**13.4.** *Calotropis procera* **(Aiton)**

**13.3.** *C. occidentalis* **L**

74 Herbal Medicine

*13.3.1. Animal toxicity*

*13.3.2. Human toxicity*

shown some level of toxicity [55, 56].

adverse effects occurred in a dose-dependent manner [57].

were observed in chicks treated with 0.3 and 0.5% of *Cassia* beans.

*C. occidentalis* is an annual shrub found in many African and Asian countries. Its leaves and roots are used in some traditional herbal medicines, but its pods or beans are avoided or used sparingly [52]. In Ghana, however, the roasted seeds are used as a beverage in the treatment of hypertension [53]. Many popular herbal tonics and medicines for liver disorders contain the leaves or roots of the plant. *C. occidentalis* has also been used in the treatment of scabies, snake and scorpion bites, diabetes, edema, fever, inflammation, rheumatism and ringworm. It is widely used

The fresh or dried/roasted seeds have demonstrated toxicity in several animal studies [54]. Toxicity in animals is usually seen on the kidney, liver, skeletal muscle and the heart. Grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, horses and goats have shown toxicity upon the ingestion of large amount of the seed pods, the most poisonous even though all parts of the plants have

Although the toxicity of the plant has been demonstrated in different animal species, the toxicity of the pod and bean is dose-dependent: low doses result in mild liver damage and myodegeneration while higher doses cause fatal hepatic degeneration followed by myodegeneration [56]. As the amount of *Cassia* in the animal's diet increases, muscle degeneration becomes a predominant characteristic of the poisoning and cause of the clinical signs. Roasting the seeds from the pod has, however, been shown to reduce the toxicity. Studies in rats [57] and chicken [58] fed a ration with *C. occidentalis* seeds at different concentrations showed histopathological and biochemical changes in muscles, liver and central nervous system. Barbosa-Ferreira et al. [57] in a study involved Wistar rats in four groups of 10 animals each, three of them fed rations containing 1, 2 and 4%, respectively, of *C. occidentalis* seeds, and the control fed normal commercial ration for a period of 2 weeks; rats in the experimental groups showed lethargy, weakness, among other adverse reactions. Histopathological study showed fiber degenerations in the skeletal and cardiac muscles. In the liver parenchyma, vacuolar degeneration was observed and, in the kidney, mild necrosis in the proximal convoluted tubules. All the

Haraguchi et al. [58] studied the chronic effect of varying concentrations of *C. occidentalis* seeds in broiler chicks. All birds were killed on day 49 of age. Low doses of seeds showed no significant variation in biochemical parameters compared to the control group. Degenerative changes in striated skeletal muscles particularly pectoral as well as the liver and myocardium

Studies have shown that the ingestion of *C. occidentalis* can cause severe purging possibly due to the anthracene glycoside content [59]. Whereas this may produce great discomfort and pain in adults, in a child, this can be fatal; thus, while few pods might not have any ill effect

for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and to boost the immune system.

The plant is widely distributed in Asia, tropical and subtropical Africa [64]. In ancient Egypt, it was recommended for the treatment of nodular leprosy [64]. In Indian traditional medicine, the decoction is used for the treatment of asthma, dysentery, rheumatism, fever, painful muscular spasm and as a purgative and expectorant [65], and as a proteolytic enzyme for the coagulation of cow milk in Ghana [66]. The extract from the plant has been reported to possess antibacterial, nematocidal and larvicidal [67] and anticancer [68] properties. The flower of the plant has been shown to possess potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities [69].
