mobile networks has emerged with the advancement in technology, specifically the availability of IP-based mobile handsets/devices. The number of mobile devices' users continues to grow, and the demand for service availability regardless of the type (i.e. fixed or wireless) of the access network has increased. This laid the basis for a new trend in technology, that is, fixed mobile network convergence [34].

Several aspects have been considered for the internetworking of fixed and mobile network architectures, but mainly the standardization bodies have focused on the following:


The broadband forum has produced a technical report considering all the challenges and aspects of the internetworking of fixed and mobile networks [35]. The main aim is to provide a converged network architecture that will support the provision of any service, anywhere to anyone regardless of type of the access network.

For the convergence of network technologies and infrastructure, one of the emerging solutions is the use of fibre wireless (FiWi) networks. Wired networks based on fibre optics are considered as having potential to deliver huge bandwidth to the end users; however, the technology has limitations in terms of supporting end user roaming requirements. While the networks using wireless-access technologies are supporting easy roaming and mobility, they are not supporting high-bandwidth and long-distance solutions. Fibre wireless (FiWi) has introduced to the best features of both wired-fibre networks and wireless-access networks [36]. FiWi technology allows to use wireless technologies for access, while the rest of the network is mainly fibre.

• Supports resource scalability according to the demand.

• Resources are provided using a single infrastructure for multiple users.

ous network nodes in order to provide a better communication service.

**4. Application-driven network evolution**

• IP television supporting through broadcasting

• Advertising: embedded inside the video

• Gaming: multiplayer Internet-based gaming

• Video playing functions: play, pause, rewind, forward, etc.

• Video on demand (VoD)

• Internet TV

• Distant learning

• High-definition TV • IP telephony, etc.

• Accountability of resources usage is done, and customer is billed accordingly.

A number of frameworks have been proposed to fulfill the virtualization of service requirements. These cloud services have taken communication networks towards an entire new dimension. Currently, researchers have stated working towards a multi-access edge computing (MEC) platform. The MEC aims to converge services from IT and telecommunications and provide these at the edge of a radio network, that is, access layer. It also proposes to use cloud computing to provide an efficient access to requested services [37–39]. Another key tool used to achieve the said virtualization is network function virtualization (NFV) [40]. This is considered as an embedded part of the network, which ensures tight integration among vari-

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Cloudlets [41] are also introduced to address the challenge of quick response between the mobile devices and the associated cloud. Cloudlets are there to support the applications with high user interaction and require real-time responses. Cloudlets are small-scale cloud-based data centres which are located towards the edge of Internet to provide quick responses to mobile user requests. One of the other candidate technologies for supporting virtualization is

The evolution of multiservice broadband networks was not only led by the advancement in technology; another rather important factor was the "Applications". Applications are what the end users' experience, and network architectures have to enhance their offerings to provide end users with the flawless experience they are looking for. The following are some of

• Internet-based business-supported applications including HTTPS, Email, FTP and VPNs

fog computing [42]. It is considered as the combination of edge and cloud computing.

the application trends, which contributed to network architecture advancements:

• Ubiquitous access of resources is provided.

A conceptual view of the fixed mobile convergence is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

The above-illustrated conceptual view incorporates various technologies which support highbandwidth requirements with mobility. Such technologies include access networks using mm-wave and radio-over-fibre (RoF), micro−/millimetre wave-based relay and RoF and digital baseband-based core/backhaul networks. Another important aspect included in the above conceptual view is the support of cloud computing. More details on cloud computing and virtualization support are provided in the following section.

### **3.6. Cloud computing and virtualization support**

To keep pace with the increasing demands of the applications over the network, service providers have started to embrace cloud computing. Cloud computing has given freedom to the service providers which enabled them to serve the user requests with the use of virtualization services in a cost-effective and time-saving manner. Virtualization enabled them to achieve ubiquitous and on-demand access to network services.

Cloud computing is one of the vital parts of the multiservice broadband architecture. Virtualization services have been added in the said architecture in many ways; however, one of the popular techniques is to incorporate virtual services as one of the network functions [17]. Virtualization services should be providing the following features:


**Figure 2.** Conceptual view of fixed mobile convergence [36].


introduced to the best features of both wired-fibre networks and wireless-access networks [36]. FiWi technology allows to use wireless technologies for access, while the rest of the net-

The above-illustrated conceptual view incorporates various technologies which support highbandwidth requirements with mobility. Such technologies include access networks using mm-wave and radio-over-fibre (RoF), micro−/millimetre wave-based relay and RoF and digital baseband-based core/backhaul networks. Another important aspect included in the above conceptual view is the support of cloud computing. More details on cloud computing and

To keep pace with the increasing demands of the applications over the network, service providers have started to embrace cloud computing. Cloud computing has given freedom to the service providers which enabled them to serve the user requests with the use of virtualization services in a cost-effective and time-saving manner. Virtualization enabled them to achieve

Cloud computing is one of the vital parts of the multiservice broadband architecture. Virtualization services have been added in the said architecture in many ways; however, one of the popular techniques is to incorporate virtual services as one of the network functions

• The resources are accessible immediately as per the request, and the allocation can be ter-

• The resources should be available whenever requested, that is, resource scarcity should

A conceptual view of the fixed mobile convergence is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

virtualization support are provided in the following section.

18 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

**3.6. Cloud computing and virtualization support**

ubiquitous and on-demand access to network services.

minated when the job is done.

**Figure 2.** Conceptual view of fixed mobile convergence [36].

not occur.

[17]. Virtualization services should be providing the following features:

work is mainly fibre.


A number of frameworks have been proposed to fulfill the virtualization of service requirements. These cloud services have taken communication networks towards an entire new dimension. Currently, researchers have stated working towards a multi-access edge computing (MEC) platform. The MEC aims to converge services from IT and telecommunications and provide these at the edge of a radio network, that is, access layer. It also proposes to use cloud computing to provide an efficient access to requested services [37–39]. Another key tool used to achieve the said virtualization is network function virtualization (NFV) [40]. This is considered as an embedded part of the network, which ensures tight integration among various network nodes in order to provide a better communication service.

Cloudlets [41] are also introduced to address the challenge of quick response between the mobile devices and the associated cloud. Cloudlets are there to support the applications with high user interaction and require real-time responses. Cloudlets are small-scale cloud-based data centres which are located towards the edge of Internet to provide quick responses to mobile user requests. One of the other candidate technologies for supporting virtualization is fog computing [42]. It is considered as the combination of edge and cloud computing.

### **4. Application-driven network evolution**

The evolution of multiservice broadband networks was not only led by the advancement in technology; another rather important factor was the "Applications". Applications are what the end users' experience, and network architectures have to enhance their offerings to provide end users with the flawless experience they are looking for. The following are some of the application trends, which contributed to network architecture advancements:


and the need for more speed and data (more specifically broadband technologies), the copper has to be replaced by optical fibres. With the UFB New Zealanders will be able to access data

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In New Zealand, UFB is considered one of the biggest infrastructure-based projects. Around 85% of the population will have access to fibre to the premises (FTTP) towards the end of 2024 [46]. The NZ government, to make the UFB accessible by as many people as possible, is invest-

The Ultra-Fast broadband project mainly focuses on the provision of fast Internet services to urban areas. However, there are various rural and coastal areas in the country, which also need access to these fast network connections. To ensure every New Zealander can access and experience the improved Internet access, the NZ government has started another project named Rural Broadband Initiative (RBI). Funds worth 430 million NZD (approx.) has been

The RBI project is divided in multiple phases. The first phase of the RBI project has already been completed by mid-2016. In this phase fast broadband connections are being provided to rural areas using the combination of upgrading existing fixed lines and installing new wireless fixed coverage solutions. **Figure 5** shows the highlights of the improved connectivity in

The RBI (phase 2) project aims to provide fast broadband connection to more than 70,000 businesses and households in remote and rural areas. For the second phase, the NZ government is encouraging local network operators to propose some innovative ideas/solutions rather than

ing \$1.8 billion. **Figure 4** shows the progress of the UFB deployment till June 2017.

and applications at the speed of 1000 Mbits/s approx.

**5.2. Rural broadband initiative (RBI)**

rural areas after the completion of RBI phase 1.

**Figure 4.** User (business and household) connections, UFB-1 [46].

specifying any particular technology use.

allocated for this initiative.

**Figure 3.** Future broadband application domains.

### **4.1. Latest trends in broadband applications**

In 2017, the growing demand for broadband communications still persists with the increasing need for mobility, machine-to-machine communications, big data, all-purpose sensors and the Internet of things (IoT) [43].

The need for hybrid networks (fiber and wireless) is growing to address the challenging goals of upcoming application domains. The latest application domains for broadband networks are highlighted in **Figure 3**. With the ongoing growth of broadband users for both business and residential [44] in conjunction with increasing demands for large volumes of data, the applications are getting more and more data hungry.

### **5. Broadband network: a New Zealand perspective**

New Zealand has taken a number of steps to embrace the fibre broadband in previous years. Some major initiatives are the Ultra-Fast Broadband (UFB), Rural Broadband Initiative (RBI) and Mobile Black Spot Fund (MBSF) [45].

#### **5.1. Ultra-fast broadband (UFB)**

The UFB project aims to deploy optical fibre cables to provide fibre to the premises (FTTP) to as many New Zealanders as possible. Previously copper lines were laid in the whole country, and they served as the main communication medium. With the advancement in technologies and the need for more speed and data (more specifically broadband technologies), the copper has to be replaced by optical fibres. With the UFB New Zealanders will be able to access data and applications at the speed of 1000 Mbits/s approx.

In New Zealand, UFB is considered one of the biggest infrastructure-based projects. Around 85% of the population will have access to fibre to the premises (FTTP) towards the end of 2024 [46]. The NZ government, to make the UFB accessible by as many people as possible, is investing \$1.8 billion. **Figure 4** shows the progress of the UFB deployment till June 2017.

### **5.2. Rural broadband initiative (RBI)**

**4.1. Latest trends in broadband applications**

20 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

**Figure 3.** Future broadband application domains.

applications are getting more and more data hungry.

and Mobile Black Spot Fund (MBSF) [45].

**5.1. Ultra-fast broadband (UFB)**

**5. Broadband network: a New Zealand perspective**

the Internet of things (IoT) [43].

In 2017, the growing demand for broadband communications still persists with the increasing need for mobility, machine-to-machine communications, big data, all-purpose sensors and

The need for hybrid networks (fiber and wireless) is growing to address the challenging goals of upcoming application domains. The latest application domains for broadband networks are highlighted in **Figure 3**. With the ongoing growth of broadband users for both business and residential [44] in conjunction with increasing demands for large volumes of data, the

New Zealand has taken a number of steps to embrace the fibre broadband in previous years. Some major initiatives are the Ultra-Fast Broadband (UFB), Rural Broadband Initiative (RBI)

The UFB project aims to deploy optical fibre cables to provide fibre to the premises (FTTP) to as many New Zealanders as possible. Previously copper lines were laid in the whole country, and they served as the main communication medium. With the advancement in technologies The Ultra-Fast broadband project mainly focuses on the provision of fast Internet services to urban areas. However, there are various rural and coastal areas in the country, which also need access to these fast network connections. To ensure every New Zealander can access and experience the improved Internet access, the NZ government has started another project named Rural Broadband Initiative (RBI). Funds worth 430 million NZD (approx.) has been allocated for this initiative.

The RBI project is divided in multiple phases. The first phase of the RBI project has already been completed by mid-2016. In this phase fast broadband connections are being provided to rural areas using the combination of upgrading existing fixed lines and installing new wireless fixed coverage solutions. **Figure 5** shows the highlights of the improved connectivity in rural areas after the completion of RBI phase 1.

The RBI (phase 2) project aims to provide fast broadband connection to more than 70,000 businesses and households in remote and rural areas. For the second phase, the NZ government is encouraging local network operators to propose some innovative ideas/solutions rather than specifying any particular technology use.

**Figure 4.** User (business and household) connections, UFB-1 [46].

in broadband applications being discussed. Lastly, an overview of New Zealand's government initiatives to improve the network coverage is also provided including a brief discussion about Ultra-Fast Broadband, the Rural Broadband Initiative and the Mobile Black Spot Fund.

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**Figure 5.** Summary of improved connectivity in rural areas after RBI phase 1 [47].

### **5.3. Mobile black spot fund (MBSF)**

Another important step taken by the NZ government is the creation of MBSF. The purpose of MBSF is to provide improved network coverage to areas which are of tourists' interest and also to better cover the country's state highways. The government is looking forward to achieving improvements in the fields of public safety and in the tourism industry. The project will explicitly target two state highways (6 and 94) in Southland, covering in total of 11 tourism areas [48].

### **6. Conclusion**

This chapter discusses the evolution of broadband communications with a focus on the development and adoption of multiservice broadband network architectures with the support of cloud and virtualization services. The need for this evolution is also discussed with focus on triple play services, IP/MPLS and mobile-fixed network convergence. Applications are also recognized to play a vital role in this evolution of broadband networks with the latest trends in broadband applications being discussed. Lastly, an overview of New Zealand's government initiatives to improve the network coverage is also provided including a brief discussion about Ultra-Fast Broadband, the Rural Broadband Initiative and the Mobile Black Spot Fund.

### **Author details**

Sonia Gul\* and Jairo Gutierrez

\*Address all correspondence to: sonia.gul@aut.ac.nz

Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand

### **References**

**5.3. Mobile black spot fund (MBSF)**

**Figure 5.** Summary of improved connectivity in rural areas after RBI phase 1 [47].

22 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

ism areas [48].

**6. Conclusion**

Another important step taken by the NZ government is the creation of MBSF. The purpose of MBSF is to provide improved network coverage to areas which are of tourists' interest and also to better cover the country's state highways. The government is looking forward to achieving improvements in the fields of public safety and in the tourism industry. The project will explicitly target two state highways (6 and 94) in Southland, covering in total of 11 tour-

This chapter discusses the evolution of broadband communications with a focus on the development and adoption of multiservice broadband network architectures with the support of cloud and virtualization services. The need for this evolution is also discussed with focus on triple play services, IP/MPLS and mobile-fixed network convergence. Applications are also recognized to play a vital role in this evolution of broadband networks with the latest trends


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**Chapter 3**

**Provisional chapter**

**Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication**

**Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication** 

**Existent Technologies**

**Existent Technologies**

Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431

spectrum planning, WRC-19

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility with**

The increased demand of consumers on services in the mobile broadband environment with high data rate and developed mobile broadband communication systems will require more spectrum to be available in the future. New technologies as well as the existing services require frequencies for their development. In this chapter, we investigate the available and potential future mobile terrestrial radio frequency bands (5G)—worldwide and in Europe. An insight into the mobile spectrum estimate is provided. Characteristics and requirements of IMT-2020, future possible IMT frequency bands, and examples of 5G usage scenarios are also addressed in the chapter. Electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods are provided mainly focusing on existent mobile technologies below 1 GHz where also 5G technologies will be developed in the future. It is stressed that the radio frequency spectrum is a limited national resource that will become increasingly precious in the future.

**Keywords:** 4G mobile communication, 5G, electromagnetic compatibility,

frequency band, international mobile telecommunications (IMT), IoT, international telecommunication union (ITU), M2M, mobile service, radio wave propagation,

**Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility with** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72431

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

5G referred to as IMT-2020 in ITU-R terms is the next generation of mobile communication technologies. IMT systems are now being evolved to provide diverse usage scenarios and applications such as enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) communication, massive machine-type communication (mMTC), and ultrareliable and low-latency communication (URLLC) requiring larger contiguous blocks of spectrum than currently available bandwidth to realize those applications.


**Provisional chapter**

### **Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility with Existent Technologies Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility with Existent Technologies**

**Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72431

Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Guntis Ancans and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431

#### **Abstract**

[43] 2017 Trends in Broadband|Intelsat. [online]. Available at: http://www.intelsat.com/

[44] Ericsson Mobility Report 2016; [online] Available at: https://www.ericsson.com/ assets/local/mobility-report/documents/2016/Ericsson-mobility-report-june-2016.pdf

[45] Broadband and Mobile Programmes; [online] Available at: http://www.mbie.govt.nz/ info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/fast-broadband/broad-

[46] Broadband Deployment Update Report 2017; [online] Available at: http://www.mbie. govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/fast-broadband/ documents-image-library/june-17-quarterly-broadband-update.pdf [Accessed: 18 Nov.

[47] Rural Broadband Initiative Phase 1 Report 2016; [online] Available at: http://www.mbie. govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/technology-communications/fast-broadband/ documents-image-library/rural-broadband-initiative/rural-broadband-initiative-phase-

[48] RBI and Mobile Black Spot Funding Decision Announced; [online] Available at: http://investors.sparknz.co.nz/DownloadFile.axd?file=Announcements/NZX/2017

news/blog/2017-trends-in-broadband/ [Accessed: 27 Oct. 2017]

26 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

band-and-mobile-programmes#rural [Accessed: 18 Nov. 2017]

1-august-2016.pdf [Accessed: 18 Nov. 2017]

0830/264825.pdf [Accessed: 18 Nov. 2017]

[Accessed: 27 Oct. 2017]

2017]

The increased demand of consumers on services in the mobile broadband environment with high data rate and developed mobile broadband communication systems will require more spectrum to be available in the future. New technologies as well as the existing services require frequencies for their development. In this chapter, we investigate the available and potential future mobile terrestrial radio frequency bands (5G)—worldwide and in Europe. An insight into the mobile spectrum estimate is provided. Characteristics and requirements of IMT-2020, future possible IMT frequency bands, and examples of 5G usage scenarios are also addressed in the chapter. Electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods are provided mainly focusing on existent mobile technologies below 1 GHz where also 5G technologies will be developed in the future. It is stressed that the radio frequency spectrum is a limited national resource that will become increasingly precious in the future.

**Keywords:** 4G mobile communication, 5G, electromagnetic compatibility, frequency band, international mobile telecommunications (IMT), IoT, international telecommunication union (ITU), M2M, mobile service, radio wave propagation, spectrum planning, WRC-19

### **1. Introduction**

5G referred to as IMT-2020 in ITU-R terms is the next generation of mobile communication technologies. IMT systems are now being evolved to provide diverse usage scenarios and applications such as enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) communication, massive machine-type communication (mMTC), and ultrareliable and low-latency communication (URLLC) requiring larger contiguous blocks of spectrum than currently available bandwidth to realize those applications.

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

5G aims to provide high data rates, low latency, seamless coverage, low power, and highly reliable communications. Used cases under consideration include enhanced mobile broadband communications, but also machine-to-machine (M2M), Internet of Things (IoT), home and industrial automation and applications, etc. expected to respond to requirements from vertical sectors (e.g., utilities, automotive, railways, public protection). 5G is planned to be deployed around the world by 2020.

From a spectrum management's point of view, one of the main innovations brought by 5G is its capacity not only to handle broadband mobile communications as in the previous genera-

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29

The ITU terms for 3G and 4G are IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced accordingly. The term IMT-2020 is adopted for 5G. Collectively, they are known as IMT [3]. IMT systems have contrib-

With the mobile data traffic, increasing more spectrum resources will be necessary for the future mobile broadband communication systems. The Report ITU-R M.2290-0 provides a global perspective on spectrum requirement estimate for terrestrial IMT in the year 2020. The predicted total spectrum requirement for both low and high user density scenarios was calculated to be 1340 and 1960 MHz (including the spectrum already in use or planned to be used) at least by the year 2020 [4]. In some countries, national spectrum requirement can be lower than the estimate derived by lower user density settings, and in some other countries, national spectrum requirement can be higher than the estimate derived by higher user den-

It is assumed that for the year 2020, the median traffic growth will fall in between the lowest and highest growths, anticipating at least 25-fold traffic growth ratio in 2020 compared to 2010. Other estimates [1] anticipate that global IMT traffic will grow in the range of 10–100

An option for increasing data rates is the development of small cells and the combination of the capacity of unlicensed bands (e.g., 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz) with the capacity of a licensed

**Figure 2.** Mobile traffic forecasts toward 2020 by extrapolation according to the Report ITU-R M.2290-0.

tions but also to cover the needs from a range of sectors, the so-called "verticals."

**2. Mobile spectrum estimate for terrestrial IMT**

sity settings. The mobile traffic forecast is presented in **Figure 2**.

uted to global economic and social development.

times from 2020 to 2030.

The potential usage scenarios shown in **Figure 1** have different operational and technological requirements.

Different players from various verticals, i.e., different industries, can be brought together using the 5G concept. The network capabilities are intended to match the requirements of the different vertical players.

The first 5G specification in 3GPP Release 15 is planned to be available by the end of 2018 and will address the more pressing commercial needs. The second release, 3GPP Release 16, planned for March 2020, will address all used cases and requirements. There is an ongoing work on development of new radio access technology targeted for completion by the end of 2017.

3GPP has been working to standardize the 5G-NR (New Radio) specification. In March 2017, 3GPP decided to accelerate the timescale in order to finalize the *non-stand-alone* mode by March 2018. This mode will operate in parallel with 4G long-term evolution (LTE) to provide boosted data rates. The *stand-alone* 5G mode is planned for completion in September 2018. This accelerated timescale will facilitate 5G network trials in the early 2018.

In general, 5G technologies will describe the following characteristics: high-frequency operation, very wide bandwidth, massive beam forming, and interworking with LTE. ITU will complete its work for standardization of IMT-2020 no later than the year 2020 [2].

**Figure 1.** 5G usage scenarios according to ITU-R Recommendation M.2083-0 [1].

From a spectrum management's point of view, one of the main innovations brought by 5G is its capacity not only to handle broadband mobile communications as in the previous generations but also to cover the needs from a range of sectors, the so-called "verticals."

### **2. Mobile spectrum estimate for terrestrial IMT**

5G aims to provide high data rates, low latency, seamless coverage, low power, and highly reliable communications. Used cases under consideration include enhanced mobile broadband communications, but also machine-to-machine (M2M), Internet of Things (IoT), home and industrial automation and applications, etc. expected to respond to requirements from vertical sectors (e.g., utilities, automotive, railways, public protection). 5G is planned to be

The potential usage scenarios shown in **Figure 1** have different operational and technological

Different players from various verticals, i.e., different industries, can be brought together using the 5G concept. The network capabilities are intended to match the requirements of the

The first 5G specification in 3GPP Release 15 is planned to be available by the end of 2018 and will address the more pressing commercial needs. The second release, 3GPP Release 16, planned for March 2020, will address all used cases and requirements. There is an ongoing work on development of new radio access technology targeted for completion by the end of 2017.

3GPP has been working to standardize the 5G-NR (New Radio) specification. In March 2017, 3GPP decided to accelerate the timescale in order to finalize the *non-stand-alone* mode by March 2018. This mode will operate in parallel with 4G long-term evolution (LTE) to provide boosted data rates. The *stand-alone* 5G mode is planned for completion in September 2018.

In general, 5G technologies will describe the following characteristics: high-frequency operation, very wide bandwidth, massive beam forming, and interworking with LTE. ITU will

This accelerated timescale will facilitate 5G network trials in the early 2018.

**Figure 1.** 5G usage scenarios according to ITU-R Recommendation M.2083-0 [1].

complete its work for standardization of IMT-2020 no later than the year 2020 [2].

deployed around the world by 2020.

28 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

requirements.

different vertical players.

The ITU terms for 3G and 4G are IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced accordingly. The term IMT-2020 is adopted for 5G. Collectively, they are known as IMT [3]. IMT systems have contributed to global economic and social development.

With the mobile data traffic, increasing more spectrum resources will be necessary for the future mobile broadband communication systems. The Report ITU-R M.2290-0 provides a global perspective on spectrum requirement estimate for terrestrial IMT in the year 2020. The predicted total spectrum requirement for both low and high user density scenarios was calculated to be 1340 and 1960 MHz (including the spectrum already in use or planned to be used) at least by the year 2020 [4]. In some countries, national spectrum requirement can be lower than the estimate derived by lower user density settings, and in some other countries, national spectrum requirement can be higher than the estimate derived by higher user density settings. The mobile traffic forecast is presented in **Figure 2**.

It is assumed that for the year 2020, the median traffic growth will fall in between the lowest and highest growths, anticipating at least 25-fold traffic growth ratio in 2020 compared to 2010. Other estimates [1] anticipate that global IMT traffic will grow in the range of 10–100 times from 2020 to 2030.

An option for increasing data rates is the development of small cells and the combination of the capacity of unlicensed bands (e.g., 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz) with the capacity of a licensed

**Figure 2.** Mobile traffic forecasts toward 2020 by extrapolation according to the Report ITU-R M.2290-0.

frequency block [5]. Another option is carrier aggregation, which enables to increase data rates, but its complexity is exponential with the number of possible combinations of frequency bands used; spectrum sharing is also possible as a solution.

Another option is to develop and introduce the next generation of broadband communication technologies (5G) [6]. Authors presume that 5G base stations in the future will be connected by fiber optical lines or microwave backhaul links as an alternative solution. Huge investment in fiber is needed in order to realize the 5G vision.

### **3. Characteristics and requirements of IMT-2020**

According to the Ericsson paper [7], LTE will evolve in a way that recognizes its role in providing ubiquitous wide area coverage for mobile users, and 5G networks will incorporate LTE radio access, based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), along with new air interfaces.

Millimeter wave cells are very small, and they could be deployed mainly in dense urban areas or indoors delivering greater capacity. In the long term, it is expected that all devices that benefit from network connectivity eventually will become connected through M2M communications in the future.

According to Recommendation ITU-R M.2083-0, goals of future development of 5G capabilities are summarized in **Table 1**, which include IMT-2020 capability eight key parameters [1].

Performance requirements must be met but at the same time depend particularly on the used cases or scenario. The key capabilities of IMT-2020 are presented in **Figure 3** compared with those of IMT-Advanced.

In some low-latency communications and ultrareliable scenarios, low latency is of the highest importance, e.g., in order to enable the safety critical applications. Such capability would be required for some high mobility uses as well, e.g., in transportation safety, while, e.g., high

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The high connection density is needed in the massive machine-type communication scenario to support large number of devices in the network that, e.g., may transmit only occasionally at low bit rate and with zero or very low mobility. A low-cost radio device with long operational

In order to encourage increased data traffic capacity and to enable the transmission bandwidths needed to encourage very high data rates, 5G will extend the range of frequency bands used for mobile communications. This includes new radio spectrum below 6 GHz, as well as

For wireless communications, lower frequencies provide better coverage. Currently, almost all countries use spectrum below 6 GHz for IMT systems. Spectrum relevant for 5G wireless

access therefore ranges from below 1 GHz up to approximately 100 GHz.

data rates, might be less important.

spectrum in higher frequencies.

lifetime is of great significance for this usage scenario.

**Figure 3.** Enhancement of key capabilities from IMT-Advanced to IMT-2020.

**4. Future possible IMT frequency bands**

In the enhanced mobile broadband scenario, peak data rate, user-experienced data rate, area traffic capacity, mobility, energy efficiency, and spectrum efficiency all have high importance in comparison to connection density and latency.


**Table 1.** 5G target capabilities.

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431 31

**Figure 3.** Enhancement of key capabilities from IMT-Advanced to IMT-2020.

frequency block [5]. Another option is carrier aggregation, which enables to increase data rates, but its complexity is exponential with the number of possible combinations of fre-

Another option is to develop and introduce the next generation of broadband communication technologies (5G) [6]. Authors presume that 5G base stations in the future will be connected by fiber optical lines or microwave backhaul links as an alternative solution. Huge investment

According to the Ericsson paper [7], LTE will evolve in a way that recognizes its role in providing ubiquitous wide area coverage for mobile users, and 5G networks will incorporate LTE radio access, based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), along with new

Millimeter wave cells are very small, and they could be deployed mainly in dense urban areas or indoors delivering greater capacity. In the long term, it is expected that all devices that benefit from network connectivity eventually will become connected through M2M commu-

According to Recommendation ITU-R M.2083-0, goals of future development of 5G capabilities are summarized in **Table 1**, which include IMT-2020 capability eight key parameters [1]. Performance requirements must be met but at the same time depend particularly on the used cases or scenario. The key capabilities of IMT-2020 are presented in **Figure 3** compared with

In the enhanced mobile broadband scenario, peak data rate, user-experienced data rate, area traffic capacity, mobility, energy efficiency, and spectrum efficiency all have high importance

User-experienced data rate 100 Mbit/s (for wide area coverage, e.g., in urban and suburban areas) and 1 Gbit/s (for hotspots, e.g., indoor)

quency bands used; spectrum sharing is also possible as a solution.

30 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

in fiber is needed in order to realize the 5G vision.

in comparison to connection density and latency.

Mobility 500 km/h (e.g., for high-speed trains)

Energy efficiency 100x more than IMT-Advanced Spectrum efficiency 3x more than IMT-Advanced

**Parameter Key value for 5G** Peak data rate 10–20 Gbit/s

Connection density 106 devices/km<sup>2</sup>

Area traffic capacity 10 Mbit/s/m<sup>2</sup>

**Table 1.** 5G target capabilities.

Latency 1 ms

air interfaces.

nications in the future.

those of IMT-Advanced.

**3. Characteristics and requirements of IMT-2020**

In some low-latency communications and ultrareliable scenarios, low latency is of the highest importance, e.g., in order to enable the safety critical applications. Such capability would be required for some high mobility uses as well, e.g., in transportation safety, while, e.g., high data rates, might be less important.

The high connection density is needed in the massive machine-type communication scenario to support large number of devices in the network that, e.g., may transmit only occasionally at low bit rate and with zero or very low mobility. A low-cost radio device with long operational lifetime is of great significance for this usage scenario.

### **4. Future possible IMT frequency bands**

In order to encourage increased data traffic capacity and to enable the transmission bandwidths needed to encourage very high data rates, 5G will extend the range of frequency bands used for mobile communications. This includes new radio spectrum below 6 GHz, as well as spectrum in higher frequencies.

For wireless communications, lower frequencies provide better coverage. Currently, almost all countries use spectrum below 6 GHz for IMT systems. Spectrum relevant for 5G wireless access therefore ranges from below 1 GHz up to approximately 100 GHz.


**Table 2.** Spectrum already identified for IMT.

High frequencies, e.g., those above 10 GHz, can only serve as a complement to lower frequencies and will mainly provide additional system capacity with very wide transmission bandwidths for extreme data rates for dense deployments. Spectrum use at lower-frequency bands will remain the backbone for mobile radio communication networks in the 5G era, providing excellent ubiquitous wide area connectivity.

> (CEPT), in author's opinion will also play a significant role for enabling wide coverage for services of next-generation mobile networks in Europe. Frequency bands currently identi-

**Primary allocations to radiocommunication services in RR in ITU regions (including WRC-15 results)**

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility…

fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space), inter-satellite, mobile, radionavigation, space research (space-to-Earth)

fixed-satellite (space-to-Earth), mobile, mobile except aeronautical mobile, mobile-satellite (space-to-Earth), space research (Earth-to-space), space research

24.25–27.5 Earth exploration-satellite (space-to Earth), fixed,

37–40.5 Earth exploration-satellite (Earth-to-space), fixed,

42.5–43.5 Fixed, fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space), mobile except

radionavigation-satellite 81–86 Fixed, fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space), mobile, mobile-

31.8–33.4 Fixed, inter-satellite, radionavigation, space research (deep space) (space-to-Earth)

(space-to-Earth)

**Table 3.** Possible new spectrum for IMT in frequencies above 24 GHz.

47–47.2 Amateur, amateur-satellite

aeronautical mobile, radio astronomy

satellite (space-to-Earth), inter-satellite, mobile, mobile-satellite (space-to-Earth), radionavigation,

satellite (Earth-to-space), radio astronomy

basis in RR 40.5–42.5 Broadcasting, broadcasting-satellite, fixed, fixed-satellite

(space-to-Earth)

45.5–47 Mobile, mobile-satellite, radionavigation, radionavigation-satellite 47.2–50.2 Fixed, fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space), fixed-satellite (space-to-Earth), mobile 50.4–52.6 Fixed, fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space), mobile 66–76 Broadcasting, broadcasting-satellite, fixed, fixed**Comments**

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33

in RR

Frequencies have already allocation to the mobile service on a primary basis

Frequencies may require additional allocation to the mobile service on a primary

The *priority* frequency band suitable for the introduction of 5G use in Europe even before 2020 with wide channel bandwidths (50–100 MHz and more) could be 3400–3800 MHz band, noting that this band is already harmonized for mobile networks in Europe. This frequency band

5G envisages very high data rates, which will need much larger bandwidths than ever before. Those very high data rates may only be found in higher frequency bands (above 6 GHz). To

fied for IMT in the ITU Radio Regulations (RR) are presented in **Table 2**.

has the ability to put Europe at the forefront of the 5G or *pre-*5G deployment.

**4.2. Spectrum above 6 GHz**

**Frequencies to be studied until WRC-19 for possible identification to IMT** 

**(GHz)**

#### **4.1. Spectrum below 6 GHz**

Besides achieving high data rates, it is also necessary to guarantee wide area coverage and outdoor to indoor coverage in 5G. Therefore, spectrum below 6 GHz forms a very important part of the 5G spectrum solution. Until now in Europe, more than 1200 MHz of spectrum for mobile broadband in the frequency range from 694 to 3800 MHz was harmonized.

For providing ubiquitous coverage in next-generation (5G) or pre-5G networks, the important role will be of LTE (4G) bands already harmonized below 1 GHz, including particularly the 700 and 800 MHz band, in order to enable nationwide and indoor 5G coverage. The 450 MHz band, which harmonized conditions for LTE use in the band currently is under development in the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations


**Table 3.** Possible new spectrum for IMT in frequencies above 24 GHz.

(CEPT), in author's opinion will also play a significant role for enabling wide coverage for services of next-generation mobile networks in Europe. Frequency bands currently identified for IMT in the ITU Radio Regulations (RR) are presented in **Table 2**.

The *priority* frequency band suitable for the introduction of 5G use in Europe even before 2020 with wide channel bandwidths (50–100 MHz and more) could be 3400–3800 MHz band, noting that this band is already harmonized for mobile networks in Europe. This frequency band has the ability to put Europe at the forefront of the 5G or *pre-*5G deployment.

#### **4.2. Spectrum above 6 GHz**

High frequencies, e.g., those above 10 GHz, can only serve as a complement to lower frequencies and will mainly provide additional system capacity with very wide transmission bandwidths for extreme data rates for dense deployments. Spectrum use at lower-frequency bands will remain the backbone for mobile radio communication networks in the 5G era, providing

**World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC)**

450–470 WRC-07 450–457.5 / 460–467.5

470–608 WRC-15 — 614–698 WRC-15 — 694–960 WRC-2000, WRC-07, WRC-12 694–790

32 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

1427–1518 WRC-15 1427–1518

2300–2400 WRC-07 2300–2400 2500–2690 WRC-2000 2500–2690

3400–3600 WRC-07 3400–3600 3600–3700 WRC-15 3600–3800

3300–3400 WRC-15 —

4800–4990 WRC-15 —

1710–2025 WARC-92, WRC-2000 1710–1785 / 1805–1880

2110–2200 WARC-92 1920–1980 / 2110–2170

**Licensed mobile frequency bands in** 

**CEPT countries (MHz)**

790–862

1900–1920

2010–2025

880–915 / 925–960

1920–1980 / 2110–2170

Besides achieving high data rates, it is also necessary to guarantee wide area coverage and outdoor to indoor coverage in 5G. Therefore, spectrum below 6 GHz forms a very important part of the 5G spectrum solution. Until now in Europe, more than 1200 MHz of spectrum for

For providing ubiquitous coverage in next-generation (5G) or pre-5G networks, the important role will be of LTE (4G) bands already harmonized below 1 GHz, including particularly the 700 and 800 MHz band, in order to enable nationwide and indoor 5G coverage. The 450 MHz band, which harmonized conditions for LTE use in the band currently is under development in the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

mobile broadband in the frequency range from 694 to 3800 MHz was harmonized.

excellent ubiquitous wide area connectivity.

**Table 2.** Spectrum already identified for IMT.

**4.1. Spectrum below 6 GHz**

**Frequency bands identified for IMT in the RR (MHz)**

> 5G envisages very high data rates, which will need much larger bandwidths than ever before. Those very high data rates may only be found in higher frequency bands (above 6 GHz). To

deliver higher data rates and lower latency, there is an expectation that new wireless solutions at higher frequencies—millimeter wave (*mmWave*) bands—will be deployed. Therefore, implementation of frequency bands even above 24 GHz remains needed to ensure all the performance targets of 5G, e.g., multi-gigabit per second data rates. Implications of very low-latency drive to millimeter wave deployments with their highly directive antennas and small cell sizes.

The 2015 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-15) decided the following frequency bands 24.25–27.5 GHz, 31.8–33.4 GHz, 37–43.5 GHz, 45.5–50.2 GHz, 50.4–52.6 GHz, 66–76 GHz, and 81–86 GHz as presented in **Table 3** to study for possible identification to IMT (aimed for 5G) at WRC-19.

Europe identified 26 GHz as a *pioneer* frequency band for early European harmonization, as it provides over 3 GHz of contiguous spectrum and has the greatest potential to be a globally harmonized band.

The 31.8–33.4 GHz (referred to as 32 GHz) and 40.5–43.5 GHz (referred to as 40 GHz) bands were also identified as priority bands for study in the CEPT.

### **5. Examples of 5G usage scenarios**

According to the recent ITU theoretical assessment, simulations, measurements, technology development, and prototyping described in the Report ITU-R M.2376-0, utilization of bands between 6 and 100 GHz is feasible for studied IMT deployment scenarios and could be considered for the development of IMT for 2020 and beyond [6].

**5.2. Channel bandwidth**

*<sup>C</sup>* <sup>=</sup> *<sup>B</sup>* <sup>⋅</sup> log2(<sup>1</sup> <sup>+</sup> \_\_*<sup>S</sup>*

**Figure 4.** System deployment architecture proposed for 5G.

capability to implement wide channels.

TDD will play a more important role.

complexity and possible interference issues.

calculated by

For single-input/single-output (SISO) scenario, the maximum capacity of a radio channel can be described by Shannon-Hartley formula. This formula relates the maximum capacity (transmission bit rate) that can be achieved over a given channel to certain noise characteristics and bandwidth. For an *additive white Gaussian noise* of power the *N*, the maximum capacity can be

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility…

where *C* is the maximum capacity of the channel (bits(s)) otherwise known as *Shannon's capacity limit for the given channel*, *B* is the bandwidth of the channel (Hz), *S* is the signal power (W),

It can be perceived that the maximum transmission data rate, at which the information can be transmitted without any error, is limited by the bandwidth, the signal level, and the noise level. With the increase in bandwidth, the noise power also increases; that is why the channel capacity does not become infinite. By using wider channels, increasing the number of anten-

One of the benefits of higher-frequency adaptation for mobile communications is system

In the authors' opinion, to achieve objectives set for future IMT-2020 systems, it is necessary to provide contiguous, broad, and harmonized frequency bands, which will minimize 5G device

In the 5G era, FDD will remain the main duplex scheme for lower-frequency bands. However, for higher-frequency bands—especially above 10 GHz—targeting very dense deployments,

and *N* is the noise power (W). The ratio *S*/*N* is named *signal-to-noise ratio* (SNR) [8].

nas, and reducing interference, it is possible to increase the capacity.

*<sup>N</sup>*), (1)

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35

It is expected that LTE will develop in a way of providing wide area coverage for mobile users. 5G networks will include LTE access based on OFDM along with new radio interfaces using possibly new techniques, e.g., filter bank multicarrier (FBMC) transmission technique.

### **5.1. IMT-2020 architecture**

Deployment architecture of IMT-2020 can be classified into two architecture types: *stand-alone* or *overlay*. The stand-alone architecture refers to the network deployment consisting of millimeter wave (*mmWave*) small cells. The overlay architecture refers to the network deployment of mmWave small cells developed on top of the existing macro-cell networks (LTE, etc.). In overlay architecture case, the macro-cell layer of the existing 4G mobile communication serves mainly for providing coverage, whereas the mmWave small cell layer should be used to provide capacity [6] as shown in **Figure 4**.

For mmWave small cells explicated using cellular technologies, the typical service range is expected to be around 10 to 200 m under non-line-of-sight (NLOS) circumstances, which is a lot shorter than the range of a cellular macro-cell that can provide several kilometers. The small cells can be deployed both indoors (e.g., femto cells) and outdoors. When deployed outdoors, mmWave small cells are typically deployed at a lower antenna height than a macrocell (on street lamp posts, on building walls, in parks, etc.) and with lower transmit power to cover a targeted area. For mmWave small cell deployment, scenarios can be identified three categories: indoor, hotspot, and outdoor [6].

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431 35

**Figure 4.** System deployment architecture proposed for 5G.

### **5.2. Channel bandwidth**

deliver higher data rates and lower latency, there is an expectation that new wireless solutions at higher frequencies—millimeter wave (*mmWave*) bands—will be deployed. Therefore, implementation of frequency bands even above 24 GHz remains needed to ensure all the performance targets of 5G, e.g., multi-gigabit per second data rates. Implications of very low-latency drive to millimeter wave deployments with their highly directive antennas and small cell sizes. The 2015 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-15) decided the following frequency bands 24.25–27.5 GHz, 31.8–33.4 GHz, 37–43.5 GHz, 45.5–50.2 GHz, 50.4–52.6 GHz, 66–76 GHz, and 81–86 GHz as presented in **Table 3** to study for possible identification to IMT

Europe identified 26 GHz as a *pioneer* frequency band for early European harmonization, as it provides over 3 GHz of contiguous spectrum and has the greatest potential to be a globally

The 31.8–33.4 GHz (referred to as 32 GHz) and 40.5–43.5 GHz (referred to as 40 GHz) bands

According to the recent ITU theoretical assessment, simulations, measurements, technology development, and prototyping described in the Report ITU-R M.2376-0, utilization of bands between 6 and 100 GHz is feasible for studied IMT deployment scenarios and could be con-

It is expected that LTE will develop in a way of providing wide area coverage for mobile users. 5G networks will include LTE access based on OFDM along with new radio interfaces using possibly new techniques, e.g., filter bank multicarrier (FBMC) transmission technique.

Deployment architecture of IMT-2020 can be classified into two architecture types: *stand-alone* or *overlay*. The stand-alone architecture refers to the network deployment consisting of millimeter wave (*mmWave*) small cells. The overlay architecture refers to the network deployment of mmWave small cells developed on top of the existing macro-cell networks (LTE, etc.). In overlay architecture case, the macro-cell layer of the existing 4G mobile communication serves mainly for providing coverage, whereas the mmWave small cell layer should be used

For mmWave small cells explicated using cellular technologies, the typical service range is expected to be around 10 to 200 m under non-line-of-sight (NLOS) circumstances, which is a lot shorter than the range of a cellular macro-cell that can provide several kilometers. The small cells can be deployed both indoors (e.g., femto cells) and outdoors. When deployed outdoors, mmWave small cells are typically deployed at a lower antenna height than a macrocell (on street lamp posts, on building walls, in parks, etc.) and with lower transmit power to cover a targeted area. For mmWave small cell deployment, scenarios can be identified three

were also identified as priority bands for study in the CEPT.

34 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

sidered for the development of IMT for 2020 and beyond [6].

**5. Examples of 5G usage scenarios**

to provide capacity [6] as shown in **Figure 4**.

categories: indoor, hotspot, and outdoor [6].

(aimed for 5G) at WRC-19.

**5.1. IMT-2020 architecture**

harmonized band.

For single-input/single-output (SISO) scenario, the maximum capacity of a radio channel can be described by Shannon-Hartley formula. This formula relates the maximum capacity (transmission bit rate) that can be achieved over a given channel to certain noise characteristics and bandwidth. For an *additive white Gaussian noise* of power the *N*, the maximum capacity can be calculated by

$$C = B \cdot \log\_2 \left( 1 + \frac{S}{N} \right) \tag{1}$$

where *C* is the maximum capacity of the channel (bits(s)) otherwise known as *Shannon's capacity limit for the given channel*, *B* is the bandwidth of the channel (Hz), *S* is the signal power (W), and *N* is the noise power (W). The ratio *S*/*N* is named *signal-to-noise ratio* (SNR) [8].

It can be perceived that the maximum transmission data rate, at which the information can be transmitted without any error, is limited by the bandwidth, the signal level, and the noise level. With the increase in bandwidth, the noise power also increases; that is why the channel capacity does not become infinite. By using wider channels, increasing the number of antennas, and reducing interference, it is possible to increase the capacity.

One of the benefits of higher-frequency adaptation for mobile communications is system capability to implement wide channels.

In the authors' opinion, to achieve objectives set for future IMT-2020 systems, it is necessary to provide contiguous, broad, and harmonized frequency bands, which will minimize 5G device complexity and possible interference issues.

In the 5G era, FDD will remain the main duplex scheme for lower-frequency bands. However, for higher-frequency bands—especially above 10 GHz—targeting very dense deployments, TDD will play a more important role.

In author's opinion, 5G wireless access may be realized by the improved LTE systems for existing spectrum in combination with new radio access technologies that primarily target new spectrum [2].

within the radiocommunication sector, and consideration of spectrum for 5G above 24 GHz is

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431

37

In the framework of WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13, identification of frequency bands 24.25–27.5GHz, 31.8–33.4 GHz, 37–43.5 GHz, 45.5–50.2 GHz, 50.4–52.6 GHz, 66–76 GHz, and 81–86 GHz for the future development of IMT will be considered, including possible additional allocations to the

Compatibility studies must be carried out in each frequency band, and each band must balance with the requirement of other existing services and allocations. Any identification of frequency bands for IMT should take into account the use of the bands by other services (to protect existing services) and the evolving needs of these services. WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13 states to conduct and complete in time for WRC-19 the appropriate sharing and compatibility studies, taking into account the protection of services to which the band is allocated on a primary basis.

Spectrum sharing will be an important element to facilitate the requirements of 5G, and the development of new technological solutions in higher-frequency ranges, such as the more extensive use of MIMO technique, may provide more opportunities for sharing but also chal-

In the future, there may be a need to adapt the harmonized regulatory framework for 5G in the existing mobile frequency bands in Europe (700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1500 MHz,

Congestion of the radio spectrum is growing with an ongoing rise in the demand for more wireless services. National communications regulators are faced with the challenge of identifying new frequencies for new uses while preventing interference to existing users of the

Interference occurs when a transmission from one system disrupts the reception of signals at the receiver of another nearby system. It can occur between systems operating on the same frequency known as co-channel interference or between systems in frequencies that are close known as adjacent channel or adjacent band interference. It is worth noting that there are also

Co-channel interference is a result of the stronger interfering signal, which affects the victim signal. In adjacent channel interference, there are two main causes of interference: *unwanted* 

Unwanted emissions are any off-channel noise of the interfering equipment falling within the receive band of the victim receiver and thus acting as co-channel interference to the wanted

expected to feature heavily through the Resolution of WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13.

mobile service on a primary basis, in accordance with Resolution 238 (WRC-15) [9].

lenges for National Regulatory Authorities (NRAs).

**7. Electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods**

other types of interference such as intermodulation [10].

*emissions* and *blocking* or *receiver selectivity* as presented in **Figure 5**.

signal. This sort of interference can only be removed at the source.

1800 MHz, 2.1 GHz, 2.3 GHz, 2.6 GHz).

**7.1. Radio frequency interference**

spectrum.

### **5.3. Antenna technology**

Antennas that can operate well enough in distant frequencies at the same time, e.g., at between 450 MHz, 700 MHz, and 26 GHz, are a difficult task. Therefore, most likely two separate antennas, each operating at the specific frequency band, will be required. The wavelengths above 24 GHz provide a possibility to put more antenna elements in the restricted area. The antenna technology with the increased number of particular antenna elements can be used to provide high beamforming gain. The incremented path loss of above 24 GHz frequency bands can be mitigated by beamforming techniques with exact pointing direction. The phased array beamforming is used to raise the received signal power by using beamforming gain. Greater antenna gains may be achieved applying narrower beams [4].

For 5G communication systems, massive MIMO (*multiple-input and multiple-output*) solutions would be used to compensate additional propagation loss in higher frequencies [2] and to minimize interference. Array antennas should be integrated in the terminals or user equipment. In this case, it should be possible since the transmission wavelengths would become smaller.

### **5.4. 5G development scenarios**

The 5G radio access is based on the evolution of LTE and the other one on New Radio (NR) access. In the LTE-5G, enhancements will continue to enable it to support as many 5G requirements and used cases as possible. Unlike the LTE-5G, the NR-5G is free from backward compatibility requirements and thereby able to introduce more fundamental changes, such as targeting spectrum at high (mmWave) frequencies. However, NR is being designed in a scalable manner so it could eventually be migrated to frequencies that are currently served by LTE.

The process of making LTE-5G involves a variety of enhancements and new features in 3GPP Release 14 and Release 15. The most significant ones are enhancements to user data rates and system capacity with FD MIMO (*full-dimension multiple-input multiple-output*), improved support for unlicensed operations, and latency reduction in both control and user planes. FD MIMO is a technology that arranges the signals transmitted to antennas in the form of virtual beams that are able to power multiple receivers in three dimensions. It is expected that this technology significantly will increase spectrum efficiency.

In authors' opinion, LTE along with NR-5G will continue to play a major role in mobile communications for many years to come.

### **6. Electromagnetic compatibility studies with existent technologies**

The 2019 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-19) will take place over 4 weeks, from 28 October to 22 November 2019. The Conference will address a number of questions within the radiocommunication sector, and consideration of spectrum for 5G above 24 GHz is expected to feature heavily through the Resolution of WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13.

In the framework of WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13, identification of frequency bands 24.25–27.5GHz, 31.8–33.4 GHz, 37–43.5 GHz, 45.5–50.2 GHz, 50.4–52.6 GHz, 66–76 GHz, and 81–86 GHz for the future development of IMT will be considered, including possible additional allocations to the mobile service on a primary basis, in accordance with Resolution 238 (WRC-15) [9].

Compatibility studies must be carried out in each frequency band, and each band must balance with the requirement of other existing services and allocations. Any identification of frequency bands for IMT should take into account the use of the bands by other services (to protect existing services) and the evolving needs of these services. WRC-19 Agenda Item 1.13 states to conduct and complete in time for WRC-19 the appropriate sharing and compatibility studies, taking into account the protection of services to which the band is allocated on a primary basis.

Spectrum sharing will be an important element to facilitate the requirements of 5G, and the development of new technological solutions in higher-frequency ranges, such as the more extensive use of MIMO technique, may provide more opportunities for sharing but also challenges for National Regulatory Authorities (NRAs).

In the future, there may be a need to adapt the harmonized regulatory framework for 5G in the existing mobile frequency bands in Europe (700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1500 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2.1 GHz, 2.3 GHz, 2.6 GHz).

### **7. Electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods**

Congestion of the radio spectrum is growing with an ongoing rise in the demand for more wireless services. National communications regulators are faced with the challenge of identifying new frequencies for new uses while preventing interference to existing users of the spectrum.

### **7.1. Radio frequency interference**

In author's opinion, 5G wireless access may be realized by the improved LTE systems for existing spectrum in combination with new radio access technologies that primarily target

Antennas that can operate well enough in distant frequencies at the same time, e.g., at between 450 MHz, 700 MHz, and 26 GHz, are a difficult task. Therefore, most likely two separate antennas, each operating at the specific frequency band, will be required. The wavelengths above 24 GHz provide a possibility to put more antenna elements in the restricted area. The antenna technology with the increased number of particular antenna elements can be used to provide high beamforming gain. The incremented path loss of above 24 GHz frequency bands can be mitigated by beamforming techniques with exact pointing direction. The phased array beamforming is used to raise the received signal power by using beamforming gain. Greater

For 5G communication systems, massive MIMO (*multiple-input and multiple-output*) solutions would be used to compensate additional propagation loss in higher frequencies [2] and to minimize interference. Array antennas should be integrated in the terminals or user equipment. In this case, it should be possible since the transmission wavelengths would become smaller.

The 5G radio access is based on the evolution of LTE and the other one on New Radio (NR) access. In the LTE-5G, enhancements will continue to enable it to support as many 5G requirements and used cases as possible. Unlike the LTE-5G, the NR-5G is free from backward compatibility requirements and thereby able to introduce more fundamental changes, such as targeting spectrum at high (mmWave) frequencies. However, NR is being designed in a scalable manner so it could eventually be migrated to frequencies that are currently served by LTE. The process of making LTE-5G involves a variety of enhancements and new features in 3GPP Release 14 and Release 15. The most significant ones are enhancements to user data rates and system capacity with FD MIMO (*full-dimension multiple-input multiple-output*), improved support for unlicensed operations, and latency reduction in both control and user planes. FD MIMO is a technology that arranges the signals transmitted to antennas in the form of virtual beams that are able to power multiple receivers in three dimensions. It is expected that this

In authors' opinion, LTE along with NR-5G will continue to play a major role in mobile com-

The 2019 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-19) will take place over 4 weeks, from 28 October to 22 November 2019. The Conference will address a number of questions

**6. Electromagnetic compatibility studies with existent technologies**

antenna gains may be achieved applying narrower beams [4].

36 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

technology significantly will increase spectrum efficiency.

munications for many years to come.

new spectrum [2].

**5.3. Antenna technology**

**5.4. 5G development scenarios**

Interference occurs when a transmission from one system disrupts the reception of signals at the receiver of another nearby system. It can occur between systems operating on the same frequency known as co-channel interference or between systems in frequencies that are close known as adjacent channel or adjacent band interference. It is worth noting that there are also other types of interference such as intermodulation [10].

Co-channel interference is a result of the stronger interfering signal, which affects the victim signal. In adjacent channel interference, there are two main causes of interference: *unwanted emissions* and *blocking* or *receiver selectivity* as presented in **Figure 5**.

Unwanted emissions are any off-channel noise of the interfering equipment falling within the receive band of the victim receiver and thus acting as co-channel interference to the wanted signal. This sort of interference can only be removed at the source.

These studies can be performed using a range of software tools, for example, SEAMCAT for Monte Carlo analysis, which is an open-source software tool. In order to compare both methods, the same radiowave propagation prediction model should be adopted for all three methods.

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431

39

In some cases, the assumptions used in the studies can be validated through laboratory mea-

If the results of studies show that interference may occur, it may be necessary to investigate different mitigation techniques to minimize the risk of interference. This could include specification of additional filtering to be applied to the transmitter or receiver, additional frequency separation between both systems, and restrictions on the usage of the new system such as limits on maximum transmit power or geographical restrictions on where the new system can be used. In addition, with the emergence of new technologies, new and innovative sharing solutions are being explored, for example, techniques such as geolocation and

This overall process, including the prevention of interference by quantifying the risk through studies and the cure through identifying suitable mitigation, is known as spectrum engineer-

Sharing studies need to have accurate input assumptions in order to produce meaningful and reliable results. Spectrum engineers are working with future technologies where not all the parameters can be defined in advance of the deployment of the new technology. Spectrum

Different interference criteria can be used for interference assessment to the mobile service

The protection criterion for use in sharing and compatibility studies between IMT-Advanced and IMT-2020 and other systems and services irrespective of the number of cells and independent of the number of interferers is I/N value of −6 dB. This criterion applies to interference from a single source or to the aggregate interference from multiple sources of interference. The same protection criterion should be used for both co-channel and adjacent band studies [11, 12]. For the assessment of the interference of LTE and other services in 700 MHz band [13, 14], authors used both of these methods, namely, MCL and Monte Carlo method, and the criterion of *I*/*N* = −6 dB was used for interference assessment to the mobile service. In this assessment the predetermined trigger field strength values also was used. Additionally, some field mea-

Global harmonization of IMT spectrum will be essential for developing 5G. The benefits of spectrum harmonization include facilitating economies of scale, enabling global roaming, reducing

surements of real systems or through field measurements [10].

engineering results can be used to optimize frequency planning.

stations or other services, e.g., C/I, C/(N + I), (N + I)/N, or I/N.

licensed shared access (LSA).

**7.3. Protection criteria for mobile service**

surements were also performed.

**8. Conclusion**

ing [10].

**Figure 5.** Causes of interference: unwanted emissions and blocking.

Blocking, i.e., a strong signal off the receive band of a victim receiver, desensitizes its reception. This sort of interference can only be removed at the victim. In most cases, adoption of power control for the interferer and efficient site engineering can improve the situation.

In practice, both of these can occur simultaneously. Sometimes, it is necessary to improve the design of both the transmitter and receiver to prevent interference, which is becoming increasingly important as the spectrum becomes more congested [10].

#### **7.2. Interference prediction methods**

Interference prediction typically is done through theoretical calculations known as sharing studies, which usually refer to in-band studies, and compatibility studies, which refer to adjacent band studies. Theoretical studies are necessary because it is not always possible to perform measurements on real systems, particularly in cases where the systems are still under development. Two types of studies are commonly used:

*Deterministic* studies based on fixed parameters, using the *minimum coupling loss* (MCL) method. This is a worst-case assessment of interference. The results usually determine the minimum required separation distance (in space or in frequency) between two systems to avoid interference. The MCL approach is relatively straightforward, modeling only a single interferer-victim pair. It provides a result that is spectrally inefficient.

*Statistical* studies based on variable parameters, using the *Monte Carlo* method. This is a more realistic assessment, which takes into account the real-world variation and randomization of certain parameters such as the relative positioning of systems. The result of a Monte Carlo simulation is a measure of system performance—it is commonly a probability of interference for the scenario under investigation, which can be compared against a relevant threshold to determine if the level of interference is considered to be a problem or not. Care must be taken when interpreting a probability of interference. A mobile system operator specifies that a system can provide a system availability of 95%. It is capable of modeling highly complex systems including LTE networks. The result is spectrally efficient but requires careful interpretation.

A mobile system operator specifies that a system can provide a system availability of 95%.

These studies can be performed using a range of software tools, for example, SEAMCAT for Monte Carlo analysis, which is an open-source software tool. In order to compare both methods, the same radiowave propagation prediction model should be adopted for all three methods.

In some cases, the assumptions used in the studies can be validated through laboratory measurements of real systems or through field measurements [10].

If the results of studies show that interference may occur, it may be necessary to investigate different mitigation techniques to minimize the risk of interference. This could include specification of additional filtering to be applied to the transmitter or receiver, additional frequency separation between both systems, and restrictions on the usage of the new system such as limits on maximum transmit power or geographical restrictions on where the new system can be used. In addition, with the emergence of new technologies, new and innovative sharing solutions are being explored, for example, techniques such as geolocation and licensed shared access (LSA).

This overall process, including the prevention of interference by quantifying the risk through studies and the cure through identifying suitable mitigation, is known as spectrum engineering [10].

Sharing studies need to have accurate input assumptions in order to produce meaningful and reliable results. Spectrum engineers are working with future technologies where not all the parameters can be defined in advance of the deployment of the new technology. Spectrum engineering results can be used to optimize frequency planning.

### **7.3. Protection criteria for mobile service**

Different interference criteria can be used for interference assessment to the mobile service stations or other services, e.g., C/I, C/(N + I), (N + I)/N, or I/N.

The protection criterion for use in sharing and compatibility studies between IMT-Advanced and IMT-2020 and other systems and services irrespective of the number of cells and independent of the number of interferers is I/N value of −6 dB. This criterion applies to interference from a single source or to the aggregate interference from multiple sources of interference. The same protection criterion should be used for both co-channel and adjacent band studies [11, 12].

For the assessment of the interference of LTE and other services in 700 MHz band [13, 14], authors used both of these methods, namely, MCL and Monte Carlo method, and the criterion of *I*/*N* = −6 dB was used for interference assessment to the mobile service. In this assessment the predetermined trigger field strength values also was used. Additionally, some field measurements were also performed.

### **8. Conclusion**

Blocking, i.e., a strong signal off the receive band of a victim receiver, desensitizes its reception. This sort of interference can only be removed at the victim. In most cases, adoption of power control for the interferer and efficient site engineering can improve the

In practice, both of these can occur simultaneously. Sometimes, it is necessary to improve the design of both the transmitter and receiver to prevent interference, which is becoming increas-

Interference prediction typically is done through theoretical calculations known as sharing studies, which usually refer to in-band studies, and compatibility studies, which refer to adjacent band studies. Theoretical studies are necessary because it is not always possible to perform measurements on real systems, particularly in cases where the systems are still under

*Deterministic* studies based on fixed parameters, using the *minimum coupling loss* (MCL) method. This is a worst-case assessment of interference. The results usually determine the minimum required separation distance (in space or in frequency) between two systems to avoid interference. The MCL approach is relatively straightforward, modeling only a single

*Statistical* studies based on variable parameters, using the *Monte Carlo* method. This is a more realistic assessment, which takes into account the real-world variation and randomization of certain parameters such as the relative positioning of systems. The result of a Monte Carlo simulation is a measure of system performance—it is commonly a probability of interference for the scenario under investigation, which can be compared against a relevant threshold to determine if the level of interference is considered to be a problem or not. Care must be taken when interpreting a probability of interference. A mobile system operator specifies that a system can provide a system availability of 95%. It is capable of modeling highly complex systems including LTE networks. The result is spectrally efficient

A mobile system operator specifies that a system can provide a system availability of 95%.

ingly important as the spectrum becomes more congested [10].

**Figure 5.** Causes of interference: unwanted emissions and blocking.

38 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

development. Two types of studies are commonly used:

interferer-victim pair. It provides a result that is spectrally inefficient.

**7.2. Interference prediction methods**

but requires careful interpretation.

situation.

Global harmonization of IMT spectrum will be essential for developing 5G. The benefits of spectrum harmonization include facilitating economies of scale, enabling global roaming, reducing equipment design complexity, improving spectrum efficiency, and potentially reducing cross border interference. 5G mobile communication systems will require frequencies for their development and usage. Frequencies below 6 GHz are very valuable because of its optimum radio wave propagation, especially frequencies below 1 GHz. The results of the present study have shown that implementation of frequency bands even above 24 GHz remains needed to ensure all the performance targets of 5G, e.g., multigigabit per second data rates. In the authors' opinion, for the deliberative development of IMT systems, it is necessary to timely provide wide and contiguous spectrum resources for implementation of new technologies and services.

[5] Ancans A, Bogdanovs N, Petersons E, Ancans G. Evaluation of Wi-Fi and LTE integrated channel performance with different hardware implementation for moving objects. ICTE

Spectrum Usage for 5G Mobile Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Compatibility…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72431

41

[6] Technical feasibility of IMT in bands above 6 GHz. Report ITU-R M.2376-0, July 2015

[7] 7G. Radio Access. Ericsson White paper, April 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.

[8] Saunders SR, Zavala AA. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication

[9] Resolution 238 (WRC-15). Studies on Frequency-Related Matters for International Mobile Telecommunications Identification Including Possible Additional Allocations to the Mobile Services on a Primary Basis in Portion(S) of the Frequency Range between 24.25 and 86 GHz for the Future Development of International Mobile Telecommunications for 2020 and beyond. Switzerland, Geneva: International Telecommunications Union; 2015

[10] A comparison of the minimum coupling loss method, enhanced minimum coupling loss method, and the Monte-Carlo simulation. ERC Report 101, Menton, May 1999

[11] Characteristics of terrestrial IMT-Advanced systems for frequency sharing/interference

[12] Characteristics of terrestrial IMT systems for frequency sharing/interference analyses in the frequency range between 24.25 GHz and 86 GHz. SWG Work for TG 5/1, Revision 3

[13] Radio Regulations. International Telecommunications Union (ITU), vol. 1 (articles edited

[14] Ancans G, Bobrovs V, Ivanovs G. Frequency arrangement for 700 MHz band. Latvian

Journal of Physics and Technical Sciences. February 2015;**52**(1):63

2016, Procedia Computer Science. 2017;**104**:493-500

ericsson.com/res/docs/whitepapers/wp-5g.pdf

Systems. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.; 2007

analyses. Report ITU-R M.2292-0, December 2013

to Document 5D/TEMP/265-E, 22-02-2017

in 2016), 2016

It is important to note that the properties of higher-frequency bands, such as shorter wavelength, would better enable the use of advanced antenna systems including MIMO and beamforming techniques in supporting enhanced broadband.

The electromagnetic compatibility between LTE and different existent technologies in 700 MHz band authors was evaluated with different methods: MCL method, Monte Carlo method, and predetermined trigger field strength values; some field measurements were also done. According to results of electromagnetic evaluation, additional mitigation techniques were proposed in order to assure the compatibility between considered radio systems. Similar electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods and approach can be also applied for IMT-2020 studies in frequencies above 24 GHz.

The results obtained within the framework of the research can be used by National Regulatory Authorities, equipment manufacturers, mobile operators, researchers, and other interested parties when planning 4G and 5G mobile services.

### **Author details**

Guntis Ancans\* and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

\*Address all correspondence to: guntis.ancans@rtu.lv

Institute of Telecommunications, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia

### **References**


[5] Ancans A, Bogdanovs N, Petersons E, Ancans G. Evaluation of Wi-Fi and LTE integrated channel performance with different hardware implementation for moving objects. ICTE 2016, Procedia Computer Science. 2017;**104**:493-500

equipment design complexity, improving spectrum efficiency, and potentially reducing cross border interference. 5G mobile communication systems will require frequencies for their development and usage. Frequencies below 6 GHz are very valuable because of its optimum radio wave propagation, especially frequencies below 1 GHz. The results of the present study have shown that implementation of frequency bands even above 24 GHz remains needed to ensure all the performance targets of 5G, e.g., multigigabit per second data rates. In the authors' opinion, for the deliberative development of IMT systems, it is necessary to timely provide wide and contiguous spectrum resources for implementation of new technologies and services.

It is important to note that the properties of higher-frequency bands, such as shorter wavelength, would better enable the use of advanced antenna systems including MIMO and beam-

The electromagnetic compatibility between LTE and different existent technologies in 700 MHz band authors was evaluated with different methods: MCL method, Monte Carlo method, and predetermined trigger field strength values; some field measurements were also done. According to results of electromagnetic evaluation, additional mitigation techniques were proposed in order to assure the compatibility between considered radio systems. Similar electromagnetic compatibility evaluation methods and approach can be also applied for IMT-

The results obtained within the framework of the research can be used by National Regulatory Authorities, equipment manufacturers, mobile operators, researchers, and other interested

[1] IMT Vision – Framework and overall objectives of the future development of IMT for

[2] Ancans G, Bobrovs V, Ancans A, Kalibatiene D. Spectrum Considerations for 5G Mobile Communication Systems. ICTE 2016. Procedia Computer Science. 2017;**104**:509-516 [3] 5G Automotive Vision. P. 36, 20-10-2015. [Online]. Available: https://5g–ppp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/3G.-PPP-White-Paper-on-Automotive-Vertical-Sectors.pdf

[4] Future spectrum requirements estimate for terrestrial IMT. Report ITU-R M.2290-0,

forming techniques in supporting enhanced broadband.

40 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

2020 studies in frequencies above 24 GHz.

Guntis Ancans\* and Vjaceslavs Bobrovs

pp. 10-14, December 2013

**Author details**

**References**

parties when planning 4G and 5G mobile services.

\*Address all correspondence to: guntis.ancans@rtu.lv

Institute of Telecommunications, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia

2020 and beyond. Recommendation ITU-R M.2083-0, September 2015


**Chapter 4**

Provisional chapter

**5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78615

5G is the next generation cellular networks which is expected to quench the ever-ending thirst of data rates and interconnect billions of smart devices to support not only human centric traffic, but also machine centric traffic. Recent research and standardization work have been addressing requirements and challenges from radio perspective (e.g., new spectrum allocation, network densification, massive multiple-input-multiple-output antenna, carrier aggregation, inter-cell interference mitigation techniques, and coordinated multipoint processing). In addition, a new network bottleneck has emerged: the backhaul network which will allow to interconnect and support billions of devices from the core network. Up to 4G cellular networks, the major challenges to meet the backhaul requirements were capacity, availability, deployment cost, and long-distance reach. However, as 5G network capabilities and services added to 4G cellular networks, the backhaul network would face two additional challenges that include ultralow latency (i.e., 1 ms) requirements and ultradense nature of the network. Due to the dense small cell deployment and heavy traffic cells in 5G, 5G backhaul network will need to support hundreds of gigabits of traffic from the core network and today's cellular backhaul networks are infeasible to meet these requirements in terms of capacity, availability, latency, energy, and cost efficiency. This book chapter first introduce the mobile backhaul network perspective for 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. Then, outlines the backhaul requirements of 5G networks, and describes the impact

Keywords: 5G, mobile backhaul network, wired backhaul, wireless backhaul, microwave,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging

**Technologies**

Abstract

Technologies

Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque

Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque

on current mobile backhaul networks.

millimeter wave, free space optics

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78615

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

#### **5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies** 5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78615

Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78615

#### Abstract

5G is the next generation cellular networks which is expected to quench the ever-ending thirst of data rates and interconnect billions of smart devices to support not only human centric traffic, but also machine centric traffic. Recent research and standardization work have been addressing requirements and challenges from radio perspective (e.g., new spectrum allocation, network densification, massive multiple-input-multiple-output antenna, carrier aggregation, inter-cell interference mitigation techniques, and coordinated multipoint processing). In addition, a new network bottleneck has emerged: the backhaul network which will allow to interconnect and support billions of devices from the core network. Up to 4G cellular networks, the major challenges to meet the backhaul requirements were capacity, availability, deployment cost, and long-distance reach. However, as 5G network capabilities and services added to 4G cellular networks, the backhaul network would face two additional challenges that include ultralow latency (i.e., 1 ms) requirements and ultradense nature of the network. Due to the dense small cell deployment and heavy traffic cells in 5G, 5G backhaul network will need to support hundreds of gigabits of traffic from the core network and today's cellular backhaul networks are infeasible to meet these requirements in terms of capacity, availability, latency, energy, and cost efficiency. This book chapter first introduce the mobile backhaul network perspective for 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. Then, outlines the backhaul requirements of 5G networks, and describes the impact on current mobile backhaul networks.

Keywords: 5G, mobile backhaul network, wired backhaul, wireless backhaul, microwave, millimeter wave, free space optics

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### 1. Introduction

During the last few decades, mobile communication has evolved significantly from early wireless voice systems to today's intelligent communication systems [1, 2]. With the advancement of each generation, the mobile communication systems become more sophisticated and unleashed new consumer services that support countless mobile applications used by billions of people around the world, shown in Figure 1 [1–3]. In 2000, when 3G brought us the wireless data, the consumers got access to the internet anytime and anywhere they go [2]. This mobile broadband network with a combination of the innovation of smartphone technologies brought a significant change of mobile internet experience where users can access their email, social media, music, high definition video streaming, online gaming, and many more, which we see today as the app-centric interface [4].

requirements are discussed in [7]. Here are the two most significant trends of 5G services are

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• Everything will be connected to the mobile network wirelessly that will enable the billions of smart devices interconnected autonomously while ensuring the security and privacy [8]. 5G network will enable emerging services that include remote monitoring and realtime control of a diverse range of smart devices, which will support machine-to-machine (M2M) services and Internet of Things (IoT), such as connected cars, connected homes, moving robots and sensors [6, 8–10]. According to Cisco VNI Mobile 2017, the most noticeable growth will occur in M2M connections. The number of M2M connection will reach 3.3 billion by 2021, which is 29% of the total devices and connections and it was only 10% in 2016 [5]. Another mobile traffic forecast by UMTS presented that the total number of connected IoT devices will reach to 50 billion by 2020 which was only 12.5 billion in

• 5G networks will deliver richer content in real time ensuring the safety and security that will make the wireless services more extensive in our everyday life. Some example of emerging services may include high resolution video streaming (4K), media rich social network services, augmented reality, and road safety [6]. According to Cisco mobile data traffic forecast, the maximum mobile data traffic will be generated by video-based mobile application, which is going to be 72% of mobile data traffic by 2019 compared to 55% in

It is clear that the future mobile network (i.e., 5G) will no longer human centric, it will be more on machine centric which will interconnect billions of smart devices to the mobile network. According to Cisco, smart devices are those that have advanced computing and multimedia capabilities with a minimum of 3G network connectivity [5]. Globally the growth of smart devices will reach 82% by 2021 and some regions it will reach 99% by 2021 (e.g., North America). The main impact of this growth will be on mobile data traffic because a smart device generates much higher traffic compared to non-smart device. According to Cisco forecast, a smart device generated 13 times more traffic compared to non-smart device in 2016 and by 2021 a smart device will be able to generate 21 times more traffic [5]. According to another mobile traffic forecast by Cisco, the expected growth will reach 24.3 Exabytes per month by 2019 which was only 2.5 Exabytes in 2014 [12]. This ever-increasing traffic growth becomes the key driver for the evolution of next generation mobile networks, called 5G, envisioned for the year 2020 [13, 14]. The key requirements of 5G network include, extreme broadband delivery, ultrarobust network, ultralow latency (i.e., less than 1 ms latency) connectivity, and support

To bring the 5G network in reality, a simple upgrade of mobile network will not be enough where we just add new spectrum and enhance the capacity or use advanced radio technology. It will need to upgrade from the system and architecture levels down to the physical layer [15]. Although some research and standardization work addressing the corresponding challenges from radio perspective (e.g., new spectrum exploration, carrier aggregation, network densification, massive multiple-input-multiple-output, and inter-cell interference mitigation techniques) but there is a new challenge has emerged: the backhaul [16–18]. Because in 5G

massive smart devices for the human and for the IoT services [15].

discussed below [6]:

2010 [5].

2014 [5, 11].

Due to the advancement of technologies, mobile devices getting smarter every day in terms of advanced computing and multimedia capabilities that supports a wide range of applications and services (e.g., high quality image transfer, ultrahigh definition video streaming, live video games, and cloud resources) [5, 6]. Therefore, more and more users are expecting to have the same quality of internet experience anytime, and everywhere they go. These trends will even more pronounced when 5G network becomes available with intelligent network capabilities and numerous services. 5G network will extend the wireless connectivity beyond the people, to support the connectivity for everything that may benefit from being connected that might include everything from personal belongings, household appliances, to medical equipment, and everything in between [1]. Numerous 5G network use cases, services and network

Figure 1. The evolution of mobile standards [3].

requirements are discussed in [7]. Here are the two most significant trends of 5G services are discussed below [6]:

1. Introduction

today as the app-centric interface [4].

Figure 1. The evolution of mobile standards [3].

During the last few decades, mobile communication has evolved significantly from early wireless voice systems to today's intelligent communication systems [1, 2]. With the advancement of each generation, the mobile communication systems become more sophisticated and unleashed new consumer services that support countless mobile applications used by billions of people around the world, shown in Figure 1 [1–3]. In 2000, when 3G brought us the wireless data, the consumers got access to the internet anytime and anywhere they go [2]. This mobile broadband network with a combination of the innovation of smartphone technologies brought a significant change of mobile internet experience where users can access their email, social media, music, high definition video streaming, online gaming, and many more, which we see

44 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

Due to the advancement of technologies, mobile devices getting smarter every day in terms of advanced computing and multimedia capabilities that supports a wide range of applications and services (e.g., high quality image transfer, ultrahigh definition video streaming, live video games, and cloud resources) [5, 6]. Therefore, more and more users are expecting to have the same quality of internet experience anytime, and everywhere they go. These trends will even more pronounced when 5G network becomes available with intelligent network capabilities and numerous services. 5G network will extend the wireless connectivity beyond the people, to support the connectivity for everything that may benefit from being connected that might include everything from personal belongings, household appliances, to medical equipment, and everything in between [1]. Numerous 5G network use cases, services and network


It is clear that the future mobile network (i.e., 5G) will no longer human centric, it will be more on machine centric which will interconnect billions of smart devices to the mobile network. According to Cisco, smart devices are those that have advanced computing and multimedia capabilities with a minimum of 3G network connectivity [5]. Globally the growth of smart devices will reach 82% by 2021 and some regions it will reach 99% by 2021 (e.g., North America). The main impact of this growth will be on mobile data traffic because a smart device generates much higher traffic compared to non-smart device. According to Cisco forecast, a smart device generated 13 times more traffic compared to non-smart device in 2016 and by 2021 a smart device will be able to generate 21 times more traffic [5]. According to another mobile traffic forecast by Cisco, the expected growth will reach 24.3 Exabytes per month by 2019 which was only 2.5 Exabytes in 2014 [12]. This ever-increasing traffic growth becomes the key driver for the evolution of next generation mobile networks, called 5G, envisioned for the year 2020 [13, 14]. The key requirements of 5G network include, extreme broadband delivery, ultrarobust network, ultralow latency (i.e., less than 1 ms latency) connectivity, and support massive smart devices for the human and for the IoT services [15].

To bring the 5G network in reality, a simple upgrade of mobile network will not be enough where we just add new spectrum and enhance the capacity or use advanced radio technology. It will need to upgrade from the system and architecture levels down to the physical layer [15]. Although some research and standardization work addressing the corresponding challenges from radio perspective (e.g., new spectrum exploration, carrier aggregation, network densification, massive multiple-input-multiple-output, and inter-cell interference mitigation techniques) but there is a new challenge has emerged: the backhaul [16–18]. Because in 5G networks, the ultradense and heavy traffic cells will need to support hundreds of gigabits of traffic from the core network through backhaul and today's cellular system architecture is infeasible to meet this extreme requirement in terms of capacity, availability, latency, energy, and cost efficiency [16, 19].

phone user) with the mobile networks (shown in Figure 2). In Figure 2, UE refers to end user, eNodeB refers to cell or cell site or base stations. Each user data is added with other components of the backhaul traffic (shown in Figure 3), to calculate the single eNodeB transport provisioning and then aggregate with all other eNodeB's traffic before it connects with the core

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It is found that the capacity requirements on the transmission network to support the backhaul traffic from the core network is raises with the evolution of mobile/cellular networks [23]. Cost and reliability always been a concern and major challenges for cellular network operators and there is no magic solution to the demand [19]. This section describes, how the mobile backhaul

A typical GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) network architecture is shown in Figure 4, where the BTS (base station transceivers) are located at the cell site and provide the control and radio air interface for each cell. The BSC (Base station controllers) provides control

network evolve with the evolution of each mobile network (e.g., 2G, 3G, and LTE).

2.1. Typical GSM, 3G, and LTE Network Overview

Figure 2. Mobile backhaul network of LTE (long-term evolution) [26].

Figure 3. Components of backhaul traffic [26].

network.

A details survey about the evolution of mobile backhaul solution from 2G to 3G networks and from 3G to 4G networks are presented in [20, 21], respectively. The hybrid of millimeter wave and optical backhaul solution is proposed in [22] where the software-defined backhaul resource manager is proposed as a novel software defined networking (SDN) approach for realizing high utilization of the backhaul network capacity in a fair and dynamic way, while providing better end-to-end user quality of experience (QoE). Also, [23] provides another hybrid solution that combines an optical laser (through free space) and millimeter-wave radio to provide a combination of guaranteed high capacity, extended reach, and high availability with affordable cost.

If given a choice, fiber always remains the first backhaul choice for service provider due to its inhibitive bandwidths more than 10 Gbps and allowed maximum latency of hundreds of microseconds [16, 23]. But, laying fiber to connect all the cells to the core is not possible in some cases due to the availability problem and the deployment cost is high as well. In addition, fiber deployment, even when it is feasible can take several months [4, 23]. Since the massive deployment of small cells will be the key techniques for 5G networks and the backhaul requirements of the small cells can significantly vary with the small cell location, the fiber cannot be the optimal approach for 5G backhaul solution [23–25]. On the other hand wireless backhauling (e.g., microwave and millimeter wave) becomes popular due to its availability, deployment time and cost-effective approach [24]. But the weather condition and multipath propagation have significant impact on microwave and millimeter-wave radio systems which can affect the transmission performance. So it is obvious that there will no unique backhaul solution for 5G networks. The backhaul evolution for 5G networks will include both wired and wireless backhaul solution [23].

The contributions of this book chapter are listed below:


### 2. Introduction to mobile backhaul network and evolution

The mobile backhaul network connects radio access network air interfaces at the cell sites to the inner core network which ensures the network connectivity of the end user (e.g., mobile phone user) with the mobile networks (shown in Figure 2). In Figure 2, UE refers to end user, eNodeB refers to cell or cell site or base stations. Each user data is added with other components of the backhaul traffic (shown in Figure 3), to calculate the single eNodeB transport provisioning and then aggregate with all other eNodeB's traffic before it connects with the core network.

It is found that the capacity requirements on the transmission network to support the backhaul traffic from the core network is raises with the evolution of mobile/cellular networks [23]. Cost and reliability always been a concern and major challenges for cellular network operators and there is no magic solution to the demand [19]. This section describes, how the mobile backhaul network evolve with the evolution of each mobile network (e.g., 2G, 3G, and LTE).

### 2.1. Typical GSM, 3G, and LTE Network Overview

networks, the ultradense and heavy traffic cells will need to support hundreds of gigabits of traffic from the core network through backhaul and today's cellular system architecture is infeasible to meet this extreme requirement in terms of capacity, availability, latency, energy,

46 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

A details survey about the evolution of mobile backhaul solution from 2G to 3G networks and from 3G to 4G networks are presented in [20, 21], respectively. The hybrid of millimeter wave and optical backhaul solution is proposed in [22] where the software-defined backhaul resource manager is proposed as a novel software defined networking (SDN) approach for realizing high utilization of the backhaul network capacity in a fair and dynamic way, while providing better end-to-end user quality of experience (QoE). Also, [23] provides another hybrid solution that combines an optical laser (through free space) and millimeter-wave radio to provide a combination of guaranteed high capacity, extended reach, and high availability

If given a choice, fiber always remains the first backhaul choice for service provider due to its inhibitive bandwidths more than 10 Gbps and allowed maximum latency of hundreds of microseconds [16, 23]. But, laying fiber to connect all the cells to the core is not possible in some cases due to the availability problem and the deployment cost is high as well. In addition, fiber deployment, even when it is feasible can take several months [4, 23]. Since the massive deployment of small cells will be the key techniques for 5G networks and the backhaul requirements of the small cells can significantly vary with the small cell location, the fiber cannot be the optimal approach for 5G backhaul solution [23–25]. On the other hand wireless backhauling (e.g., microwave and millimeter wave) becomes popular due to its availability, deployment time and cost-effective approach [24]. But the weather condition and multipath propagation have significant impact on microwave and millimeter-wave radio systems which can affect the transmission performance. So it is obvious that there will no unique backhaul solution for 5G networks. The backhaul evolution for 5G networks will

• First, this chapter provides a brief introduction of mobile backhaul network and the

• Second, provides a comprehensive overview of backhaul requirements of 5G networks

• Finally, it outlines the existing mobile backhaul solutions (i.e., wired and wireless) and list their features, benefits, drawbacks, application areas and deployment challenges.

The mobile backhaul network connects radio access network air interfaces at the cell sites to the inner core network which ensures the network connectivity of the end user (e.g., mobile

2. Introduction to mobile backhaul network and evolution

and cost efficiency [16, 19].

with affordable cost.

include both wired and wireless backhaul solution [23]. The contributions of this book chapter are listed below:

evolution of mobile backhaul network.

and highlight the potential challenges.

A typical GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) network architecture is shown in Figure 4, where the BTS (base station transceivers) are located at the cell site and provide the control and radio air interface for each cell. The BSC (Base station controllers) provides control

Figure 2. Mobile backhaul network of LTE (long-term evolution) [26].

Figure 3. Components of backhaul traffic [26].

Figure 4. Typical GSM network with wireless interface requirements [27].

over multiple cell sites and multiple base station transceivers. The base station controllers can be located in a separate office or co-located at the mobile switching center (MSC).

Another objective of the LTE standards was to flatten and simplify the network architecture. This resulted in pushing more intelligence into the radios (eNodeB) and elimination of the radio controllers as a separate device. In effect, the radio controller function has been distributed into

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Figure 5. Typical 3G network with wireless interface requirements [27].

Figure 6. Typical LTE network with wireless interface requirements [28].

There are standard interfaces developed by the wireless industry for interconnecting these devices, so they could deploy interoperable systems from multiple vendors. These physical interfaces define the wireless backhaul transport services and requirements. Thus, a basic understanding of these interfaces is very important. Some standard interfaces for GSM network are listed below [27]:


Although the functions of these devices are similar, the 3GPP wireless standards body adopted slightly different names for the functional nodes and logical interfaces for UMTS (3G) networks, shown in Figure 5. But, historically the 2G/3G wireless standards were based on T1 (TDM) physical interfaces for interconnection between these devices because of the wide availability of T1 copper, fiber, and microwave services [28].

T1 physical interfaces has driven mobile backhaul transport requirements for 2G/3G wireless standards, but 4G wireless standards (i.e., LTE: Long-Term Evolution) are based on entirely new packet-based architecture, including the use of Ethernet physical interfaces for interconnection between the various functional elements, shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5. Typical 3G network with wireless interface requirements [27].

over multiple cell sites and multiple base station transceivers. The base station controllers can

There are standard interfaces developed by the wireless industry for interconnecting these devices, so they could deploy interoperable systems from multiple vendors. These physical interfaces define the wireless backhaul transport services and requirements. Thus, a basic understanding of these interfaces is very important. Some standard interfaces for GSM net-

• Abis: the Abis interface connects the base station transceivers to base station controllers. • A: the A interface in Figure 2 connects the base station controller to the mobile switching

• Gb: voice services continue over the A interface, while data services are handled over the

Although the functions of these devices are similar, the 3GPP wireless standards body adopted slightly different names for the functional nodes and logical interfaces for UMTS (3G) networks, shown in Figure 5. But, historically the 2G/3G wireless standards were based on T1 (TDM) physical interfaces for interconnection between these devices because of the wide

T1 physical interfaces has driven mobile backhaul transport requirements for 2G/3G wireless standards, but 4G wireless standards (i.e., LTE: Long-Term Evolution) are based on entirely new packet-based architecture, including the use of Ethernet physical interfaces for intercon-

availability of T1 copper, fiber, and microwave services [28].

nection between the various functional elements, shown in Figure 6.

be located in a separate office or co-located at the mobile switching center (MSC).

Figure 4. Typical GSM network with wireless interface requirements [27].

48 Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice

work are listed below [27]:

center.

Gb interface.

Another objective of the LTE standards was to flatten and simplify the network architecture. This resulted in pushing more intelligence into the radios (eNodeB) and elimination of the radio controllers as a separate device. In effect, the radio controller function has been distributed into

Figure 6. Typical LTE network with wireless interface requirements [28].


even some of which are unimagined today. To fulfill the demand of fully mobile and connected society can be characterized by the tremendous increase in the number of connectivity and traffic volume density [29]. According to Nokia, the number of connecting devices per mobile users will be ten to one hundred that includes, mobile phone, laptop, tablet, smart watch to smart shirts [11]. In addition, the number of connected machines and sensor devices in the industry and public infrastructure will increase. According to Ceragon, the forecasted capacity increase could be 1000 compared to the capacity density in current 4G/4.5G networks [30, 31]. So, it is obvious that the evolution of 5G networks from LTE/LTE-A will need higher capacity backhaul links per cell site: while LTE/LTE-A networks need hundreds of Mbps, 5G network

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Availability is the major consideration for any backhaul networks, if the backhaul services are not in operation the system performance are negatively affected. In case of fiber systems, if there is any interruption of current path, the systems will automatically switch to the protection path within <50 ms [23]. Even in the wireless backhaul (e.g., microwave and millimeter wave), the backhaul link can be affected by multipath propagation and bad weaher condition. To overcome this, adaptive modulation technique is used that lowers the line rates to maintain the availability. Although the 5G network requirements is not standard yet, but to provide the expected new services such as autonomous vehicle/autonomous driving, tactile internet, and many machine to machine applications need high availability and very

Cellular network provider has to spend billions of dollars each year to acquire wireless spectrum for building excellent network coverage [23]. Since dense small cell deployment will be the key for 5G networks to support 1000 times more capacity, the cost efficient backhaul solution for the small will be a major challenge. An application specific traffic-engineering model needs to be formulated so that both customers and service providers can be happy.

Reach defines how far a cell site can get backhaul support from the core network with the required quality of service. Long distance reach is always a big issue for the backhaul network in terms of cost and additional equipment (e.g., total deployment cost of fiber backhaul will increase with the distance) [23]. Typically, cell sites are interconnected in a hierarchical mesh and all the traffics are transported back to an aggregation point (sometimes-called super cell) where all the traffics are aggregated and transport to the core network. Due to the dense small cell deployment in the 5G networks, massive backhaul traffic will be aggregated at the super cell that can create congestion and can even collapse the backhaul networks [19]. Therefore,

long distance reach will be a big challenge for the 5G backhaul network.

will need to support tens of Gbps, shown in Figure 1.

3.2. Availability

low latency [30].

3.3. Deployment cost requirements

3.4. Long distance reach requirements

Table 1. Wireless capacity requirements for 2G, 3G and LTE [27, 28].

each eNodeB radio. So, the resultant network is indeed much simpler and flatter, with far fewer functional devices.

From a mobile backhaul perspective: most cell sites will continue to support GSM 2G and UMTS 3G networks for many years, the addition of LTE means backhaul transport carriers need to implement systems that can support both native T1 TDM services and Ethernet services. But, the major changes are the higher capacities required by LTE cell sites. A detail comparison of wireless capacity requirements for 2G, 3G, and LTE networks are shown in Table 1.

### 3. 5G backhaul requirements and challenges

Enhance the network reliability and reduce the cost efficiency always been a major challenge for the cellular network operator and there is no magic solution to that demand [19]. With the evolution of mobile network, the capacity requirement of the transport network from the core raises significantly [23]. The major backhaul challenges that mobile network operator had to deal with up to 4G network includes capacity, availability, deployment cost, and long distance reach [16]. But, 5G network will interconnect billions of new start devices with the numerous use cases and services, which will support machine-to-machine (M2M) services and Internet of Things (IoT) to the mobile network [6, 8]. These new smart devices will not only enhance the backhaul capacity requirement, but it will also add two additional challenges in the backhaul network: (a) ultralow latency of 1 ms (round trip) connectivity requirements, and (b) denser small cell deployment. This section describes the 5G backhaul requirements and potential challenges.

#### 3.1. Capacity

The evolution of 5G cellular network is positioned to address new services and demands for business contexts of 2020 and beyond [29]. It is expected that 5G network will enable a fully mobile and connected society that empower socio-economic transformation in many ways and even some of which are unimagined today. To fulfill the demand of fully mobile and connected society can be characterized by the tremendous increase in the number of connectivity and traffic volume density [29]. According to Nokia, the number of connecting devices per mobile users will be ten to one hundred that includes, mobile phone, laptop, tablet, smart watch to smart shirts [11]. In addition, the number of connected machines and sensor devices in the industry and public infrastructure will increase. According to Ceragon, the forecasted capacity increase could be 1000 compared to the capacity density in current 4G/4.5G networks [30, 31]. So, it is obvious that the evolution of 5G networks from LTE/LTE-A will need higher capacity backhaul links per cell site: while LTE/LTE-A networks need hundreds of Mbps, 5G network will need to support tens of Gbps, shown in Figure 1.

### 3.2. Availability

each eNodeB radio. So, the resultant network is indeed much simpler and flatter, with far fewer

Voice spectral efficiency (bits/Hz)

GSM 2G 1.2 0.52 3 1.3 1

HSDPA 3G 5 0 2 3 21.0 14 LTE 4G 5 0 3.8 3 39.9 n/a LTE 4G 10 0 3.8 3 79.8 n/a

1.2 2.3 0.52 1 3 6.1 4

Data efficiency (bits/Hz)
