**3. Team effectiveness: 9-Cs**

system (micro-level), and among different systems (macro-level). In the organizational science's literature, organizations are viewed as being complex adaptive systems (CAS) that are a composite of the "interconnected whole" [4]. West [2] identified the growth of this complexity due to, in part; the digital revolution, the increasing diversity as a result of interconnectedness and globalization, the interconnectedness within and across entities, the need for inclusion, and a growing demand in the need to belong amongst these interconnections [2]. Aghina et al. [5] highlighted advances in technology and connectivity as reasons why organizations needed to create "new forms of engagement within and across organizational boundaries" (The evolving organizational challenge). Also, organizations must learn to become competitive in these new "rapidly emerging 'ecosystems'" that involve multiple organizations and business sectors. Driving and managing these interconnections are collaborative entities, teams and small groups. In today's workplace, teams have become the common collaborative entity. West [2] highlighted this point by stating that "teamwork is ubiquitous in modern organizations". Keller and Meaney [6] reported that research conducted by McKinsey & Company showed executives were "five times more productive when working in one [high-performing team]

In placing teams as CAS [7, 8] that manage and operate in these emerging ecosystems, teams become one of the antecedents or predictors to an organization's survival. To provide successful high-performing teams, organizations must be able to facilitate the factors that lead to a team's effectiveness. These factors are known as the 9-Cs in which team conflict is one of these factors. These concepts are important to understand when managing and facilitating teams, especially when it comes to managing team conflict. This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section discusses teams, what they are, what are the 9-Cs of team effectiveness, team transitions, team failure mechanisms, and team leadership. The second section looks at CAS and how teams and small groups are considered CAS and what this means to the organization and the larger emerging ecosystem. Also, team conflict will be positioned within these CAS as a key factor that should be considered in any team and organizational system. Next, this chapter reviews traditional organizational conflict models from the literature. Following, the discussion moves to reviewing the literature on traditional intragroup conflict and newer, emerging, intragroup conflict types. Next, this chapter previews different conflict management models and techniques that could be used for managing teams and, more specifically, team conflict. In conclusion, this chapter introduces adaptive leadership as one potential leadership style to implement when dealing with complex adaptive systems

*A team is a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share a responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by others as an intact social entity embedded in one or more larger social systems (for example, business unit or the corporation), and who manage their* 

and intragroup conflict in today's complex and global environment.

Cohen and Bailey [9] defined teams in the following manner:

*relationships across organizational boundaries.*

than they are in an average one [team]".

66 Organizational Conflict

**2. Teams**

The literature on team performance or team effectiveness has grown into essentially 9 core processes (**Figure 1**). One example of this expansion is in the addition of conflict to this list of core processes. Weaver et al. [13] did not include conflict in their list of core processes whereas Dinh and Salas [14] and Salas et al. [1] included conflict. All-in-all the current literature presents a total of nine core processes that need to be considered when participating in, or managing, highly effective teams: coaching, cognition, cohesion, collective efficacy, collective identify, communication, conflict, cooperation, and coordination. Definitions for each of these processes are provided in **Table 1**.

Among these core processes, Dinh and Salas [14] differentiated between internal and external dynamics. Internal dynamics include a team's core processes, or emerging states, whereas external dynamics are composed of influencing conditions. Emerging states include the processes of coaching, cognition, communication, conflict, cooperation, and coordination [1, 14]. Influencing conditions (**Figure 2**) include context, composition, and culture. Definitions for these influencing conditions are also provided in **Table 1**. Within these six emerging states, Dinh and Salas [14] and Salas et al. [1] included the processes of collective efficacy and collective identity as part of the cooperation process.

**Factor Definition Source**

performs, and having an identity with a group.

The collective sense of competence or perceived empowerment to control the team's performance or

performing well at a given task.

successfully complete its tasks.

Communication Exchange of information that teams use to perform such

of communication: sender, receiver, message.

Conflict\* The perceived incompatibility in interests, beliefs, or views held by one or more team members.

Cooperation Motivation and desire to engage in coordinative and

chances of other members' succeeding.

Coordination The enactment of behavioral and cognitive mechanisms

environment.

of unity.

pathways.

perception and goals.

adaptive behavior.

into outcomes.

interdependent actions.

negotiation, and feedback.

Collective Efficacy

Collective Identity

The feeling of belonging to a group, liking the tasks a group

Team efficacy: The perception that the team is capable of

The belief, shared among a substantial portion of the group members, that the group is capable of organizing and executing the actions required to attain the group's goals and

One's sense of individuality is replaced by a shared sense

tasks as negotiating their goals, making decisions, and providing one another task status information.

The process by which a person or group sends some type of information to another person or group…. Three basic parts

A transactional process, in which communicators can send and receive information simultaneously and influence these

Differences or incompatibilities in interests, values, power,

Being either a set of incompatibilities or an awareness of being threatened or frustrated or perceived to be threatened.

A performance situation that is structured in such a way that the success of any one member of the group improves the

necessary to perform a task and transform team resources

The process of orchestrating the sequence and timing of

Coordination activity: Processes aimed at managing dependence through collaboration, coordination,

The process of keeping team members together and united. Dion [74]; see also Turner [91]

Perceptions of oneness with a particular group. Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also

Turner [91]

Complex Adaptive Systems: Adapting and Managing Teams and Team Conflict

Levi [88], p. 65

et al. [87]

Forsyth [78], p. 138

Ashford and Mael [72]

Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also

Dinh and Salas [14], pp. 21–22

Dinh and Salas [14], p. 23; see also

Yasmi et al. [31]; see also Turner [44]

Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also

Salas et al. [1], p. 603; Dinh and Salas

Marks et al. [15], pp. 367–368

Drach-Zahavy and Somech, [75],

Forsyth [78], p. 138

Fussell et al. [79]

Levi [88], p. 102

Jehn [82]

Turner [44], p. 151

Fiore et al. [76]

[14]

p. 149

Forsyth [78], p. 436

Dinh and Salas [14], p. 18; see also Katz-Navon and Erez [86]; Mahieu, Gilson, and Ruddy [89]; Zaccaro

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72344

69




**Factor Definition Source**

make coordinated and task-appropriate use of their collective resources in accomplishing the team's work.

An enactment of leadership behaviors to establish goals and set direction towards the successful accomplishment thereof.

The host of activities performed by both individuals and

allows teams to enter performance episodes with a mutual baseline understanding of how to engage in the task at hand.

Detecting and recognize[ing] pertinent cues, make decisions, problem solving, storing and remembering relevant information, planning, and seeking and acquiring necessary

Shared cognition: The collective understanding among team members regarding team member interactions and team tasks.

Team cognition: The organized understanding of collective

The degree to which team members desire to remain in the

Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also Hackman and Wageman [80]

Dinh and Salas [14], p. 23; see also

Dinh and Salas [14], p. 23; see also Hackman and Wageman [80]

Dinh and Salas [14], p. 24; see also

Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also

Hinsz and Ladbury [81]; see also

Mohammed and Dumville [85]; see

Weaver et al. [13], p. 15; see also Zaccaro and Lowe [93]; Beal et al. [73]

Fleishman et al. [77]

Salas et al. [1]

Orasanu [90]

Turner et al. [92]

Forsyth [78]

also Turner et al. [92]

Coaching Direct interaction with a team intended to help members

teams for the sake of team effectiveness.

Cognition A foundational component of effective team processes, as it

knowledge among team members.

remain part of the team.

Cohesion Affective attraction to the team, team goals, and desire to

team and are committed to the team goal.

knowledge.

Emerging States

68 Organizational Conflict

**Figure 1.** Teamwork processes.


For this chapter, we will maintain that there are nine emerging states (coaching, cognition, cohesion, collective efficacy, collective identify, communication, conflict, cooperation, and

Complex Adaptive Systems: Adapting and Managing Teams and Team Conflict

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71

The overall team processes are presented as a taxonomy by Marks et al. [15] with three categories: transition phase processes, action phase processes, and the interpersonal processes. These processes are categorized around three phases in which the transition phase mostly occurs during the beginning stages of team formation, the action phases take place after team formation and during team task work, and the interpersonal processes occur throughout the entire time up to the point that the team completes its goal. **Figure 3** provides a diagram

During the transition phases team members primarily concentrate on distributing tasks, scheduling of activities, and allocation of resources. These transition phases aid the team in accomplishing

coordination) and three influencing factors (context, composition, and culture).

showing these different phases of the team transition processes.

**4. Team transition processes**

**4.1. Transition phase**

**Figure 3.** Team transition processes.

\*More complete definitions of the different types of conflict will be provided in later sections of this chapter.

**Table 1.** Definitions of team effectiveness core processes.

**Figure 2.** Influencing conditions.

For this chapter, we will maintain that there are nine emerging states (coaching, cognition, cohesion, collective efficacy, collective identify, communication, conflict, cooperation, and coordination) and three influencing factors (context, composition, and culture).
