**6. Environmental impact and radiation protection connected to uranium production in Poland**

Radiation protection aims at protecting the health and life of humans and animals as well as protecting the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Working with uranium is associated with the risk of exposure to ionizing radiation. In order to reduce the risk to a reasonable minimum, strategies and rules for radiological protection have been introduced worldwide. Radiological protection is largely based on the recommendations of three institutions: the International Commission for Radiation Protection (ICRP), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Euratom Directives. Usually, the guidelines described in the publications of these institutions are implemented in the law of each country.

tunnels, and sedimentation ponds [43]. Most shafts and tunnels are protected against unauthorized entry. So far, almost no attempts have been made to reclaim these areas. Exceptions are reclamation of the sediment tank in Kowary and the protection of some dumps being washed by water [44]. This area is covered by radiation monitoring of the National Atomic Energy Agency (PAA) as an area with increased levels of ionizing radiation from naturally occurring radioactive materials as a result of human activity [for example, see [41, 45]]. The monitoring consists mainly of investigating the α and β total activity and the level of radon in drinking water and mining effluents—60 measuring points, measuring gamma radiation dose in air (62 measurement points) and radon concentration in air. Measured levels in drinking water do not exceed the reference levels specified in the recommendations of the World Health Organization Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Vol. 1 Recommendations.

for total α activity and 1000 mBq/dm3

levels are often exceeded in mined water. As far as radon is concerned, the activity hap-

lished by the EU Directive 2013/59/ EURATOM and for water from excavation can exceed

excavations, surface water and groundwater are not intended for use as drinking water and do not present a direct health risk, they should continue to be systematically monitored for their increased radioactivity" and "generally speaking, even in this region of Poland, with the highest possible risk from radon and from natural radioactive elements in the soil, this threat to the local population is negligibly small" [41]. The PAA reports lack of information about the increased radioactivity of uranium heaps. Meanwhile, research carried out under the Strategic Research Project, "Technologies supporting the development of safe nuclear power" in 2010–2012 by a consortium led by the University of Warsaw showed elevated levels of radiation and elevated uranium in the soil in many places (among other uranium heaps in Lower Silesia) in Poland. The authors suggested that such places should be labeled,

The possible impact of uranium heaps on the environment is further taken into consideration. This can happen through water erosion of heaps and migration of heavy metals, including uranium and radium isotopes to groundwater and underground waters, and to soils in the area. Increased uranium content and radioactivity were observed in river beds flowing from these areas, even up to 20 km from the heaps (e.g. Jedlica river) [44]. Uranium, radium and associated heavy metals can spread and accumulate in organisms—through the food chain. The elevated level of radionuclides possibly increases the natural radiation dose to organisms. It seems that the harmfulness of uranium for organisms is not determined by its radioactivity, but rather by its chemical toxicity and that of the other accompanying heavy metals. So far, there has been no systematic study aimed to determine how uranium concentrations and

Lower Silesia is not the only area where elevated uranium level can have an impact on the environment. Uranium is also abundant in the material deposited on heaps after copper mining in Legnica-Głogów Copper District or on heaps formed after the production of phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilizers in Police, Wizów and Wiślinka near Gdańsk [47]. Radiological risk in these places should be considered negligible. The threat to the environment probably

elevated background radiation affect the individual organisms and ecosystems.

is related to other heavy metals and elements rather than to uranium.

. Despite this, the PAA's annual reports state that "although water from mining

for total β activity. These

, which is acceptable for drinking water points estab-

Uranium in Poland: Resources and Recovery from Low-Grade Ores

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72754

83

Geneva, 1993: 100 mBq/dm3

and preferably fenced [46].

700 Bq/dm3

pens to exceed the limit of 100 Bq/dm3

Of the various uranium isotopes, U-238 is the most common, accounting for 99.3% of uranium in the earth's crust. U-238 is the beginning of a uranium series of decay chain consisting of 15 radioactive elements with different half-life and terminating with Pb-206 permanent lead isotope. The radioactivity associated with uranium corresponds not only to uranium but also to a greater extent to its decay products and, in particular, to the noble gas radon (Rn-222). It should be emphasized that radiation exposure from uranium and its derivatives is considered natural and present in every corner of the earth. Radon exposure is the largest part of the effective dose received from the environment by a statistical person in Poland and it approximately equals 1.36 mSv/year [41]. Isotopes from the uranium decay series emit both α and β particles. During α-decay, γ-radiation is also emitted. From the radiation protection point of view matter both the type of emitted radiation and the physical form of the emitter. The α radiation is 20 times more effective than the β or γ radiation, but its penetration is small—it is completely retained by a sheet of paper or skin. Generally, the α radiation is not harmful to health as long as the emitter does not get inside the body. This happens mainly through drinking water or—in the form of dust, aerosol or noble gas—transferred to the lungs. The γ-radiation has a greater penetrating power than β-radiation and can therefore be an important component of the absorbed dose.

Uranium is being mined in many parts of the world because it is a basic element used as a fuel for nuclear power and for military purposes. Radiation protection refers to uranium at each stage of the fuel cycle: from ore extraction, milling, to yellowcake (triuranium octoxide) production, further enrichment, fuel elements production, fission reaction at power plants for processing, to storage and disposal of spent fuel.

From the late 1940s to the 1970s, in Poland, uranium ore was mined and processed in Lower Silesia. The ore was extracted by the classical method—the material was brought out from the underground to the surface and collected in heaps [3]. The uranium ore was then split to the rich ore, the poor ore and the gangue rocks [42]. The rich ore went directly to the Soviet Union. The poor ore was enriched on site and the resulting concentrate was exported to the Soviet Union. Mining and reprocessing of uranium was performed by the "Kowary Mines. Stateowned Extraordinary Enterprise," based in Kowary, later renamed "R1 Industrial Plant." At that time, probably no radiological protection standards were met, and miners may not exactly know what they were extracting and how it could affect their health.

There are a number of uranium ore mining sites in 13 locations at Lower Silesia: heaps with varied concentration of uranium ore—the highest values up to 2000 ppm, open shafts, mine tunnels, and sedimentation ponds [43]. Most shafts and tunnels are protected against unauthorized entry. So far, almost no attempts have been made to reclaim these areas. Exceptions are reclamation of the sediment tank in Kowary and the protection of some dumps being washed by water [44]. This area is covered by radiation monitoring of the National Atomic Energy Agency (PAA) as an area with increased levels of ionizing radiation from naturally occurring radioactive materials as a result of human activity [for example, see [41, 45]]. The monitoring consists mainly of investigating the α and β total activity and the level of radon in drinking water and mining effluents—60 measuring points, measuring gamma radiation dose in air (62 measurement points) and radon concentration in air. Measured levels in drinking water do not exceed the reference levels specified in the recommendations of the World Health Organization Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Vol. 1 Recommendations. Geneva, 1993: 100 mBq/dm3 for total α activity and 1000 mBq/dm3 for total β activity. These levels are often exceeded in mined water. As far as radon is concerned, the activity happens to exceed the limit of 100 Bq/dm3 , which is acceptable for drinking water points established by the EU Directive 2013/59/ EURATOM and for water from excavation can exceed 700 Bq/dm3 . Despite this, the PAA's annual reports state that "although water from mining excavations, surface water and groundwater are not intended for use as drinking water and do not present a direct health risk, they should continue to be systematically monitored for their increased radioactivity" and "generally speaking, even in this region of Poland, with the highest possible risk from radon and from natural radioactive elements in the soil, this threat to the local population is negligibly small" [41]. The PAA reports lack of information about the increased radioactivity of uranium heaps. Meanwhile, research carried out under the Strategic Research Project, "Technologies supporting the development of safe nuclear power" in 2010–2012 by a consortium led by the University of Warsaw showed elevated levels of radiation and elevated uranium in the soil in many places (among other uranium heaps in Lower Silesia) in Poland. The authors suggested that such places should be labeled, and preferably fenced [46].

**6. Environmental impact and radiation protection connected to** 

in the publications of these institutions are implemented in the law of each country.

Radiation protection aims at protecting the health and life of humans and animals as well as protecting the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Working with uranium is associated with the risk of exposure to ionizing radiation. In order to reduce the risk to a reasonable minimum, strategies and rules for radiological protection have been introduced worldwide. Radiological protection is largely based on the recommendations of three institutions: the International Commission for Radiation Protection (ICRP), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Euratom Directives. Usually, the guidelines described

Of the various uranium isotopes, U-238 is the most common, accounting for 99.3% of uranium in the earth's crust. U-238 is the beginning of a uranium series of decay chain consisting of 15 radioactive elements with different half-life and terminating with Pb-206 permanent lead isotope. The radioactivity associated with uranium corresponds not only to uranium but also to a greater extent to its decay products and, in particular, to the noble gas radon (Rn-222). It should be emphasized that radiation exposure from uranium and its derivatives is considered natural and present in every corner of the earth. Radon exposure is the largest part of the effective dose received from the environment by a statistical person in Poland and it approximately equals 1.36 mSv/year [41]. Isotopes from the uranium decay series emit both α and β particles. During α-decay, γ-radiation is also emitted. From the radiation protection point of view matter both the type of emitted radiation and the physical form of the emitter. The α radiation is 20 times more effective than the β or γ radiation, but its penetration is small—it is completely retained by a sheet of paper or skin. Generally, the α radiation is not harmful to health as long as the emitter does not get inside the body. This happens mainly through drinking water or—in the form of dust, aerosol or noble gas—transferred to the lungs. The γ-radiation has a greater penetrating power than β-radiation and can therefore be an important component of the absorbed dose. Uranium is being mined in many parts of the world because it is a basic element used as a fuel for nuclear power and for military purposes. Radiation protection refers to uranium at each stage of the fuel cycle: from ore extraction, milling, to yellowcake (triuranium octoxide) production, further enrichment, fuel elements production, fission reaction at power plants for

From the late 1940s to the 1970s, in Poland, uranium ore was mined and processed in Lower Silesia. The ore was extracted by the classical method—the material was brought out from the underground to the surface and collected in heaps [3]. The uranium ore was then split to the rich ore, the poor ore and the gangue rocks [42]. The rich ore went directly to the Soviet Union. The poor ore was enriched on site and the resulting concentrate was exported to the Soviet Union. Mining and reprocessing of uranium was performed by the "Kowary Mines. Stateowned Extraordinary Enterprise," based in Kowary, later renamed "R1 Industrial Plant." At that time, probably no radiological protection standards were met, and miners may not

There are a number of uranium ore mining sites in 13 locations at Lower Silesia: heaps with varied concentration of uranium ore—the highest values up to 2000 ppm, open shafts, mine

exactly know what they were extracting and how it could affect their health.

**uranium production in Poland**

82 Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation

processing, to storage and disposal of spent fuel.

The possible impact of uranium heaps on the environment is further taken into consideration. This can happen through water erosion of heaps and migration of heavy metals, including uranium and radium isotopes to groundwater and underground waters, and to soils in the area. Increased uranium content and radioactivity were observed in river beds flowing from these areas, even up to 20 km from the heaps (e.g. Jedlica river) [44]. Uranium, radium and associated heavy metals can spread and accumulate in organisms—through the food chain. The elevated level of radionuclides possibly increases the natural radiation dose to organisms. It seems that the harmfulness of uranium for organisms is not determined by its radioactivity, but rather by its chemical toxicity and that of the other accompanying heavy metals. So far, there has been no systematic study aimed to determine how uranium concentrations and elevated background radiation affect the individual organisms and ecosystems.

Lower Silesia is not the only area where elevated uranium level can have an impact on the environment. Uranium is also abundant in the material deposited on heaps after copper mining in Legnica-Głogów Copper District or on heaps formed after the production of phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilizers in Police, Wizów and Wiślinka near Gdańsk [47]. Radiological risk in these places should be considered negligible. The threat to the environment probably is related to other heavy metals and elements rather than to uranium.

From the point of view of radiation protection and environmental impact, the uranium industry in Poland does not cause any major threat. Uranium mining and processing activities were completed 40 years ago—at present, there is no nuclear power industry or military technology related to uranium. There are uranium mine residues in Lower Silesia, and there is an increase in the levels of ionizing radiation caused by human activity associated with uranium, but there is no evidence of a radiological hazard to humans or a significant environmental hazard connected to it.

**References**

978-92-64-17803-8)

abstract in English)

nuka-2015-0096

s10967-016-5029-5

2007;**107**:419-426

3362-0

(ISBN 978-3-662-53462-5)

[1] Klementowski R. In the shadow of Sudetic Uranium. Uranium mining in 1948-1973. IPN

Uranium in Poland: Resources and Recovery from Low-Grade Ores

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72754

85

[2] Uranium 2016. Resources, Production and Demand, A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency, Paris: OECD; 2014 (ISBN:

[3] Miecznik B, Strzelecki R, Wołkowicz S. Uranium in Poland—History of prospecting and chances for finding new deposits. Przegląd Geologiczny. 2011;**59**:688-697 (in Polish,

[4] Dahlkamp FJ. Uranium Deposits of the World. Europe: Springer-Verlag GmbH; 2016

[5] Kiegiel K, Zakrzewska-Kołtuniewicz G, Gajda D, Miśkiewicz A, Abramowska A, Biełuszka P, Danko B, Chajduk E, Wołkowicz S. Dictyonema black shale and Triassic sandstones as a potential sources of uranium. Nukleonika. 2015;**60**:515-522. DOI:10.1515/

[6] Gajda D, Kiegiel K, Zakrzewska-Kołtuniewicz G, Chajduk E, Bartosiewicz I, Wołkowicz S. Mineralogy and uranium leaching of ores from Triassic Peribaltic Sandstones. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. 2015;**303**:251-529. DOI: 10.1007/s10967-014-

[7] Analysis of the possibility of uranium supply from domestic resources", No POIG

[8] Kiegiel K. Abramowska A, Biełuszka P, Zakrzewska-Kołtuniewicz G, Wołkowicz S. Solvent extraction of uranium leach solution obtained in processing of Polish low-grade ores. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. 2017;**311**:589-598. DOI 10.1007/

[9] Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz G, Herdzik-Koniecko I, Cojocaru C, Chajduk E. Experimental design and optimization of leaching process for recovery of valuable chemical elements (U, La, V, Mo and Yb and Th) from low-grade uranium ore. The Journal of Hazardous

[10] Edwards CR, Oliver AJ. Uranium Processing: A Review of current methods and technology. Journal of Operations Management. 2000;**52**:12-20. DOI: 10.1007/s11837-000-0181-2

[11] Lunt D, Boshoff P, Boylett M, El-Ansary Z. Uranium Extraction: The key process drivers The Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

[12] Frąckiewicz K, Kiegiel K, Herdzik-Koniecko I, Chajduk E, Zakrzewska-Trznadel G, Wołkowicz S, Chwastowska J, Bartosiewicz I. Extraction of uranium from low-grade

Polish ores: Dictyonemic shales and sandstones. Nukleonika. 2012;**58**:451-459

Materials. 2014;275136-145. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.04.066

Wrocław; 2010 (in Polish) (ISBN: 978-83-61631-12-6l)

01.01.02-14-094/09 – project report (in Polish)
