**3.1. Genetic and agronomic value**

The local varieties are a repository of diverse genes, some of which are of practical importance in the changing socio-economic as well as edaphic/climatic conditions. While all high yielding varieties in Kashmir are white, mostly with medium bold grains, local rice varieties often exhibit tremendous morphological diversity. The color of the outer layer (pericarp) can range from black/purple to red and brownish to white. The grain weight of landraces in Kashmir, as characterized by the thousand-kernel weight, varies between 15 and 32 g, while the HYVs varies only between 22 and 34 g. In fact, more than 90% out of 92 identified landraces cultivated in the area are no longer under cultivation (**Figure 2**).

Srinagar during the times of Maharajas, which could only be afforded by the affluent and rich families owing to their 4–5 times higher market price. These landraces are highly valued even in present times and are served to distinguished visitors and dignitaries. Some red rice types called '*Zag*' are used for the preparation of snacks like '*Vazul bate*' for pregnant ladies owing to their higher nutritive value, while some are preferred for preparation of munchies like '*Bate laaye*', '*Mur-murei*' and '*Chewrei*'. The varieties' names in the local language often reflect the rice's appearance (*Kaw kreer, Laer beoul, Nika katwor, Shala kew*), smell (*Mushk budji, Mushkandi*), color (*Zag, Safed Khuch, Bari safed, Kaw kreer, Khuch, Sig safed, Safeed braz, Safed cheena*), cultivator's name (*Aziz beoul, Begum, Qadir baig, Rehman bhatti, Noormiree*), etc. Many varieties are characterized by a very specific taste, and their seeds are exchanged among neighbors/relatives, or are gifted for eating purposes in the form of roasted rice, locally called '*Bayel tamul*'. The long-grained basmati type varieties are cooked as '*Kashmiri pulao*' and served along with dry fruit and raisins in the famous Kashmiri cuisine locally called as '*Wazwan*'. The loss of

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**Figure 2.** Local biodiversity of rice as depicted by the difference of panicle type, grain type, grain color, awn type etc.

The taste, texture and organoleptic value of rice depend on many factors. Rice is a starchy staple food which provides almost 90% of dietary energy to an average Kashmiri. It is a part of their culture, and even in parties, conventions, get-togethers rice is an indispensible component of their dishes. No party can ever be even imagined without '*bate*' (cooked rice)! Starch properties of the traditional varieties are therefore an important factor determining the choice of varieties for different occasions. Varieties differ widely in the proportion of starch composition/fractions of amylose (consisting of linearly linked glucose molecules) and amylopectin (composed of glucose molecules with branched links). The waxy rice varieties consist of amylopectin only, and have a sticky texture because these absorb less water upon cooking. On the other hand, rice landraces with more than 25% amylose content absorb more water and have a fluffy texture after cooking. Higher proportion of amylose is further associated with low glycemic index (slow starch digestion) and longer feeling of satiation after ingestion. On the other hand fast

biodiversity therefore would also imply a fading rural culture (**Figure 3**).

**3.3. Health value**

The findings of a recent study, conducted somewhere else, are presented here to illustrate the importance of conserving and exploring the 'genetic value' of landraces. A major quantitative trait locus for phosphorus-deficiency tolerance, *Pup1*, was identified almost a decade back in the traditional *aus*-type Indian rice variety 'Kasalath' [5, 6]. The locus was sequenced and *Pup1*-specific protein kinase gene located, which was recently named as phosphorus-starvation tolerance 1 (*PSTOL1*) gene. It is important to emphasize that this gene is absent from the rice reference genome and other phosphorus-starvation-intolerant modern varieties. The overexpression of *PSTOL1* in such varieties significantly enhances early root growth and grain yield in phosphorus-deficient soil by enabling plants to acquire more phosphorus and other nutrients [7]. The absence of genes like *PSTOL1* and submergence-tolerance gene *SUB1A* from modern rice varieties underlines the value of traditional rice germplasm.

#### **3.2. Socio-economic and cultural value**

Rice is not only the dominant staple food, but also an integral part of culture in rural Kashmir. Some landraces have a special cultural value, for example scented landraces *Mushk budji* and *Kamad* have traditionally been served on particular occasions like marriage ceremonies and festivals. These varieties used to be sold as 'food for the royal families' in the local markets of Rice Biodiversity in Cold Hill Zones of Kashmir Himalayas and Conservation of Its Landraces http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74591 47

**Figure 2.** Local biodiversity of rice as depicted by the difference of panicle type, grain type, grain color, awn type etc.

Srinagar during the times of Maharajas, which could only be afforded by the affluent and rich families owing to their 4–5 times higher market price. These landraces are highly valued even in present times and are served to distinguished visitors and dignitaries. Some red rice types called '*Zag*' are used for the preparation of snacks like '*Vazul bate*' for pregnant ladies owing to their higher nutritive value, while some are preferred for preparation of munchies like '*Bate laaye*', '*Mur-murei*' and '*Chewrei*'. The varieties' names in the local language often reflect the rice's appearance (*Kaw kreer, Laer beoul, Nika katwor, Shala kew*), smell (*Mushk budji, Mushkandi*), color (*Zag, Safed Khuch, Bari safed, Kaw kreer, Khuch, Sig safed, Safeed braz, Safed cheena*), cultivator's name (*Aziz beoul, Begum, Qadir baig, Rehman bhatti, Noormiree*), etc. Many varieties are characterized by a very specific taste, and their seeds are exchanged among neighbors/relatives, or are gifted for eating purposes in the form of roasted rice, locally called '*Bayel tamul*'. The long-grained basmati type varieties are cooked as '*Kashmiri pulao*' and served along with dry fruit and raisins in the famous Kashmiri cuisine locally called as '*Wazwan*'. The loss of biodiversity therefore would also imply a fading rural culture (**Figure 3**).

#### **3.3. Health value**

**3. Why are landraces important?**

46 Rediscovery of Landraces as a Resource for the Future

**Figure 1.** Biodiversity of rice, as depicted through a range in morphological variability.

in the area are no longer under cultivation (**Figure 2**).

The local varieties are a repository of diverse genes, some of which are of practical importance in the changing socio-economic as well as edaphic/climatic conditions. While all high yielding varieties in Kashmir are white, mostly with medium bold grains, local rice varieties often exhibit tremendous morphological diversity. The color of the outer layer (pericarp) can range from black/purple to red and brownish to white. The grain weight of landraces in Kashmir, as characterized by the thousand-kernel weight, varies between 15 and 32 g, while the HYVs varies only between 22 and 34 g. In fact, more than 90% out of 92 identified landraces cultivated

The findings of a recent study, conducted somewhere else, are presented here to illustrate the importance of conserving and exploring the 'genetic value' of landraces. A major quantitative trait locus for phosphorus-deficiency tolerance, *Pup1*, was identified almost a decade back in the traditional *aus*-type Indian rice variety 'Kasalath' [5, 6]. The locus was sequenced and *Pup1*-specific protein kinase gene located, which was recently named as phosphorus-starvation tolerance 1 (*PSTOL1*) gene. It is important to emphasize that this gene is absent from the rice reference genome and other phosphorus-starvation-intolerant modern varieties. The overexpression of *PSTOL1* in such varieties significantly enhances early root growth and grain yield in phosphorus-deficient soil by enabling plants to acquire more phosphorus and other nutrients [7]. The absence of genes like *PSTOL1* and submergence-tolerance gene *SUB1A* from modern rice varieties underlines the value of traditional

Rice is not only the dominant staple food, but also an integral part of culture in rural Kashmir. Some landraces have a special cultural value, for example scented landraces *Mushk budji* and *Kamad* have traditionally been served on particular occasions like marriage ceremonies and festivals. These varieties used to be sold as 'food for the royal families' in the local markets of

**3.1. Genetic and agronomic value**

rice germplasm.

**3.2. Socio-economic and cultural value**

The taste, texture and organoleptic value of rice depend on many factors. Rice is a starchy staple food which provides almost 90% of dietary energy to an average Kashmiri. It is a part of their culture, and even in parties, conventions, get-togethers rice is an indispensible component of their dishes. No party can ever be even imagined without '*bate*' (cooked rice)! Starch properties of the traditional varieties are therefore an important factor determining the choice of varieties for different occasions. Varieties differ widely in the proportion of starch composition/fractions of amylose (consisting of linearly linked glucose molecules) and amylopectin (composed of glucose molecules with branched links). The waxy rice varieties consist of amylopectin only, and have a sticky texture because these absorb less water upon cooking. On the other hand, rice landraces with more than 25% amylose content absorb more water and have a fluffy texture after cooking. Higher proportion of amylose is further associated with low glycemic index (slow starch digestion) and longer feeling of satiation after ingestion. On the other hand fast

B-deficiency (*beri-beri*) has become more common, due to the loss of vitamins through the disposal of rice bran. Earlier farmers used to process their rice manually and remove only the fibrous hull. Rice was then consumed as 'brown rice' that included the bran layer. The 'nutritional diversity' of rice bran added value to the rice bowl, because bran is more diverse in its composition and contains protein, lipids, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. The major vitamins present in the rice bran are vitamin E (α-tocopherol) and the B-vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin) while the major minerals are phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. It is a general practice nowadays to process rice grain by additionally removing the bran layer from the endosperm to obtain milled rice. This is done due to the consumers' preferences but it takes away the nutritive 'value' from nutritionally rich landraces, making them at par with other landraces or varieties. A study on Philippine rice landraces has suggested that their average lipid content is significantly higher than that of the HYVs collected from the same area. The lipid content of HYVs (brown rice) ranged between 2.0 and 2.1%, while its average value for the landraces was 2.3%, with some individual varieties having 3.2% lipid content. Similar study was undertaken on landraces of Kashmir [9]. A highly aromatic landrace of Kashmir Himalayas 'Mushk budji', which is grown in mid altitude cold regions, showed maximum total protein (8.86%) content as well as highest fiber content (3.31%). However, it recorded the lowest starch content of 70.45% while a popular high yielding variety grown in the plains of Kashmir valley 'Shalimar rice-1' recorded the highest (79.36%) starch content as well as maximum amylose percentage (24.34%). Total Phenol content showed a wide range from 4.87 to 1.02 mg/g, with maximum in a pigmented rice genotype 'Purple rice' while lowest in 'Jhelum', a popular high yielding rice variety. Besides, purple rice also had maximum total anthocyanin (9995.34 μg/g) content, while lowest (5943.14 μg/g) was recorded in Jhelum. Similarly, total carotenoids too varied in a wide range, with 'Khuch' recording almost 10 times (0.022 μg/g) than the lowest (0.002 μg/g) in Shalimar Rice-1 and Jhelum. These results indicate that scented and pigmented rice genotypes of Kashmir Himalayan region are of better nutritional quality than the conventional high yielding varieties and could be promoted as 'Specialty' rice for

Rice Biodiversity in Cold Hill Zones of Kashmir Himalayas and Conservation of Its Landraces

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Similarly, higher levels of β-carotene are generally found in pigmented (colored) rice varieties [10]. Such landraces of Kashmir with colored pericarp viz., brown (*Zag, Khuch, Khuch niver, Mir zag, Niver, Mir sagi, GS 10, GS 44, GS 51, GS 52, GS 80, GS 83, GS 224, GS 268, GS 289, GS 484, GS 501*), purple (*Purple rice*), black (*Zager, Kaw kreer*) are only cultivated in remote areas maintaining a higher diversity of rice genotypes. Carotenoids being fat soluble, such varieties generally possess higher lipid content too. From a nutritional point of view this is favorable because it ensures the supply of unsaturated fatty acids necessary for the transformation of β-carotene into vitamin A. As with vitamins, minerals like iron and zinc are chiefly located in the bran of the rice grain. Generally, iron and zinc contents tend to be higher in aromatic and colored (red and black) rice varieties than in colorless varieties and ordinary HYVs [11, 12] (**Figure 4**).

*Magnaporthe grisea*, the causal agent of blast disease, is a serious pathogen of graminaceous species and is best known as the causal agent of the rice blast disease. The disease is a serious

better economic returns to the farmers [9].

**3.5. Disease management value**

**Figure 3.** Agricultural biodiversity shapes food culture (a) Kashmiri salted rice *Taeher*, generally served at *Sufi dargahs* (b) Sweet *Kashmiri pulao* served with *Wazwan* (c) *Bate laaye* sold by local vendors as snacks for children (d) Cooked pigmented rice by a *Gujjar* family.

digestion can cause a sensation of hunger shortly after the ingestion of waxy rice and is considered unfavorable because its long term consumption can induce type II diabetes (i.e. noninsulin dependent diabetes) in adults. There is a prompt and pronounced increase of the blood glucose level (= high glycemic index) after the ingestion of rice (especially waxy rice), similar to that caused by white bread or pure glucose. Therefore in some parts of Jammu & Kashmir such waxy varieties are used for the preparation of sweet/salty snacks (*Meethay chaval*, *Taeher*) by cooking them and then cooling before consumption. Some varieties are preferred for the preparation of bread (*Tomul tschot*). Cooling after cooking has been shown to substantially slow down starch digestion due to physiochemical changes in the starch structure (retrogradation) [8]. Besides starch composition many other factors specific to these varieties viz., physiochemical starch structure or the size of the starch granules, also contribute to delayed starch digestion.

#### **3.4. Grain nutritional value**

Another aspect that makes rice landraces attractive is the wide range in palatability, texture, and nutritional value depending upon their genetic makeup. With the advent of high yielding varieties and large scale adoption of the rice milling technology the spread of vitamin B-deficiency (*beri-beri*) has become more common, due to the loss of vitamins through the disposal of rice bran. Earlier farmers used to process their rice manually and remove only the fibrous hull. Rice was then consumed as 'brown rice' that included the bran layer. The 'nutritional diversity' of rice bran added value to the rice bowl, because bran is more diverse in its composition and contains protein, lipids, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. The major vitamins present in the rice bran are vitamin E (α-tocopherol) and the B-vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin) while the major minerals are phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. It is a general practice nowadays to process rice grain by additionally removing the bran layer from the endosperm to obtain milled rice. This is done due to the consumers' preferences but it takes away the nutritive 'value' from nutritionally rich landraces, making them at par with other landraces or varieties. A study on Philippine rice landraces has suggested that their average lipid content is significantly higher than that of the HYVs collected from the same area. The lipid content of HYVs (brown rice) ranged between 2.0 and 2.1%, while its average value for the landraces was 2.3%, with some individual varieties having 3.2% lipid content. Similar study was undertaken on landraces of Kashmir [9]. A highly aromatic landrace of Kashmir Himalayas 'Mushk budji', which is grown in mid altitude cold regions, showed maximum total protein (8.86%) content as well as highest fiber content (3.31%). However, it recorded the lowest starch content of 70.45% while a popular high yielding variety grown in the plains of Kashmir valley 'Shalimar rice-1' recorded the highest (79.36%) starch content as well as maximum amylose percentage (24.34%). Total Phenol content showed a wide range from 4.87 to 1.02 mg/g, with maximum in a pigmented rice genotype 'Purple rice' while lowest in 'Jhelum', a popular high yielding rice variety. Besides, purple rice also had maximum total anthocyanin (9995.34 μg/g) content, while lowest (5943.14 μg/g) was recorded in Jhelum. Similarly, total carotenoids too varied in a wide range, with 'Khuch' recording almost 10 times (0.022 μg/g) than the lowest (0.002 μg/g) in Shalimar Rice-1 and Jhelum. These results indicate that scented and pigmented rice genotypes of Kashmir Himalayan region are of better nutritional quality than the conventional high yielding varieties and could be promoted as 'Specialty' rice for better economic returns to the farmers [9].

Similarly, higher levels of β-carotene are generally found in pigmented (colored) rice varieties [10]. Such landraces of Kashmir with colored pericarp viz., brown (*Zag, Khuch, Khuch niver, Mir zag, Niver, Mir sagi, GS 10, GS 44, GS 51, GS 52, GS 80, GS 83, GS 224, GS 268, GS 289, GS 484, GS 501*), purple (*Purple rice*), black (*Zager, Kaw kreer*) are only cultivated in remote areas maintaining a higher diversity of rice genotypes. Carotenoids being fat soluble, such varieties generally possess higher lipid content too. From a nutritional point of view this is favorable because it ensures the supply of unsaturated fatty acids necessary for the transformation of β-carotene into vitamin A. As with vitamins, minerals like iron and zinc are chiefly located in the bran of the rice grain. Generally, iron and zinc contents tend to be higher in aromatic and colored (red and black) rice varieties than in colorless varieties and ordinary HYVs [11, 12] (**Figure 4**).

#### **3.5. Disease management value**

digestion can cause a sensation of hunger shortly after the ingestion of waxy rice and is considered unfavorable because its long term consumption can induce type II diabetes (i.e. noninsulin dependent diabetes) in adults. There is a prompt and pronounced increase of the blood glucose level (= high glycemic index) after the ingestion of rice (especially waxy rice), similar to that caused by white bread or pure glucose. Therefore in some parts of Jammu & Kashmir such waxy varieties are used for the preparation of sweet/salty snacks (*Meethay chaval*, *Taeher*) by cooking them and then cooling before consumption. Some varieties are preferred for the preparation of bread (*Tomul tschot*). Cooling after cooking has been shown to substantially slow down starch digestion due to physiochemical changes in the starch structure (retrogradation) [8]. Besides starch composition many other factors specific to these varieties viz., physiochemical starch structure or the size of the starch granules, also contribute to delayed starch digestion.

**Figure 3.** Agricultural biodiversity shapes food culture (a) Kashmiri salted rice *Taeher*, generally served at *Sufi dargahs* (b) Sweet *Kashmiri pulao* served with *Wazwan* (c) *Bate laaye* sold by local vendors as snacks for children (d) Cooked

Another aspect that makes rice landraces attractive is the wide range in palatability, texture, and nutritional value depending upon their genetic makeup. With the advent of high yielding varieties and large scale adoption of the rice milling technology the spread of vitamin

**3.4. Grain nutritional value**

pigmented rice by a *Gujjar* family.

48 Rediscovery of Landraces as a Resource for the Future

*Magnaporthe grisea*, the causal agent of blast disease, is a serious pathogen of graminaceous species and is best known as the causal agent of the rice blast disease. The disease is a serious

**Figure 4.** Pigmented rice types (a) *Purple rice* (b) *Niver* (c) *Zag* (d) *Zager*

production constraint for rice in the northwestern Himalayan region of India, comprising the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh [13]. The disease is endemic to most rice growing areas of Jammu and Kashmir due to prevailing blast-conducive environmental conditions during the crop season. Although, chemical control of the disease is available, it is economically expensive for resource poor farmers and is environmentally undesirable. Since host resistance offers cost effective and eco-friendly method for disease management, a study in China has demonstrated how diversification of rice varieties is able to significantly reduce rice blast infestation [14]. Genetic diversity is a defense against diseases and pests owing to the presence of diverse genes and genetic components, which give selective advantage to these varieties under heavy selection pressure imposed by diseases. The rice blast disease is one of the major diseases in Kashmir, which exists as a combination of pathogenic races. Therefore, rice resistance genes often remain effective only for a few years of agricultural production, before succumbing to new pathogenic races. In the Chinese study diversification as a pest management strategy was so successful that farmers were able to abandon the use of fungicides in just 2 years. Similar results were obtained in Philippines, where more than 50 rice landraces were cultivated in two upland municipalities, and there were no reports of any rice pest infestation, except rats and birds [10]. A preliminary study with this purpose was conducted at MRCFC, Khudwani wherein rice germplasm was screened for blast tolerance under temperate conditions of Kashmir valley. Evaluation was

made by the IRRI's standard evaluation system of rice on 0–9 scale. The promising test entries

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Kashmir is well known for the cultivation of some local scented landraces grown in different agroecological niches and maintained by farmers since time immemorial. Of the aromatic cultigens, *Mushk budji* and *Kamad* are in great demand due to their excellent cooking and eating qualities [15, 16]. Earlier, in absence of blast infestation these varieties would yield grain of 3.0–3.5 t/ha in farmers field. However, the yields declined drastically due to their

with tolerance to blast can increase prospects of producing rice organically.

**Figure 5.** Popular landraces of rice in Kashmir (central two are scented, and outer two are red rice types).

**4. Initiatives in biodiversity management of rice**

**4.1. Purification of scented local landraces**

Rice Biodiversity in Cold Hill Zones of Kashmir Himalayas and Conservation of Its Landraces http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74591 51

**Figure 5.** Popular landraces of rice in Kashmir (central two are scented, and outer two are red rice types).

made by the IRRI's standard evaluation system of rice on 0–9 scale. The promising test entries with tolerance to blast can increase prospects of producing rice organically.
