**Stress and Cognition: Psychological Basis and Support Resources Resources**

**Stress and Cognition: Psychological Basis and Support** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72566

Tamara Cibrian-Llanderal, Tamara Cibrian-Llanderal, Montserrat Melgarejo-Gutierrez and

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Montserrat Melgarejo-Gutierrez and Daniel Hernandez-Baltazar Daniel Hernandez-Baltazar Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72566

#### **Abstract**

Executive functions are processes that help in tasks such as reasoning, planning, troubleshooting, and management of the individual's own life. A consequence of the specific connections of stress is that executive functions tend to be interrupted when the stimulation load is so big that the individual becomes stressed. The level of cellular stress becomes evident with the increase of cortisol. Cellular processes such as inflammation, proliferation/death, and oxidative stress have been shown in murine models resembling cognitive impairment in humans. This impairment translates into behavioral changes, loss of memory, inability for decision-making, and attention problems. The incorporation of factors, such as drug use and bullying, promotes the impairment of executive functions. Resorting to strategies, such as exercising, environmental enrichment, and changes in the diet, constitutes an excellent aid in the promotion of academic achievement. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of stress on cognitive executive functions associated with academic achievement and also suggest strategies to reduce the impact of stressing factors.

**Keywords:** academic achievement, cognition, executive functions, psychosocial stressor, physiological stressor

## **1. Introduction**

Stress is a biological response to internal or external demands which have an impact on cellular homeostasis. The frequency and intensity of the stressful stimuli can promote physiological and psychological effects on the body, such as the executive functions of the brain. Executive functions are a set of cognitive skills that allow for the anticipation and establishment of goals,

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

the design of plans and programs, the initiation of the activities and the mental operations, self-regulation, and task monitoring. The prefrontal cortex acts as a controller of executive functions. The executive functions, which help us to organize thoughts, tend to be interrupted when the stressors load is too high [1].

The physical and psychological stressors can trigger the activation of neuronal circuits and peripheral process, for example the inflammation. Cytokines produced by the cells of the immune system can exercise their anti- or pro-inflammatory effect on the cells of the CNS and peripheral organs [8]. The IL-1, IL-6, and IL-17 act on the HPA axis by increasing the secretion of ACTH and cortisol [9]. The TNF-alpha has the ability to destroy certain cell lines and initiates the cascade of proinflammatory cytokines [10]. The regulatory suppressive function of the immune response will depend on the balance of the synthesis of cytokines. If the inflammation is prolonged, other systems will also be activated such as the endocrine system and neurotransmission systems (e.g. noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic) [11] (**Figure 1**).

Stress and Cognition: Psychological Basis and Support Resources

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72566

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**Figure 1.** Neuroendocrine response to stressors. Stressors (physical, chemical, or psychological) lead to the activation of components of the endocrine system, brain, and systemic inflammatory processes. (1) Neural activation and neuroinflammation, (2) peripheral release of modulators of stress, and (3) inflammatory peripheral process. (a) ACTH

release, (b) ACTH inhibitory pathway, (c) production of cortisol, and (d) cortisol inhibitory pathway.

The study of the determinants of academic performance has attracted a remarkable interest in the last few years, given the need to investigate new variables that explain frequent school failure and discouragement in students. Predicting the effect of executive functions on academic performance is important for adequate adaptation of the individual to the specific requirements of the school context. The association between chronic or acute stress and academic performance might be mediated by the effects of cortisol in the prefrontal cortex, which promotes impairment in cognitive functions. Prolonged exposure to stress during different stages of development interferes with both academic achievement and executive functions that provide a basis for learning [2, 3].

Several studies conducted both in animal and human models indicate that factors, such as physical activity, sleep, and a healthy diet, promote optimal cognitive functioning and better academic performance. In this chapter, we discuss both the impact of psychosocial and physiological stressors on executive functions associated with academic performance and some strategies that reduce the impact of stressors. This manuscript compiles a comprehensive review of articles and books indexed in PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, and Google Advanced Scholar.
