*9.2.2.5. Accommodation*

*9.2.2. Techniques*

84 Organizational Conflict

*9.2.2.1. Problem solving*

tion [50, 58].

learning [68].

*9.2.2.3. Avoidance*

*9.2.2.4. Competition*

favoring the dominant party [51, 54].

*9.2.2.2. Collaboration*

The following conflict management techniques have been highlighted in the research approaches mentioned above and from related research on conflict management approaches, techniques, and skills. Techniques are not mutually exclusive and may have some overlapping concepts. Different techniques may be more appropriate based on conflict type (task, process, or relational), outcomes, timing, and the power position of interacting parties [44, 45, 54].

Problem solving is the most direct technique. Problem solving is often associated with managing task related conflict [44, 45].Through this tactic, parties involved in the conflict interact to define, assess, and solve the problem [49, 50]. Interactions to arrive at problem definition among conflicting parties, observers and/or conflict resolvers may involve debate and discussion of ideas [45]. Through communications and direct interactions to confront the problem and related parties, information can be gained to move forward [57, 66]. Problemsolving can be executed through individual interaction, workshops, and third-party media-

Collaboration is often seen as the most desired technique [54]. Through the collaboration tactic, one focuses on both high concern for others (cooperativeness) and high concern for self (assertiveness) in conflict management [51, 52]. The collaborative technique can be described as integrative and cooperative because it constructively searches for information that can be used to develop mutually satisfactory agreements [55, 56]. Collaboration can also be described as smoothing, which focuses on common interest between parties and deemphasize differences [49, 57, 67]. In some situations, cooperation has to evolve and grow over time allowing for small victories to build trust while enabling flexibility and

This is the opposite technique to collaboration. Avoidance is often practiced when there is a low regard for self and the opposing position in a conflict [51, 52]. Withdrawal, ignoring, sup-

With the competition technique, one focuses on high regard for self (assertion) and low regard for the opposing position (low cooperation) in managing conflict [52–53]. This technique can also be labeled as dominating and is often used when there is a perceived power imbalance

pression, and not addressing issues represent this technique [46, 50, 58, 68].

The opposite tactic to the competitive technique is accommodation. With this technique, one focuses on a low regard for self and a high regard for the opposing position [51, 52]. This technique is also referred to as obliging and can result in quick resolve and being viewed favorably by the opposition [51].

#### *9.2.2.6. Compromise*

Compromise is similar to collaboration. The difference is that there is a high regard for self and opposing positions in the short-term, but not necessarily in the long-term [51, 52]. Compromise can also be termed bargaining or negotiating; [57, 67, 68]. It is often facilitated through an exchange and giving up one demand to secure another [49].

#### *9.2.2.7. Authoritative command*

Through this technique a formal authority dictates the solution [49]. Authoritative command can be viewed as forcing [57, 67] a win-lose scenario. This technique can be implemented by a leader, manager, group vote, arbitrator, court or other party [45, 49, 50].
