**9. Conflict management and related techniques, approaches and skills**

Much research has been conducted on conflict management. This section defines what conflict management is and how it encompasses conflict resolution and dispute resolution. Three conflict management approaches: Robbins [49] levels for conflict; Lan's [50] individual perspective; and Rahim and Magner's [51] and Thomas' [52] concern for others are presented as broad strategies on how to think about conflict management. Also, ten techniques: problem solving [45, 53]; collaboration [54–56]; avoidance [51, 52]; competition [51, 52, 54]; accommodation [51, 52]; compromise [51, 52, 57]; authoritative command [49, 57]; altering structure variables [45, 53]; altering human variable [45, 53]; and expanding resources [49] are provided as tactics for implementing conflict management.

#### **9.1. What is conflict management?**

Research on conflict management is extensive. Conflict management is widely studied in a range of disciplines such as sociology, psychology, economics and organizational development [50]. Maybe this is because conflict is always present and occurs in families, political parties, religious groups, businesses, and many other situations [50, 58]. Managers can invest substantial resources in managing conflict [49, 50].

Conflict management, conflict resolution, and dispute resolution are sometimes used synonymously in the literature, but they are not necessarily the same [45, 49, 59]. Just as there are formal conflict (typically associated with settings of defined laws and policies) and informal conflict (typically associated in settings of unwritten communication norms between individuals and groups) types, there are formal and informal conflict management methods [53]. Dispute resolution is often associated with formal work policies, governance, courts, and political situations [60, 61]. Conflict resolution is often associated with the informal interactions between family, team members, colleges, and groups [62–64]. Both terms can be used for formal and informal interactions.

The evolution from dispute and conflict resolution to conflict management includes disputes but is broader — representing stress, tensions, and strains that may or may not have surfaced or been expressed. Management includes resolution, but also includes prevention and containment [45, 59]. Conflict resolution is often seen as a sequence of post-conflict events intended to end hostility [58]. Whereas, conflict management is more. Management recognizes that not only can conflict be too high, but it also can be too low. Conflict management asks the question, what is the desired level of conflict necessary for success at the interpersonal, group, or intergroup level [49]. Thus, conflict management not only recognizes that conflict can hinder progress, it embraces the idea that conflict enables new ideas, better decision making, and creativity itself [49, 58, 65].

#### **9.2. Conflict management approaches and techniques**

Approaches and techniques for conflict management vary greatly from conversations, to third-party involvement, to violent acts [58, 62, 66]. This section will focus on resolving and stimulating conflict through nonviolent constructive approaches and techniques. As with strategies and tactics, approaches, like strategies, tend to be broad in nature - ideas and guides to thinking. On the other hand, techniques are more like tactics that are more specific and actionable. This section will be spent focusing on techniques. However, approaches are identified as a basis for explaining how the techniques developed.

#### *9.2.1. Approaches*

**8.3. Status conflict**

82 Organizational Conflict

**skills**

to group performance (negatively associated).

as tactics for implementing conflict management.

substantial resources in managing conflict [49, 50].

**9.1. What is conflict management?**

formal and informal interactions.

More recently, Bendersky and Hays [48] introduced status conflict to the intragroup conflict conversation. Status conflict relates to conflicts that arise due to hierarchical structures within the group [48]. Bendersky and Hays [48] defined status conflict as: "Disputes over people's relative status positions in their group's social hierarchy". In their research, they [48] identified status conflict to be negatively associated with information sharing, and highly impactful

Much research has been conducted on conflict management. This section defines what conflict management is and how it encompasses conflict resolution and dispute resolution. Three conflict management approaches: Robbins [49] levels for conflict; Lan's [50] individual perspective; and Rahim and Magner's [51] and Thomas' [52] concern for others are presented as broad strategies on how to think about conflict management. Also, ten techniques: problem solving [45, 53]; collaboration [54–56]; avoidance [51, 52]; competition [51, 52, 54]; accommodation [51, 52]; compromise [51, 52, 57]; authoritative command [49, 57]; altering structure variables [45, 53]; altering human variable [45, 53]; and expanding resources [49] are provided

Research on conflict management is extensive. Conflict management is widely studied in a range of disciplines such as sociology, psychology, economics and organizational development [50]. Maybe this is because conflict is always present and occurs in families, political parties, religious groups, businesses, and many other situations [50, 58]. Managers can invest

Conflict management, conflict resolution, and dispute resolution are sometimes used synonymously in the literature, but they are not necessarily the same [45, 49, 59]. Just as there are formal conflict (typically associated with settings of defined laws and policies) and informal conflict (typically associated in settings of unwritten communication norms between individuals and groups) types, there are formal and informal conflict management methods [53]. Dispute resolution is often associated with formal work policies, governance, courts, and political situations [60, 61]. Conflict resolution is often associated with the informal interactions between family, team members, colleges, and groups [62–64]. Both terms can be used for

The evolution from dispute and conflict resolution to conflict management includes disputes but is broader — representing stress, tensions, and strains that may or may not have surfaced or been expressed. Management includes resolution, but also includes prevention and containment [45, 59]. Conflict resolution is often seen as a sequence of post-conflict events

**9. Conflict management and related techniques, approaches and** 

One approach outlined by Robbins [49] focused on the desired level for conflict. This approach defines conflict as an opposition between two parties. It recognizes that conflict can occur at the interpersonal, group, or intergroup level. This approach considers the traditionalists, behaviorist, and the interactionist view of conflict management. With both the traditionalists and the behaviorist, the approach is to eliminate conflict. But, the interactionist encourages conflict. Through this approach, conflict enables change. Therefore, conflict management is not just the resolution of conflict, but also the stimulation to foster improvement. Eight different conflict management techniques are identified [49].

Another approach outlined by Lan [50] considers the individual status of the conflicting parties. This approach to conflict takes a U.S. centric view. In this approach, the distinct conflict players are the conflicting parties, the observers or onlookers and conflict resolvers. There are three authority related values systems: managerial, political, and legal. The managerial system values efficiency and effectiveness and views the individual as an impersonal objective case. The political system values representation and views the individual as a member of a group. The last system, the legal system, values constitutional integrity; it views the individual as having equal rights. Conflict management is evaluated, stimulated and resolved through one or a combination of these systems. Three primary conflict management techniques are presented with additional alternative techniques [50].

Within the last approach, proposed by Thomas [52] and by Rahim and Magner [51], each consider the concern for others (cooperativeness) and concern for self (assertiveness) as key predictors in how individuals will manage conflict. These researchers used a two by two matrix to predict conflict management styles based on the strength of each consideration—ranging from high concern for both self and others to low concern for self and others. Five conflict management techniques are identified [51, 52] and are presented in the following section.
