**1. Introduction**

Blood pressure is the force exerted by the heart and the arteries to maintain the flow of blood through the body in order to supply all cells with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. This normally occurs at average systolic and diastolic pressures of 120 and 80 mm Hg, respectively [1]. High blood pressure or arterial hypertension (or hypertension for short) is

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

present when these values are persistently above 140 and 90 mm Hg, respectively [1]. This condition initially does not cause symptoms [1]. However, in the long-term, it is one of the most important predisposing factors for potentially fatal coronary artery disease, heart failure, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease [1].

combinations [6, 11]. β-blockers are widely used as a first-line treatment for hypertension, but

Plant-Based Ethnopharmacological Remedies for Hypertension in Suriname

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Currently, close to 1 billion adults or over 20% of the world population suffer from hypertension [13]. This leads to enormous medical, economic, and human costs. In the USA alone, the total economic burden of hypertension in terms of healthcare services, medications, and absent workforce was estimated at USD 47 billion to USD 73.4 billion between the years 2009 and 2011 [14]. And management of hypertension accounts for 30% of office visits for individuals of 45–64 years, and for more than 40% of visits in those aged 60–74 years and over

Hypertension occurs slightly more often in males, individuals of low socioeconomic status, and those of older age [13, 16]. It is correspondingly common in high-, medium-, and lowincome countries [13, 17], but prevalence rates vary widely throughout the world, with values as low as 3.4–6.8% in rural India and as high as 68.9–72.5% in Poland [17]. There are also large differences in prevalence rates within certain countries. For instance, African American adults in the USA have among the highest rates in the world at 44% but hypertension is less common in US whites and Mexican Americans [16, 18]. Still, deaths due to non-communicable diseases including those related to hypertension occur more frequently and at earlier stages in lowand middle-income countries when compared to industrialized countries [19]. By 2030, lowincome countries are even expected to have eight times more deaths due to these ailments

The Republic of Suriname is located on the north-east coast of South America and borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, Brazil to the south, and Guyana

into a northern narrow low-land coastal area that harbors the capital city Paramaribo as well as other urbanized areas, a broad but sparsely inhabited savannah belt, and a southern forested area that comprises about three-quarters of its surface area and largely consists of dense, pristine, and highly biodiverse tropical rain forest. Roughly 80% of the population of about 570,000 lives in the urbanized northern coastal zone while the remaining 20% populates the

Suriname is renowned for its ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity, harboring various Amerindian tribes, the original inhabitants of the country; descendants from runaway enslaved Africans brought in between the sixteenth and the nineteenth century (called Maroons); those from mixed Black and White origin (called Creoles); descendants from contract workers from China, India (called Hindustanis), and Java, Indonesia (called Javanese) who arrived between the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century; descendants from a number of European countries; and more recently, immigrants from various

can be distinguished

to the west (**Figure 1**). The country's land area of roughly 165,000 km2

their efficacy may be inferior to those of other antihypertensive drugs [12].

75 years [15].

than high-income countries [19].

**2. Background on Suriname**

**2.1. Geography, people, and economy**

rural and interior savannas and hinterlands [20].

Hypertension is classified as primary (or essential) hypertension and secondary hypertension [2]. Primary hypertension accounts for 90–95% of cases, typically begins in the fifth or sixth decade of life, and is associated with nonspecific lifestyle factors such as excess salt intake, obesity and a sedentary lifestyle, cigarette smoking, high alcohol intake, stress, and a family history suggesting the involvement of genetic factors in its etiology [3]. In the remaining 5–10% of cases categorized as secondary hypertension, the elevated blood pressure has an identifiable cause such as renal artery stenosis, chronic kidney disease, sleep apnoea, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, the use of oral contraceptives, or pregnancy [2].

In both situations, the elevated blood pressure is caused by an increase in the total peripheral resistance, that is, the total resistance to the flow of blood in the systemic circulation. The increased peripheral resistance is most often attributable to abnormalities in the sympathetic nervous system [4] and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system [5]. In the former case, the excessive release of adrenaline and noradrenaline leads to overstimulation of β1 - and α1 adrenoreceptors, contraction of arterial smooth muscles, constriction of the arterioles, and an increased peripheral resistance [4]. In the latter case, excess secretion of renin by juxtaglomerular cells following stimulation of β1 -adrenergic receptors on their surface, along with glomerular underperfusion, leads to the reabsorption of salt and water and the release of renin, enlarging vascular volume and further increasing peripheral resistance [5]. Impairments in the functioning of vasorelaxing factors such as nitric oxide due to endothelial dysfunction as well as that of vasoactive substances such as endothelin, bradykinin, and atrial natriuretic peptide may further contribute to and/or maintain the hypertension [6].

Lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications. Examples of such alterations are diets low in sodium, high in potassium, rich in vegetables, fruits, and low-fat dairy products (the so-called Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, as well as vegetarian diets [7]. Lifestyle modifications other than dietary changes shown to reduce hypertension are increased physical exercise, weight loss, and stress reduction [8]. The potential effectiveness of these modifications is similar to, and may even exceed the effects of a single medication [9]. Notably, several randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that even a slight blood pressure decrease of 10 mm Hg reduces the risk of death due to cardiovascular disease by 25% and the risk of strokerelated mortality by 40% [10].

If lifestyle changes are not sufficient to reduce the elevated blood pressure, antihypertensive medications are prescribed. Still, lifestyle changes are recommended in conjunction with medication [6, 11]. Among the commonly used antihypertensives are thiazide-diuretics such as chlorthalidone and hydrochlorothiazide, calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine and amlodipine, β-blockers such as atenolol and metoprolol, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors such as captopril and enalapril, and angiotensin receptor blockers such as losartan and candesartan [6, 11]. These medications may be used either alone or at certain combinations [6, 11]. β-blockers are widely used as a first-line treatment for hypertension, but their efficacy may be inferior to those of other antihypertensive drugs [12].

Currently, close to 1 billion adults or over 20% of the world population suffer from hypertension [13]. This leads to enormous medical, economic, and human costs. In the USA alone, the total economic burden of hypertension in terms of healthcare services, medications, and absent workforce was estimated at USD 47 billion to USD 73.4 billion between the years 2009 and 2011 [14]. And management of hypertension accounts for 30% of office visits for individuals of 45–64 years, and for more than 40% of visits in those aged 60–74 years and over 75 years [15].

Hypertension occurs slightly more often in males, individuals of low socioeconomic status, and those of older age [13, 16]. It is correspondingly common in high-, medium-, and lowincome countries [13, 17], but prevalence rates vary widely throughout the world, with values as low as 3.4–6.8% in rural India and as high as 68.9–72.5% in Poland [17]. There are also large differences in prevalence rates within certain countries. For instance, African American adults in the USA have among the highest rates in the world at 44% but hypertension is less common in US whites and Mexican Americans [16, 18]. Still, deaths due to non-communicable diseases including those related to hypertension occur more frequently and at earlier stages in lowand middle-income countries when compared to industrialized countries [19]. By 2030, lowincome countries are even expected to have eight times more deaths due to these ailments than high-income countries [19].
