**2.3. Assessment tools of Internet addiction**

Many tools have been developed to investigate Internet addiction or similar concepts. However, the main diagnostic assessment instruments used widely in empirical studies involve (1) Young's Internet Addiction Test (YIAT), (2) Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire (IADQ), and (3) Chen's Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS).

such as age (being younger adolescents and younger adults [31, 41, 42]), gender (being male) [3, 11, 17, 24, 25, 27, 30–34, 41–46], female gender [22], higher family income levels [17, 44], living in rural areas (for adolescents) [47], living in urban areas (for adults) [34], single parent (for adults) [24, 33], marital status (for adults) (being single) [24], income (for adults) (financial difficulties), unemployment (for adults) [11], university year level (being in lower-year levels) (e.g., first or second year) [31, 42] and lower school grade levels (for adolescents) [3, 22, 27], and ethnic group

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Moreover, there are factors related to Internet use and patterns of Internet use, which are also recognized as risk factors for developing Internet addiction. Age of using Internet for the first time (being so young or earlier adolescence age) [11, 17, 33], frequency [17], and duration (more than 10 hours daily) of Internet use [17, 22, 27, 31, 35, 36], Internet access at home [12], Internet use at an Internet café [25, 27], purposes of Internet use (e.g., for noneducational purposes [e.g., downloading programs, music or movies, playing online games or chatting, and social networking] [17, 22, 32, 35], online activities and practices [e.g., communicating, playing online games, listening to music, making new friends, and online chatting] [25, 35], Internet use for mood regulation [47], and having a hobby such as reading books [18]), positive outcome expectancy from Internet use, and low self-efficacy toward using Internet [36] have relationships with the development of Internet addiction. In addition to this, parental involvement and guidance regarding Internet behaviors were reported to be correlated with Internet addiction, specifically little parental communication about Internet use and lack of rules about Internet times and use [48]. It is suggested that social factors including poor academic performance (for adolescents) [8] and dissatisfaction with academic performance (for adults) [32, 36], poor relations with school [43, 49], inadequate social adaptation [17], stress [43], leisure boredom [50], presence of peers and siblings consuming alcohol [49], and lack of social support [8, 34, 38, 42] are associated with

It is reported that family variables were associated with Internet addiction such as family conflict and dissatisfaction [43, 49], an insecure attachment style [36], child maltreatment experiences [32], poor parental relationship [25, 46], poor family love [32], homesickness [33], low parental involvement and supervision [50], and showing positive attitude to adolescent

Health-risk factors such as consuming alcohol, substance use, and smoking have been suggested as risk-factors for Internet addiction. Previous studies have documented a relationship between alcohol, substance use, and Internet addiction [43]. Onen et al. [45] revealed that there was a relationship between Internet addiction and smoking. In addition, a behavioral factor such as a habit of skipping breakfast [34] was correlated with Internet

It is necessary to recognize that psychological and psychiatric problems and symptoms are also associated with Internet addiction. Several studies have reported a relationship between Internet addiction, depression, anxiety, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, social phobia, neurosis, solitude, hostility, aggressive behaviors, suicide, psychological dysfunction, and emotional and behavioral problems [8, 10, 11, 17, 22, 27, 41, 42, 51, 52].

(Asian ethnicity) [38].

Internet addiction.

addiction.

substance use by parents [49].
