**2. Related work**

**1. Introduction**

224 Management of Information Systems

Entrepreneurial spirit is an old field, but it is continuously emerging and it attracts the attention of scholars, politicians and professionals in different fields of economics, finance, management and sociology [1]. In the last decades, it has been studied as a driving force for development and a key factor to attain economic growth, the creation of employment and the increase of productivity [2, 3]. Nowadays, the theory of entrepreneurship has extended to new concepts where entrepreneurial spirit is not only known for its business success and benefits, but also for subjective welfare and noneconomic welfare that people can obtain through their skills. Politicians seek to promote entrepreneurial spirit at a macrolevel through education in hopes that a greater understanding will likely create more adept entrepreneurs [4]. In this regard, there is a debate going on related to the academic field if it is really possible to teach students how to be entrepreneurs [5].

Besides creativity and innovation to develop entrepreneurial projects and meet its goals, due to current and fast changes in society, a wide range of skills and competences are needed [6]. In the last few years, higher education institutions at an international level have introduced competences in its educational programs. For example, during the last 5 years, Spain has produced significant advances in the treatment and evaluation of competences, especially in the field of language teaching [7]; Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (UPM) applied the projectbased learning (PBL) approach and analyzed the acquisition of regional and global competences by having industrial engineering students complete a course on project management [8]; they even suggested a framework of learning and evaluation based on competences to facilitate the learning of skills in the development of projects [9]; a study to support the skills and competences under the European Union Framework and the Bologna Agreement was also conducted, assisting its evolution through guidance documents that seek to integrate the European systems of higher education and improve employability of European graduates [10].

Regarding tools to analyze competences, there are solutions suggested through the use of questionnaires along with information technologies. In [11], the COMET test is suggested, it was developed by the TVET research group from the University of Bremen and it is based on a model of competence and measurement through open task tests that have a variety of solutions and the evaluation of its results. As part of the TECH project, students from the universities of Seville and Malaga presented the improvement of their competences of collaborative work, efficient use of time, management of online resources and others by carrying out collaborative work in mixed groups on the online learning platform [12]. ComProfits is a project financed by the EU which analyzes the concept of a profile platform of adaptive competences where its main objective is to (i) strengthen the analysis of competences and (ii) improve the quality of staff selection and work performance in the field of IT [13]; another innovative concept for teaching competences with entrepreneurial spirit is open educational practices that work jointly with a StarUp model and seeks to identify the competences that a person has obtained by carrying out the analysis of open educational resources (OER) that have been used through a recommendation system [14]. Another approach applies KIPSSE, which is a self-reporting instrument to be used in the evaluation of competences of projects developed by university students that take part in online learning projects, which tries to identify knowledge integration skills, project skills and self-efficacy based on the results of the

qualitative and quantitative analysis of interviews with the project consultants [15].

Among the first studies about an evaluation through competences to individuals and applying computing, there is a debate on how to generate the dissemination of relevant information to users according to knowledge generated within an institution or organization, an aspect highlighted in [17], where it explains that "*one of the challenges of knowledge management is the active and smart dissemination of knowledge to users, without bothering them with information unrelated to their competencies or fields of interest*" and suggests a first approximation of an ontology system based on competences that intend to provide assistance in order to increase productivity of users during their activities according to their profile. In [18], the objective is to design an ontological model, based on the competences of each enterprise, to support decisions at the time of creating collaborative networks within virtual environments called virtual breeding environment (VBE) whose aim is to enhance the competences of employees. A similar case occurs in [19], where manufacturers and distributors need to cooperate and create production networks; therefore, they suggest an approach for the configuration of teams based on profiles by competences applying management of ontologies, management of contexts and elaboration of profiles, and with the aim of identifying the members of the team that are the most suitable to carry out a task.

When it comes to finding a job, developing a project, implementing a business, etc., one of the concerns of employers, investors, and project managers is to identify qualified and committed personnel. How to solve this enigma, and the concern also goes through the educational model, which besides teaching theory, should also assess the performance of students in life by addressing a new approach, through skills or competences as mentioned above. Bodea and Dascălu [20, 21] suggest e-learning as an appropriate activity for the development of competences. Based on the PM competence catalog, which is based on the IPMA competence basis (ICB), they defined an educational ontology for their SinPers e-learning platform, which is structured by a collection of different educational objects (EOs) as elements for the supervision and evaluation of new competences.

As analyzed previously, and as mentioned by Hochmeister and Daxböck [22], "*Competence management systems are increasingly based on ontologies that represent competencies within a given domain*," and as part of the SeCoMine project, they seek to value user competences based on their contribution and social interactions in online communities by developing a user interface for profiles of semantic competences. And regarding work in the field of research, in [23], they suggest the use of the linked open data (LOD) format to describe the competences of researchers, developing the first work flow to generate profiles of semantic users through the analysis of scientific articles by processing natural language, which makes it possible to carry out personalized searches of articles and competent researchers in specific topics.

Regarding competence "measurement" models, there are no generic standards or procedures to evaluate or value, and each proposed model is tailored to a specific context and can be extrapolated to others by making appropriate modifications. As emphasized in [24], for the evaluation of leadership competences under a hypothetical hierarchical scheme, the partial least squares (PLS) trajectory models are used, where to collect information, they use questionnaires that are based mainly on the Likert scale and weightings. Like the previous case, in [25], the procedures and tools used for the evaluation of competences in Erasmus nurse students (ENS) clinics are made up of questionnaires, where each competence is valued in different scale metrics such as Likert. Schelfhout et al. [26] are based on a model of levels where they contemplate domains, subcompetences and scaled behavioral indicators as the basis for giving concrete feedback to students rather than using Likert-scale surveys. Therefore, a mixed study method that combines qualitative and quantitative research techniques (selfassessment/evaluation questionnaires) was used; the evaluation of the validity of this model was done through a confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA).

According to what has been analyzed, formulating an ontological system of the coworking UPS ecosystem and based on that applying metrics to assess the competences of the agents that are actively involved in it are possible and applicable.
