**Meet the editors**

Dr. Muhammet Türkoğlu completed his undergraduate education in Biology in 1988 in Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, and completed graduate education in 1991 in Dokuz Eylul University, Marine Science Technology Institute, Marine Living Resources Department giving the master thesis titled Investigation of Chromium (Cr) Concentrations in

Water, Sediments and Some Organisms of Izmir Bay. Then, he completed his PhD study giving doctorate thesis (PhD thesis) titled "Phytoplankton Composition and Effects of Bio-Ecological Factors of Middle Black Sea Area (Coasts of Sinop Peninsula)" in Ege University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Section of Marine Biology, in 1998. Currently, he is working as a full professor of Marine Science and Technology Faculty in Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. He is an oceanographer, and his researches involve studies in Aegean Sea, Black Sea, Turkish Straits System (Dardanelles, Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus) and Caspian Sea. He is interested in species diversity and vertical and temporal successions of phytoplankton in marine ecosystems, especially in coastal habitats. He is also interested in nutrient dynamics and harmful algal blooms (HABs) in marine systems. He has more than 100 scientific studies published by various reputed scientific journals and others. Dr. Turkoglu participated in various national and international marine scientific voyages throughout the academic career.

Dr. Umur Önal is a full professor in the Department of Aquaculture, Marine Science and Technology Faculty, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey. Dr. Önal received his MS and PhD degrees from the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University. His research interests involve larval fish and mollusc culture and mainly focus on larval fish feeding and nutrition.

In addition, he studies reproduction of fish and molluscs with emphasis on optimizing reproduction potential towards developing methods on the mass culture of early stages of commercially important species. His expertise: (1) marine aquaculture, (2) marine fish larvae, (3) larval feeding and (4) microencapsulation

Dr. Ali Ismen completed his undergraduate education on Fisheries in 1985 in Ankara University, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Fisheries, and completed his graduate education in 1988 in Ankara University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Fisheries Department, giving the master thesis titled "A Comparative Study of the Catches in Bait

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Interactions 3**

**Section 2 Marine Biogeochemistry 9**

Takeshi Naganuma

Takeshi Naganuma

Stig Skreslet

**Section 3 Plankton Ecology and Diversity 71**

**Ecosystem Dynamics 133**

**Section 1 Introduction to Marine Ecology 1**

Chapter 1 **Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic**

Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen

Chapter 2 **Geo-Biological Coupling of Authigenic Carbonate Formation**

Chapter 3 **Geo-Biological Coupling of Authigenic Carbonate Formation**

Chapter 4 **Plankton Ecology and Productivity in Jamaican Waters with**

Chapter 5 **Ecology of Planktonic Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) 99**

Chapter 6 **Encounters in the Zooplankton: Implications for Pelagic**

Mona K. Webber, Dale F. Webber and Gale Persad Ford

Laura Sanvicente-Añorve and Miguel Alatorre-Mendieta

**Seeps I: Geo-Biological Settings 11**

**Seeps II. Geo-Biological Landscapes 37**

**New and Unique Applications 73**

**and Autotrophic Faunal Colonization at Deep-Sea Methane**

**and Autotrophic Faunal Colonization at Deep-Sea Methane**

and Non-Bait Pinter with Freshwater Lobster (*Astacus leptodactylus* Esch. 1823)". Then, he completed his PhD study giving doctorate thesis (PhD thesis) titled "Biology and Population Parameters of Whiting (*Merlangius merlangus* euxinus N.) in Turkish Coasts of the Black Sea" in Middle East Technical University, Institute of Marine Science, Department of Fisheries Biology, in 1995. Currently, he is working as a full professor of Marine Science and Technology Faculty in Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. His researches have involved studies in Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara and Black Sea. He has been interested in marine fish species distribution, fisheries biology, stock assessment and population parameters. He has numerous scientific studies published by various reputed scientific journals and others. Dr. Ismen participated in various national and international marine scientific voyages throughout the academic career. His expertise: (1) marine biodiversity and ecology (fishes, elasmobranch, and Lessepsian species), (2) fisheries biology and population dynamics and (3) stock assessment of fishes.

## Contents

#### **Preface XI**


Laura Sanvicente-Añorve and Miguel Alatorre-Mendieta

#### **X** Contents


Preface

sented, specific case studies.

The effects of human-induced global climate change, pollution, habitat destruction and overexploitation have taken their toll on the abundance and diversity of all organisms on earth since the beginning of industrial revolution. Particularly, the aquatic environment that covers two thirds of the earth's surface and harbours 80% of all life is being exposed to in‐ creasing levels of emissions derived from industrial activities. With a current world popula‐ tion of over 7 billion people, the majority of natural aquatic resources, which are one of the most important food sources on the planet, are being used to the extent that limits their ca‐ pacity for regeneration. Despite ongoing attempts towards developing strategies for longterm management of aquatic resources all over the world, in many cases, efforts have met with limited success. Thus, the sustainable use of aquatic resources has become a very im‐ portant reality considering a projected human population of 11 billion by the year 2100. With this reality in mind, the purpose of this book is to shed more light on the field of ma‐ rine ecology by emphasizing the diversity of aquatic life on earth and its importance both as

The book covers important findings, discussions and reviews on a variety of subjects on en‐ vironmental and competitive interactions of marine organisms at different trophic levels and their effects on the productivity, dynamics and structure of marine ecosystems around the world. Each chapter focuses on a specific case in the field of marine ecology. The book includes chapters on plankton ecology and productivity, fisheries ecology and fisheries management of different species, sustainable fishing practices, role of micro-algae in renew‐ able energy production and authigenic carbonate and methane formation at deep sea. These chapters also present an opportunity to review the recent status of some important marine ecosystems and processes. We hope that researchers, academicians and students as well as experts and professionals working in the field of marine ecology will benefit from the pre‐

As the editor and co-editors of the book, we are grateful to all authors for their contributions

**Dr. Muhammet Türkoğlu, Dr. Umur Önal, and Dr. Ali Ismen**

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University

Çanakkale, Turkey

part of a balanced ecosystem and as part of critical source of food on earth.

and the editorial staff who helped to accomplish this project.

	- **Section 5 Biotechnology 255**

## Preface

**Section 4 Fisheries Ecology and Management 153**

Chapter 7 **Marine Fisheries in Nigeria: A Review 155**

**Prospects 175**

**VI** Contents

**Biodiversity 211**

Patricio Hernáez

**Section 5 Biotechnology 255**

Gupta and Graish Kumar

Olalekan Jacob Olaoye and Wahab Gbenga Ojebiyi

Chapter 8 **Marine Stock Enhancement in India: Current Status and Future**

Chapter 9 **The Natural Ecology and Stock Enhancement of the Edible**

Chapter 10 **Overview on Mediterranean Shark's Fisheries: Impact on the**

Chapter 11 **An Update on Reproduction in Ghost Shrimps (Decapoda:**

Chapter 12 **The Role of Microalgae in Renewable Energy Production:**

**Challenges and Opportunities 257**

Abd Ellatif Mohamed Hussian

**Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea, China 197**

Mohammad Serajuddin, Farah Bano, Madhu Awasthi, Pragya

**Jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye, 1891) in the**

Jing Dong, Bin Wang, Yan Duan, Aiyong Wang, Yulong Li, Ming Sun, Yu Chai, Xiuze Liu, Xuguang Yu, Dong Guo and Xiaolin Wang

Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai, Bechir Saidi and Samira Enajjar

**Axiidea) and Mud Lobsters (Decapoda: Gebiidea) 231**

The effects of human-induced global climate change, pollution, habitat destruction and overexploitation have taken their toll on the abundance and diversity of all organisms on earth since the beginning of industrial revolution. Particularly, the aquatic environment that covers two thirds of the earth's surface and harbours 80% of all life is being exposed to in‐ creasing levels of emissions derived from industrial activities. With a current world popula‐ tion of over 7 billion people, the majority of natural aquatic resources, which are one of the most important food sources on the planet, are being used to the extent that limits their ca‐ pacity for regeneration. Despite ongoing attempts towards developing strategies for longterm management of aquatic resources all over the world, in many cases, efforts have met with limited success. Thus, the sustainable use of aquatic resources has become a very im‐ portant reality considering a projected human population of 11 billion by the year 2100. With this reality in mind, the purpose of this book is to shed more light on the field of ma‐ rine ecology by emphasizing the diversity of aquatic life on earth and its importance both as part of a balanced ecosystem and as part of critical source of food on earth.

The book covers important findings, discussions and reviews on a variety of subjects on en‐ vironmental and competitive interactions of marine organisms at different trophic levels and their effects on the productivity, dynamics and structure of marine ecosystems around the world. Each chapter focuses on a specific case in the field of marine ecology. The book includes chapters on plankton ecology and productivity, fisheries ecology and fisheries management of different species, sustainable fishing practices, role of micro-algae in renew‐ able energy production and authigenic carbonate and methane formation at deep sea. These chapters also present an opportunity to review the recent status of some important marine ecosystems and processes. We hope that researchers, academicians and students as well as experts and professionals working in the field of marine ecology will benefit from the pre‐ sented, specific case studies.

As the editor and co-editors of the book, we are grateful to all authors for their contributions and the editorial staff who helped to accomplish this project.

> **Dr. Muhammet Türkoğlu, Dr. Umur Önal, and Dr. Ali Ismen** Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Çanakkale, Turkey

**Section 1**

**Introduction to Marine Ecology**

**Introduction to Marine Ecology**

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and**

**Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78296

The vastness of the oceans, the largest continuous environment on earth, has provided a safe shelter for about 20% of all living organisms until the beginning of industrial revolution. Since then, this once invincible environment has been under constant change and destruction, the results of which now are threatening all life forms on earth. With this rate of destruction, we are possibly losing our window of opportunity to protect aquatic biodiversity and learn how aquatic organisms evolved to find ways for adapting life in water. Marine Ecology, in its simplest terms the study of marine organisms and their habitats, continues to provide fundamental information to better understand the effects of global changes on eco-biology

In many cases, marine ecology is more intricate than the relatively simple study of a specific living organism or its environment due to various intra and inter specific interactions between other organisms and due to effects of numerous factors on a particular environment. Therefore, marine ecologists rather than concentrating on a single species, organism or habitat, often find themselves simultaneously focusing on interactions between organisms and the effects of environmental factors on these organisms. During the last decades, the complex nature of these interactions is being exacerbated due to the changes induced by a variety of factors such as increased ocean temperatures, dramatic changes in weather patterns, ocean acidification, melting of glaciers, and pollution. The effects of these man-made factors are occurring in a relatively shorter time scale and in many cases are beyond the capacity of organisms to adapt to these deviations. Throughout the world, new conditions are often manifesting themselves as loss of biodiversity accompanied with other major changes such as shifts in distributions of many species toward higher latitudes and changes in timing of

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Abiotic Interactions**

**Abiotic Interactions**

Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen

Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali IsmenAdditional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78296

**1. Introduction**

of organisms.

life cycle events.

#### **Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic Interactions Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic Interactions**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78296

Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen Muhammet Turkoglu, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78296

#### **1. Introduction**

The vastness of the oceans, the largest continuous environment on earth, has provided a safe shelter for about 20% of all living organisms until the beginning of industrial revolution. Since then, this once invincible environment has been under constant change and destruction, the results of which now are threatening all life forms on earth. With this rate of destruction, we are possibly losing our window of opportunity to protect aquatic biodiversity and learn how aquatic organisms evolved to find ways for adapting life in water. Marine Ecology, in its simplest terms the study of marine organisms and their habitats, continues to provide fundamental information to better understand the effects of global changes on eco-biology of organisms.

In many cases, marine ecology is more intricate than the relatively simple study of a specific living organism or its environment due to various intra and inter specific interactions between other organisms and due to effects of numerous factors on a particular environment. Therefore, marine ecologists rather than concentrating on a single species, organism or habitat, often find themselves simultaneously focusing on interactions between organisms and the effects of environmental factors on these organisms. During the last decades, the complex nature of these interactions is being exacerbated due to the changes induced by a variety of factors such as increased ocean temperatures, dramatic changes in weather patterns, ocean acidification, melting of glaciers, and pollution. The effects of these man-made factors are occurring in a relatively shorter time scale and in many cases are beyond the capacity of organisms to adapt to these deviations. Throughout the world, new conditions are often manifesting themselves as loss of biodiversity accompanied with other major changes such as shifts in distributions of many species toward higher latitudes and changes in timing of life cycle events.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

One of the most important factors that influence life in the oceans is temperature. Temperature affects the rate biological processes proceed. In general, the metabolic rate of poikilotherms doubles with a 10°C increase in temperature. However, much less temperature differences are enough to trigger changes in weather patterns that have worldwide effects. Global mean temperatures are now 0.50°C higher than it was since 1960s [1]. A typical example of increased global temperatures is the El Niño phenomenon that occurs periodically over the Pacific Ocean and characterized by increased temperatures of surface waters. It is well established that increased water temperatures results in weakened currents and less rain in the Southern Ocean which in turn, results in dramatic changes in physicochemical and biological conditions. Fluctuation in nutrient concentrations is the most notable factor that altered circulation pattern effects. Such interruptions of nutrient fluxes have important consequences on the primary production which in turn affect fish stocks. The relationship between fluctuations in the abundance of anchovy in the Southeast Pacific Ocean [2] and the periodicity of El Niño has been established. The fluctuations in the abundance of these commercial fish stocks have important socioeconomic consequences due to enormous yields which fluctuated between 3 and 8 million tons during the last decade [3].

While it is relatively easier to observe the effects of altered physicochemical conditions over larger scales, the effects of pollution and over exploitation are relatively easier to observe in smaller scales. A typical example is the Black Sea which is closed basins with limited water exchange rates and relatively smaller surface areas. Between the period 1950 and 1970, the Turkish Black Sea fishery was characterized by larger predators such as tuna, swordfish, and bonito. Following a decrease in top predators as a result of increased fishing pressure, industrial fishing operations concentrated on small pelagic fish species such as anchovy and sardine. Therefore, after 1970s, there was a major shift in commercial fishing operations [8]. Due to the developments in industrial fishing methods, a steady increase was observed until late 1980s with a maximum of 600,000 tons in 1988. This increase in fish productivity was correlated with a 10-fold increase in phytoplankton biomass in the 1980s compared to that of 2–3 g m−2 in 1960s [8]. This dramatic increase was due to increased inputs of agricultural nitrates and phosphates into the Black Sea through rivers and the subsequent mixing of these nutrients in the water column. As a result of this enrichment, primary production was able to support—despite increased fishing pressure—high yields of small pelagic fishes for almost a decade before a major collapse observed after late 1980s. For example, in 1990, anchovy landings were only 66,000 tons, which was less than ¼ of that in 1988. This collapse in small pelagic fisheries was also experienced by other nations bordering the Black Sea and as a result, total landings dropped down to 200 thousand tons in 1991, compared to that of 900 thousand tons in 1988. It is believed that overexploitation was not the only factor for the simultaneous collapse in small pelagic fish stocks experienced throughout the Black Sea. The lobate ctenophore, *Mnemiopsis leidyi* A. Agassiz, 1865, which was reported for the first time in the Black Sea in 1982, had reached a biomass of up to 1 kg m−3 by the end of 1980s [9]. Its broad tolerance to a variety of physicochemical conditions, rapid growth and voracious appetite for zooplankton, fish eggs, and larvae has contributed significantly to the collapse of Black Sea fisheries. After 1990s, although reductions in concentrations of agricultural nutrients in the Black Sea and the introduction of *Beroe ovata* Mayer, 1912, the pink comb jellyfish that feeds on *M. leidyi* tipped the balance in favor of recovery of small pelagic fish stocks, we are still miles away from the point of sustainable management of fisheries in the Black Sea. Yet, even over a relatively smaller scale and with no diverse multinational management strategies that can limit the success of management programs, fisheries in the Sea of Marmara is almost an identical episode of what was experienced in the Black Sea. For example, a comparison of catch rates in 1990 and 2015 showed a 1.50- to 130-fold decrease in all reported demersal species [10] as a result of eutrophic conditions as indicated by increased periodicity and intensity of phytoplankton blooms [11–14], introduction of *M. leidyi* in early 1990s [15], continuous heavy fishing pressure and lack of effective management strategies. Recovery efforts for these two interconnected ecosystems will require a multidisciplinary approach to rebuild fishery resources. Unfortunately, decreasing fish stocks is not only an issue of semi-closed basins with highly populated areas. It is estimated that globally up to 63% of fish stocks are in need of rebuilding [16] and efforts toward rebuilding diversity will meet major challenges consid-

Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic Interactions

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78296

5

ering human-induced and global-scale impacts.

This book includes contributions from a variety of ecosystems around the world and presents comprehensive information on the present or recent status of a diverse group of marine

Another important parameter that influences life in the ocean is CO<sup>2</sup> levels in the atmosphere. As a result of global industrialization, CO2 levels have increased over the last 100 years. Higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere forces this gas into the surface waters which results in lower pH values. As a result, the mean pH value of the earth's oceans has fallen by 0.10 pH units [4]. Insignificant as it may seem, this drop corresponds roughly to 30% increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions. Organisms such as corals, bivalves, and calcareous plankton are susceptible to reduced pH levels as acidic conditions dissolve calcium carbonate. Therefore, the disruption of the calcification process may have serious consequences due to its potential to negatively affected calcareous species in the food web.

Another important factor that is becoming increasingly influential on all life on earth is the increasing rate of melting of ice in polar regions. The melting of ice causes a series of events including, sea level rise, freshening of seawater, and reduction in the speeds of major current systems in the oceans. While sea level rise will have catastrophic effects mainly for human habitation in coastal areas, freshening of seawater and its effect on currents will potentially affect all life forms due to the changes in global climate.

Although the effects of individual stressors are relatively well studied, there are limited data on compounded effects of multiple stressors [5]. Stressors such as temperature, salinity, UV, hypoxia, acidification, and pollution may be simultaneously experienced by marine organisms, especially in coastal areas. In many cases, organisms exposed to multiple stressors exhibit reduced resistance. For example, many coral reefs are simultaneously suffering from increasing temperatures, acidification, diseases, and silting [6]. Toxicity of pollutants has been shown to increase salinity or temperature stress [7]. This is particularly important because even if strict fisheries regulations become effective for a particular overexploited area in a heavily modified coastal system, expected recovery of stocks may not be possible due to increased vulnerability of early life stages to multiple stressors relative to juvenile or adult stages.

While it is relatively easier to observe the effects of altered physicochemical conditions over larger scales, the effects of pollution and over exploitation are relatively easier to observe in smaller scales. A typical example is the Black Sea which is closed basins with limited water exchange rates and relatively smaller surface areas. Between the period 1950 and 1970, the Turkish Black Sea fishery was characterized by larger predators such as tuna, swordfish, and bonito. Following a decrease in top predators as a result of increased fishing pressure, industrial fishing operations concentrated on small pelagic fish species such as anchovy and sardine. Therefore, after 1970s, there was a major shift in commercial fishing operations [8]. Due to the developments in industrial fishing methods, a steady increase was observed until late 1980s with a maximum of 600,000 tons in 1988. This increase in fish productivity was correlated with a 10-fold increase in phytoplankton biomass in the 1980s compared to that of 2–3 g m−2 in 1960s [8]. This dramatic increase was due to increased inputs of agricultural nitrates and phosphates into the Black Sea through rivers and the subsequent mixing of these nutrients in the water column. As a result of this enrichment, primary production was able to support—despite increased fishing pressure—high yields of small pelagic fishes for almost a decade before a major collapse observed after late 1980s. For example, in 1990, anchovy landings were only 66,000 tons, which was less than ¼ of that in 1988. This collapse in small pelagic fisheries was also experienced by other nations bordering the Black Sea and as a result, total landings dropped down to 200 thousand tons in 1991, compared to that of 900 thousand tons in 1988. It is believed that overexploitation was not the only factor for the simultaneous collapse in small pelagic fish stocks experienced throughout the Black Sea. The lobate ctenophore, *Mnemiopsis leidyi* A. Agassiz, 1865, which was reported for the first time in the Black Sea in 1982, had reached a biomass of up to 1 kg m−3 by the end of 1980s [9]. Its broad tolerance to a variety of physicochemical conditions, rapid growth and voracious appetite for zooplankton, fish eggs, and larvae has contributed significantly to the collapse of Black Sea fisheries. After 1990s, although reductions in concentrations of agricultural nutrients in the Black Sea and the introduction of *Beroe ovata* Mayer, 1912, the pink comb jellyfish that feeds on *M. leidyi* tipped the balance in favor of recovery of small pelagic fish stocks, we are still miles away from the point of sustainable management of fisheries in the Black Sea. Yet, even over a relatively smaller scale and with no diverse multinational management strategies that can limit the success of management programs, fisheries in the Sea of Marmara is almost an identical episode of what was experienced in the Black Sea. For example, a comparison of catch rates in 1990 and 2015 showed a 1.50- to 130-fold decrease in all reported demersal species [10] as a result of eutrophic conditions as indicated by increased periodicity and intensity of phytoplankton blooms [11–14], introduction of *M. leidyi* in early 1990s [15], continuous heavy fishing pressure and lack of effective management strategies. Recovery efforts for these two interconnected ecosystems will require a multidisciplinary approach to rebuild fishery resources. Unfortunately, decreasing fish stocks is not only an issue of semi-closed basins with highly populated areas. It is estimated that globally up to 63% of fish stocks are in need of rebuilding [16] and efforts toward rebuilding diversity will meet major challenges considering human-induced and global-scale impacts.

One of the most important factors that influence life in the oceans is temperature. Temperature affects the rate biological processes proceed. In general, the metabolic rate of poikilotherms doubles with a 10°C increase in temperature. However, much less temperature differences are enough to trigger changes in weather patterns that have worldwide effects. Global mean temperatures are now 0.50°C higher than it was since 1960s [1]. A typical example of increased global temperatures is the El Niño phenomenon that occurs periodically over the Pacific Ocean and characterized by increased temperatures of surface waters. It is well established that increased water temperatures results in weakened currents and less rain in the Southern Ocean which in turn, results in dramatic changes in physicochemical and biological conditions. Fluctuation in nutrient concentrations is the most notable factor that altered circulation pattern effects. Such interruptions of nutrient fluxes have important consequences on the primary production which in turn affect fish stocks. The relationship between fluctuations in the abundance of anchovy in the Southeast Pacific Ocean [2] and the periodicity of El Niño has been established. The fluctuations in the abundance of these commercial fish stocks have important socioeconomic consequences due to enormous yields which fluctuated between

levels in the atmosphere.

levels have increased over the last 100 years.

levels in the atmosphere forces this gas into the surface waters which results

in lower pH values. As a result, the mean pH value of the earth's oceans has fallen by 0.10 pH units [4]. Insignificant as it may seem, this drop corresponds roughly to 30% increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions. Organisms such as corals, bivalves, and calcareous plankton are susceptible to reduced pH levels as acidic conditions dissolve calcium carbonate. Therefore, the disruption of the calcification process may have serious consequences due to its

Another important factor that is becoming increasingly influential on all life on earth is the increasing rate of melting of ice in polar regions. The melting of ice causes a series of events including, sea level rise, freshening of seawater, and reduction in the speeds of major current systems in the oceans. While sea level rise will have catastrophic effects mainly for human habitation in coastal areas, freshening of seawater and its effect on currents will potentially

Although the effects of individual stressors are relatively well studied, there are limited data on compounded effects of multiple stressors [5]. Stressors such as temperature, salinity, UV, hypoxia, acidification, and pollution may be simultaneously experienced by marine organisms, especially in coastal areas. In many cases, organisms exposed to multiple stressors exhibit reduced resistance. For example, many coral reefs are simultaneously suffering from increasing temperatures, acidification, diseases, and silting [6]. Toxicity of pollutants has been shown to increase salinity or temperature stress [7]. This is particularly important because even if strict fisheries regulations become effective for a particular overexploited area in a heavily modified coastal system, expected recovery of stocks may not be possible due to increased vulnerability of early life stages to multiple stressors relative

3 and 8 million tons during the last decade [3].

4 Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions

As a result of global industrialization, CO2

Higher CO2

Another important parameter that influences life in the ocean is CO<sup>2</sup>

potential to negatively affected calcareous species in the food web.

affect all life forms due to the changes in global climate.

to juvenile or adult stages.

This book includes contributions from a variety of ecosystems around the world and presents comprehensive information on the present or recent status of a diverse group of marine organisms including primary producers, zooplanktons, shellfish, crustaceans, and fishes. The valuable information gathered from researchers all around the world will not only explain the current status of these organisms and the environment in which they thrive but it will also provide a reference for future studies to help compare how predicted or unpredicted changes will affect these organisms in coming years.

[7] Lange R, Marshall D. Ecologically relevant levels of multiple, common marine stressors suggest antagonistic effects. Scientific Reports. 2017;**7**:6281. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-

Introductory Chapter: Marine Ecology—Biotic and Abiotic Interactions

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78296

7

[8] Oguz T. The effects of climate change and environmental factors on fisheries in the Black Sea. In: Fisheries Symposium on Black Sea; October 13-14, 2016; Sinop, Turkey (in

[9] Vinogradov ME, Shushkina EA, Musayeva EI, Sorokin PY. A newly acclimated species in the Black Sea: The ctenophore *Mnemiopsis leidyi* (Ctenophore: Lobata). Oceanology.

[10] Demirel N, Gul G. Demersal fishes and fisheries in the Sea of Marmara. In: Ozsoy E, Cagatay MN, Balkis N, Balkis N, Ozturk B, editors. The Sea of Marmara: Marine Biodiversity, Fisheries. Istanbul, Turkey: Conservation and Governance. Turkish Marine

[11] Turkoglu M. Synchronous blooms of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) Hay & Mohler and three dinoflagellates in the Dardanelles (Turkish Straits System). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 2008;**88**(3):433-441.

[12] Turkoglu M. Winter bloom and ecological behaviors of coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) Hay & Mohler, 1967 in the Dardanelles. Hydrology Research. 2010;

[13] Turkoglu M. Red tides of the dinoflagellate *Noctiluca scintillans* associated with eutrophication in the sea of Marmara (the Dardanelles, Turkey). Oceanologia. 2013;**55**(3):709-732.

[14] Turkoglu M. First harmful algal bloom record of Tycoplanktonic Dinoflagellate *Prorocentrum lima* (Ehrenberg) F. Stein, 1878 and real time hydrography in the Dardanelles (Turkish straits system, Turkey). Journal of Coastal Life Medicine (JCLM).

[15] Shiganova T, Tarkan AN, Dede A, Cebeci M. Distribution of the Ichthyo-Jellyplankton *Mnemiopsis leidyi* (Agassiz, 1865) in the Marmara Sea (October 1992). Turkish Journal of

[16] Murawski SA. Rebuilding depleted fish stocks: The good, the bad, and, mostly, the ugly. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 2010;**67**:1830-1840. DOI: 10.1093/icesjms/fsq125

017-06373-y

Turkish)

1989;**29**(2):220-224

Research Foundation; 2016. pp. 630-643

**41**(2):104-114. DOI: 10.2166/nh.2010.124

2016;**4**(10):765-774. DOI: 10.12980/jclm.4.2016J6-184

Maritime and Marine Sciences. 1995;**1**(1):3-12

DOI: 10.1017/S0025315408000866

DOI: 10.5697/oc.55-3.709

#### **Author details**

Muhammet Turkoglu\*, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen

\*Address all correspondence to: mturkoglu@comu.edu.tr

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Marine Sciences and Technology Faculty, Terzioglu Campus, Çanakkale, Turkey

#### **References**


[7] Lange R, Marshall D. Ecologically relevant levels of multiple, common marine stressors suggest antagonistic effects. Scientific Reports. 2017;**7**:6281. DOI: 10.1038/s41598- 017-06373-y

organisms including primary producers, zooplanktons, shellfish, crustaceans, and fishes. The valuable information gathered from researchers all around the world will not only explain the current status of these organisms and the environment in which they thrive but it will also provide a reference for future studies to help compare how predicted or unpredicted changes

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Marine Sciences and Technology Faculty, Terzioglu

[1] Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Geneva: IPCC;

[2] Chavez FP, Ryan J, Lluch-Cota SE, Niquen M. From anchovies to sardines and back: Multidecadal change in the Pacific Ocean. Science. 2003;**299**:217-221. DOI: 10.1126/

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will affect these organisms in coming years.

6 Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions

Muhammet Turkoglu\*, Umur Onal and Ali Ismen

\*Address all correspondence to: mturkoglu@comu.edu.tr

**Author details**

**References**

2007. 104 p

science.1075880

30-April-2018]

London: The Royal Society; 2005; 60 p

Management. 2012;**8**:201-202. DOI: 10.1002/ieam.1250

Campus, Çanakkale, Turkey


**Section 2**

**Marine Biogeochemistry**
