**13.3.** *C. occidentalis* **L**

*C. occidentalis* is an annual shrub found in many African and Asian countries. Its leaves and roots are used in some traditional herbal medicines, but its pods or beans are avoided or used sparingly [52]. In Ghana, however, the roasted seeds are used as a beverage in the treatment of hypertension [53]. Many popular herbal tonics and medicines for liver disorders contain the leaves or roots of the plant. *C. occidentalis* has also been used in the treatment of scabies, snake and scorpion bites, diabetes, edema, fever, inflammation, rheumatism and ringworm. It is widely used for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and to boost the immune system.

in an adult or an older child when eaten, it could cause death in a young child [60]. Other *Cassia* species products such as senna extract (*C. acutifolia*) consumed as health drink resulted in severe hepatotoxicity in an adult [61]. *C. senna* leaves and pods have been used in orthodox

Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72437

75

The clinical spectrum of *C. occidentalis* poisoning in children resembles the toxicity observed in animals. Most cases in children occur when they eat the beans. As with animals, the clinical toxic features depend upon the amount of beans eaten. While the consumption of two to three pods by a young child may not have any deleterious impact, a large quantity can lead to

Since some children eat very few beans and remain asymptomatic, people tend to consider the beans as non-toxic. With a larger 'dose', such as the beans in six to seven pods, they develop a non-fatal illness with vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, giddiness, drowsiness, change in voice and general weakness among other effects. However, recovery occurs after about 3–4 days of illness. The fatal hepatomyoencephalopathy syndrome may occur with relatively

The plant is widely distributed in Asia, tropical and subtropical Africa [64]. In ancient Egypt, it was recommended for the treatment of nodular leprosy [64]. In Indian traditional medicine, the decoction is used for the treatment of asthma, dysentery, rheumatism, fever, painful muscular spasm and as a purgative and expectorant [65], and as a proteolytic enzyme for the coagulation of cow milk in Ghana [66]. The extract from the plant has been reported to possess antibacterial, nematocidal and larvicidal [67] and anticancer [68] properties. The flower of the plant has been shown to possess potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities [69].

*C. procera* has been shown to adversely affect early and late pregnancy in rats [70]. Acute toxicity studies in mice, however, showed no significant change in the hematological parameters. Behavioral changes, symptoms of toxicity and mortality were absent during the 24-h duration of the experiment. In the 3-month chronic toxicity study with 100 mg/kg, body weight per day, a 50% mortality of the animals was recorded. No significant changes in the hematological parameters were observed. This study suggested a safe use of the plant in single high dose but

*S. alata* grows in several regions of Africa and in other parts of the world [71]. The leaves and stem bark of *S. alata* are widely used to treat hepatitis, skin diseases, jaundice, gastroenteritis, intestinal helminthiasis, eczema, tryphoenteritis and ringworm. The leaves of the plant have been shown to possess antibacterial activity on both Gram positive and negative bacteria, for example, *Bacillus megaterium, Streptococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella* 

medicine and still form part of traditional pharmacopeia [53].

larger amount of beans—such as the cupped hand of a child [63].

a serious health hazard may ensue with prolong use.

*typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae* [71].

serious morbidity and even death [62, 63].

**13.4.** *Calotropis procera* **(Aiton)**

*13.4.1. Animal toxicity*

**13.5.** *Senna alata* **(L.) Roxb**
