**5. Conclusion: conflicts and three levels of SC in organizations**

**4.2. Intraorganizational SC and conflicts**

evil and harming and can lead to "A-type" conflicts.

can develop among different groups.

**4.3. External SC and conflicts**

are essential for success.

58 Organizational Conflict

Researchers claim that intraorganizational SC is the most important level for the organizations' success [56, 36]; therefore, this SC level is very vulnerable for "A-type" conflicts, whereas "C-type" conflicts will strengthen this level because good and valuable interactions

There are two main perspectives about good relationships inside groups, focusing on informal relationships [57]. One perspective is that high intraorganizational SC can lead to "free riding" by part of the group members that often creates dissatisfaction and a feeling of being exploited among the other part of the members. A similar opinion is expressed by Willem and Scarbrough [58] who claimed that intraorganizational SC can be instrumental if it reflects power relations and opportunism, and therefore, can lead to "A-type" conflicts. The other perspective claims that the better the informal relationship, the more the trust and transparency are, and therefore, the common type of conflicts in the group will be "C-type" conflict. In this context, gossip is an important means of communication, if the intraorganizational SC is high, it can be used for receiving information and raising disputes on the surface and then lead to "C-type" conflict, but if the intraorganizational SC is instrumental of low, then gossip can be

Most of the researchers believe that the second perspective (i.e., that intraorganizational SC is only positive) reflects the reality better [59]; therefore, they believe that high intraorganizational SC leads to "C-type" conflicts. These two perspectives also reflect the tension between the personal and intraorganizational levels of SC. If the person is loyal mostly to himself/ herself or to a small group, then the conflicts that will be created are "A-type," and if he/she is

Additionally, this level raises the dilemma of conflicts between groups, that is, each group can have a high level of intraorganizational SC, but the groups do not interact well and there are "A-type" conflicts between them or "A-type" conflicts between the subunit and the whole organization [60]. Because of loyalty to the subgroup, its goals can contradict the organization's goals. Therefore, even if there is a "C-type" conflict inside the group, an "A-type" conflict

The interfaces of the organizational agents with entities outside of the organization range from connections with stakeholders to connections with rivals (and it is only natural to have conflicts with them). Nevertheless, conflicts can occur with all the external connections of the organizations. Conflicts with competitors have a survival value [61], and therefore, "C-type" conflicts are essential for developing new ideas and finding creative solutions. A person with high external SC should leverage his/her connections for creating "C-type" conflicts with stakeholders and competitors. Nevertheless, "A-type" conflicts with important interfaces are common [62] because of negative feelings that develop toward outside entities as a result of conflicting interests. Consequently, the external SC should be separated from personal SC

more loyal to the group, then the odds for "C-type" conflicts are higher.

As emerges from the review of each of the different SC levels, the development of "C-type" conflicts depends on the interaction between the different SC levels. Ibarra et al.'s [53] SC model leads to the understanding that aptness between personal and intraorganizational SC will form "C-type" conflicts in the team and group levels, and a good match between personal SC and external SC will support "C-type" conflicts in the organizational level.

The distinction between the different levels is not always clear. For example, there is a lot of writing about conflicts in organizations' mergers. Allegedly, mergers are in the external level, but once the merger has taken place, the two sides are supposed to create mutual intraorganizational SC, and even if each of the merging sides has a high intraorganizational SC, it is very hard to build a common intraorganizational SC without having "A-type" conflicts. Nevertheless, even if the personal or external SC is low, high intraorganizational SC will usually lead to "C-type" conflicts. Because employees cherish this kind of SC, it is pleasant and causes good atmosphere [15].

Of course, there are many more parameters influencing conflicts in organizations such as personality, personal situation [63, 64], gender [62], organizational culture and organizational climate, market situation, nationality [65], and so on. Nevertheless, SC is a very important variable in maintaining "C-type" conflicts in organizations. A dispute can easily deteriorate into an "A-type" conflict, but a solid personal, external, and especially, intraorganizational SC will aid in preventing "A-type" conflicts, and if they nevertheless appear, it will be easier to solve them.

Future research can establish and expand these understandings and connect the two variables (SC and conflicts) to organizational performance. The study of "A-type" conflict is challenging because of its tacit nature, as well as the study of the hidden parts of organizations [66]. Consequently, an investigation in qualitative tools such as observations in organizations and employees' interviews is required in addition to a quantitative study about the connections of the variables to the performance. Therefore, a dual methodology of using qualitative and quantitative research tools [67] is needed. Another implication that should be sharpened is the organizational need for matching the SC levels to avoid "A-type" conflicts. The intraorganizational level can be controlled by the organization, but it is much more complicated to control the personal SC level. Empowerment of the mid-level managers' role will allow them to better match the SC levels. For example, if a middle manager identifies an employee whose personal SC does not match their intraorganizational SC, the manager can act accordingly (e.g., support the employee and help expand his/her social network) in order to avoid future "A-type" conflicts.
