**2. History of sugarcane production in China**

China is one of the original producers of sugarcane. *Saccharum sinense* and *Saccharum spontaneum* are widely distributed, from the North Qinling Mountains to the South Hainan Island. Since the late fourth century BC, sugarcane has been used to produce syrup in China.

Cane production, cane yield, and quality have been improved very quickly in mainland China in the past 60 years. From 1961 to 2013, sugarcane production increased rapidly from 2.643 million to 126.13 million tons; the total area of sugarcane plantation extended from 0.108 million to 1.827 million ha, cane yield from 24.0 to 67.4 tons per ha and total sugar production from 0.15 million to 10.613 million tons (**Figure 1**). The average sucrose content, over this same period, has increased from under 13% to more than 14.5%, with some cultivars now providing an average over 16% (from October to April).

From that on, the sugar industry in China has suffered four consecutive years of operating losses due to high production costs (labor cost), the elimination of government support prices, and import competition [2, 3]. Total sugar production in MY 2016/17 is forecast at 8.2 million metric tons (MMT) raw value, down 200,000 metric tons (MT) from post's revised MY 2015/16 estimate. Estimated total sugar production is lowered from 2.15 to 8.4 MMT for MY 2015/16. Sugarcane production suffered a major shock when Yunnan, Guangdong, and Hainan provinces announced in September 2015 that they would cancel provincial floor prices for MY 2015/16. As of early March 2016, approximately 90% of sugar manufacturers were operating at a loss according to industry reports, and a number of small mills have been closed. However, China's cane sugar production is expected to increase for the second year in a row in MY 2017/18, with production forecast at 9.2 MMT, up 800,000 MT from the revised MY 2016/17 estimate. This increase is due to a significant expansion in acreage, as higher prices have increased farmer returns and encouraged those to plant more cane (**Figure 2**).

Sugarcane minimum purchase prices (floor prices) are set by local sugar industry associations and sugarcane processors, in consultation with local governments. In Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the purchase price has increased to 500 RMB (\$72) per metric ton of sugarcane, up from 440 RMB in 2015/16 (**Figure 3**). After many years of declining returns,

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**Figure 2.** Sugarcane productions in China (from 2010 to 2017).

**Figure 3.** Sugarcane price in China (2010–2017).

**Figure 1.** Sugarcane production in China (1961–2013).

**Figure 2.** Sugarcane productions in China (from 2010 to 2017).

**2. History of sugarcane production in China**

50 Sugarcane - Technology and Research

providing an average over 16% (from October to April).

to plant more cane (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 1.** Sugarcane production in China (1961–2013).

China is one of the original producers of sugarcane. *Saccharum sinense* and *Saccharum spontaneum* are widely distributed, from the North Qinling Mountains to the South Hainan Island.

Cane production, cane yield, and quality have been improved very quickly in mainland China in the past 60 years. From 1961 to 2013, sugarcane production increased rapidly from 2.643 million to 126.13 million tons; the total area of sugarcane plantation extended from 0.108 million to 1.827 million ha, cane yield from 24.0 to 67.4 tons per ha and total sugar production from 0.15 million to 10.613 million tons (**Figure 1**). The average sucrose content, over this same period, has increased from under 13% to more than 14.5%, with some cultivars now

From that on, the sugar industry in China has suffered four consecutive years of operating losses due to high production costs (labor cost), the elimination of government support prices, and import competition [2, 3]. Total sugar production in MY 2016/17 is forecast at 8.2 million metric tons (MMT) raw value, down 200,000 metric tons (MT) from post's revised MY 2015/16 estimate. Estimated total sugar production is lowered from 2.15 to 8.4 MMT for MY 2015/16. Sugarcane production suffered a major shock when Yunnan, Guangdong, and Hainan provinces announced in September 2015 that they would cancel provincial floor prices for MY 2015/16. As of early March 2016, approximately 90% of sugar manufacturers were operating at a loss according to industry reports, and a number of small mills have been closed. However, China's cane sugar production is expected to increase for the second year in a row in MY 2017/18, with production forecast at 9.2 MMT, up 800,000 MT from the revised MY 2016/17 estimate. This increase is due to a significant expansion in acreage, as higher prices have increased farmer returns and encouraged those

Since the late fourth century BC, sugarcane has been used to produce syrup in China.

Sugarcane minimum purchase prices (floor prices) are set by local sugar industry associations and sugarcane processors, in consultation with local governments. In Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the purchase price has increased to 500 RMB (\$72) per metric ton of sugarcane, up from 440 RMB in 2015/16 (**Figure 3**). After many years of declining returns,

**Figure 3.** Sugarcane price in China (2010–2017).

sugarcane production has become a little profitable, and farmers are consequently planting more (the planting season is typically February and March). Sugar mill contacts have also confirmed that farmers are keeping more of their cane for seed, highlighting this expected increase in area. These increases are anticipated to be greatest in Guangxi, which accounts for over 65% of the nation's total sugarcane production.

Despite this increase in area, there are a number of obstacles to continue future acreage expansion. Although a few years ago sugarcane area in China was much more than it is now, this land was planted with fruit trees and eucalyptus trees with a very long production cycle. As a result, even with higher prices, it will not be possible to easily bring this land back into cane production. Mechanization levels are still low in China for sugarcane, and the hilly terrain in much of the production area makes mechanization adoption for harvesting difficult. Production costs continue to be very high. In fact, the price of labor for harvesting sugarcane can make up more than a third of the total cane purchase price [5]. Among major sugar producing countries, China has the highest production costs, with these as much as double those in neighboring Thailand. High production costs and inefficiencies have made Chinese sugar production uncompetitive with other countries, and also it is one of the reasons why the sugar industry approached the Chinese government to request a safeguard investigation

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The improved varieties are becoming more important for sugarcane production worldwide [6, 7]. New varieties are continuously released in Guangxi, Guangdong, Yunnan, Fujian, and Hainan by sugarcane breeding institutes, agricultural universities, and sugarcane research and development centers in China (**Table 1**). It would be therefore worthwhile for the growers to manipulate the environment in such a way as to bring out the maximum expression of

Sugarcane breeding program in China started in 1953 when the first sugarcane breeding station was established in Yachen, Hainan (formerly known as Yaxian county, 18°27′N and 109°50′E), where sugarcane can flower in the field. Sugarcane fuzzes from this station were sent to sugarcane research institutes in different provinces (**Table 1**). In general, this station can make 1200 crosses from 1600 flowers every year. Besides this station, Ruili hybrid station (Ruili, Yunnan) can provide about 500 crosses. The number of seedlings is about 0.8 million over the country each year. More than 100 sugarcane varieties have been bred and released for commercial sugarcane production in mainland China from 1953 to 2000 [8]. Of these, GT11 (CP49-50 × Co419), YT57-423 (F108 × F134), YT63-237 (Co419 × CP33-310), and MT70- 611 (CP49-50 × F134) have become dominant varieties for a period in different provinces. The combinations and seedling numbers were very limited in China, and the breeding efficiency was very low from 1953 to 2000. For example, less than 50 crosses and 30,000 seedlings were evaluated in the sugarcane breeding program in Guangxi Sugarcane Research Institute before 2001. There were no more new dominant sugarcane varieties bred in mainland China since

From 2000 to 2016, more than 120 new sugarcane varieties have been released for commercial sugarcane production. Of these, LC05-136 (CP81-1254 ×ROC22), GT42 (ROC22 × GT2-66), YT93- 159 (YN73-204 × CP72-1210), YZ89-151 (GZ64-137 × NJ57-416), YT00-236 (YN73-204 × CP72- 1210), FN41 (ROC20 × YT91-976), GT29 (YC94-46 × ROC22), and GT32 (YT91-976 × ROC1)

into sugar imports for next 3 years (2017–2020).

the yield potential possessed by these varieties.

**4.1. Sugarcane varieties bred in mainland China**

1980s when GT11, MT70-611, and YT57-423 were released.

**4. Sugarcane breeding in China**
