**4. Strategies for the good academic performance: Physical activity, sleep, and diet**

#### **4.1. Physical activity**

**Figure 3.** Interaction of positive and negative components in academic achievement.

planning, monitoring, and coding. The results showed that stressed participants had a better performance compared with non-stressed participants in all the components with the exception of the monitoring [43]. One study evaluated the relationship between specific stressors and deficits in executive functions in undergraduate students. The results determined that general social abuse was the factor most correlated with deficits in executive function. Factors such as challenges of development (struggle and dissatisfaction with cognitive and physical attributes and abilities) and dissatisfaction with school were also predictive of diminished

Chronic stress can generate high levels of cortisol in the prefrontal cortex, which can lead to an impairment of cognitive functions. There is evidence that stressors such as bullying and addiction can affect the executive functions; although they are not the only existing stressors,

Questions about how stress can affect or improve behavior are important in different contexts and in this particular case on academic performance. One of the factors that interfere suggests that the controllability is a key factor on the impact of stress on behavior; to learn how to control stress-causing factors protects people from the negative effects of stress in tasks of high cognitive demand. In addition, research suggests that the impact of stress on cognitive functioning depends on an individual's response to stressors: moderate responses to stress can lead to improved performance, while extreme responses (high or low) can lead to a low

Factors such as bullying and addictions stimulate stress by promoting specific neurophysiological responses, followed by alterations in executive functions. Components such as physical activity, good nutrition, and sleep hygiene can reduce academic stress and its neuro-

Bullying is characterized by intentional, repetitive, and persistently aggressive behavior causing harm to a victim [48]. Several studies have investigated the social and emotional aspects related to bullying; however, few studies evaluate how cognitive aspects are involved. Studies

they are to be found with higher prevalence in the school setting.

executive functions [44].

18 Health and Academic Achievement

performance [45–47].

**3.3. Bullying**

physiological consequences (**Figure 3**).

Several studies conducted on animal and human models provide sufficient evidence for an important relationship between various factors such as physical activity, sleep, and healthy food, with optimal cognitive functioning. This invariably leads to a better academic performance. These studies have been conducted through different stages of development, from prenatal to old age. Some of the cognitive functions that may be affected by the activities or changes throughout life are short-term and long-term memory, learning, attention, spatial memory, and working memory, among others. Evidence suggests that the connection between these cognitive functions, physical activity, nutrition, sleep time, and social interactions have a direct impact on the structure and function of the central nervous system [53].

Consequently, cognitive control has been implicated as an important and necessary component of academic performance, in that it relates to brain areas that are involved in processes of behavior and processing of information required to interact with the environment in both children and adults. Neuroimaging studies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been used to demonstrate potential mechanisms by which physical activity improves cognitive health. These techniques have demonstrated that physical activity improves the function and structure of the brain [53, 54], possibly associated with an increase in the neuroplasticity, and neurogenesis due to BDNF which can be measured peripherally in blood serum or plasma (pBDNF) [55]. Therefore, it is possible to analyze a direct correlation between physical activities with neurocognitive changes and subsequent blood analysis directly after the physical activation. BDNF belongs to the most important family of proteins in the brain, which plays an important role in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Therefore, a low concentration of pBDNF can lead to a poor execution of cognitive tasks associated with spatial memory in the hippocampus [56].

In summary, all these studies point to the fact that physical activation at different stages of life is an important factor for the maintenance of a healthy body and, in addition, for mental health and cognitive therapy. In children, physical activity significantly improves selective attention, working memory, and learning diminishing behavioral problems and overweight and improving their academic performance. In adults and the elderly, it prevents the deterioration of memory and improves the execution of tasks, as well as maintenance of optimal mental health through the activation of the dopaminergic system and neurogenesis, which

Stress and Cognition: Psychological Basis and Support Resources

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72566

21

Today, reduced and/or disrupted sleep has become common among people of all ages, including pre-school children. The reduction in the hours of sleep in adolescents is considered a public health problem by the American Academy of Pediatrics. These changes can lead to the deterioration of various physiological functions, particularly in the brain, such as learning, memory, and the deterioration of cognitive processes and therefore of academic performance. Sleep is a physiological process controlled and orchestrated by diverse brain areas, including the cortex, brainstem, hypothalamus, thalamus, and hippocampus, and the release of neurotransmitters that in addition to generating the wake-sleep cycle is also involved in the execution of tasks and behaviors on a daily basis [63]. It has been suggested that during sleep there is a flow and storage of information between the hippocampus and cerebral cortex; the interaction between these areas promotes the consolidation of information gained during the day, suggests that the storage´s model promote the short-term memory consolidation into hippocampus, and long-term memory on the brain cortex [63]. In the first place, it is known that Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep and slow-wave sleep (NREM) provide different processes of memory storage, for example, it has been proposed that NREM facilitates declarative memory or explicit memory, while REM facilitates the non-declarative or procedural memory and learning [64]. During NREM sleep, the hippocampus consolidates the memory and transfers the information to the cortex for the long term. Stickgold and colleagues suggest that during REM sleep cortical plasticity could be promoted, which plays an important role in procedural memory or in a high-level cognitive processing, but not so in episodic memory bound to a hippocampal process [65]. In addition, it is believed that the processes of neuronal

The pace of activity currently has led us to a reduction and alteration of the wake-sleep cycle and with that the presence of many disorders associated with this. It is for this reason that many studies have focused their attention on studying the deleterious effects of deprivation and/or alteration of sleep on different processes of the body as is cognitive deterioration. Currently, sleep deprivation is very common among students, which have been associated with poor academic performance and a decrease in physical activity. For example, numerous investigations have found evidence that sleep in infants plays an important role in the consolidation of memory, making the process more stable and less prone to forgetfulness [65]. Another study conducted on infants from 6 to 12 months of age showed that taking naps for at least 30 minutes significantly improves learning and memory in association

can prevent the development of neurodegenerative diseases [62].

plasticity take place both in the NREM [66] and in the REM [67].

**4.2. Sleep**

Physical activity is defined as bodily movement that requires energy output above normal with physiological demands, which can be measured through records and data obtained by accelerometers or other devices. It has been demonstrated that physical activity can have an indirect effect on the body by reducing stress and with it, the oxidation and inflammation, improving cognitive function, and reduced risk of developing dementia [57]. In addition, it has also been observed that a decrease in physical activity coincides with an increase in age. This in turn shows an impact on the functioning of neurotransmitters of the dopaminergic system [58], which is important for both processes. The absence of dopamine can anticipate problems with working memory and learning [59]. It has also been suggested that there is a relationship between cardiovascular exercise and the volume of gray matter in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in the elderly population, which results in an improvement in the memory. Other self-report studies of subjects with memory problems have shown that physical activity over 6 months significantly improves memory compared with those subjects who did not perform physical activity as a control group [60].

Recently, a group of researchers conducted a comprehensive analysis of studies done in humans over the past 15 years. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between various factors, such as age and physical activity, and the performance of cognitive skills and memory. The results showed a strong relationship between cognitive skills and physical activity, which reduced by up to 10% the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and dementia. In addition, they also showed that the intensity of exercise impacts differently on the functions and cognitive skills. For example, low-intensity aerobic exercise has a positive effect on visual perception and attention, while moderate physical activity impacts in a general way the cognitive skills such as memory, verbal memory, and attention. The previous, intense exercise requires much more attention and less cognitive processing due to a reduction in reactions, selective attention, and flexibility toward the tasks. Currently, there is controversy about the type of exercise and the greater benefits in the cognitive performance; in this sense, this study suggests that physical activity is without doubt a good factor of cognitive improvement, but more studies are needed on the intensity, type of exercise, and cognitive activity, which deserve to be analyzed in depth and from different scientific points of view [61].

In summary, all these studies point to the fact that physical activation at different stages of life is an important factor for the maintenance of a healthy body and, in addition, for mental health and cognitive therapy. In children, physical activity significantly improves selective attention, working memory, and learning diminishing behavioral problems and overweight and improving their academic performance. In adults and the elderly, it prevents the deterioration of memory and improves the execution of tasks, as well as maintenance of optimal mental health through the activation of the dopaminergic system and neurogenesis, which can prevent the development of neurodegenerative diseases [62].

#### **4.2. Sleep**

Consequently, cognitive control has been implicated as an important and necessary component of academic performance, in that it relates to brain areas that are involved in processes of behavior and processing of information required to interact with the environment in both children and adults. Neuroimaging studies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been used to demonstrate potential mechanisms by which physical activity improves cognitive health. These techniques have demonstrated that physical activity improves the function and structure of the brain [53, 54], possibly associated with an increase in the neuroplasticity, and neurogenesis due to BDNF which can be measured peripherally in blood serum or plasma (pBDNF) [55]. Therefore, it is possible to analyze a direct correlation between physical activities with neurocognitive changes and subsequent blood analysis directly after the physical activation. BDNF belongs to the most important family of proteins in the brain, which plays an important role in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Therefore, a low concentration of pBDNF can lead to a poor

execution of cognitive tasks associated with spatial memory in the hippocampus [56].

did not perform physical activity as a control group [60].

20 Health and Academic Achievement

Physical activity is defined as bodily movement that requires energy output above normal with physiological demands, which can be measured through records and data obtained by accelerometers or other devices. It has been demonstrated that physical activity can have an indirect effect on the body by reducing stress and with it, the oxidation and inflammation, improving cognitive function, and reduced risk of developing dementia [57]. In addition, it has also been observed that a decrease in physical activity coincides with an increase in age. This in turn shows an impact on the functioning of neurotransmitters of the dopaminergic system [58], which is important for both processes. The absence of dopamine can anticipate problems with working memory and learning [59]. It has also been suggested that there is a relationship between cardiovascular exercise and the volume of gray matter in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in the elderly population, which results in an improvement in the memory. Other self-report studies of subjects with memory problems have shown that physical activity over 6 months significantly improves memory compared with those subjects who

Recently, a group of researchers conducted a comprehensive analysis of studies done in humans over the past 15 years. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between various factors, such as age and physical activity, and the performance of cognitive skills and memory. The results showed a strong relationship between cognitive skills and physical activity, which reduced by up to 10% the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and dementia. In addition, they also showed that the intensity of exercise impacts differently on the functions and cognitive skills. For example, low-intensity aerobic exercise has a positive effect on visual perception and attention, while moderate physical activity impacts in a general way the cognitive skills such as memory, verbal memory, and attention. The previous, intense exercise requires much more attention and less cognitive processing due to a reduction in reactions, selective attention, and flexibility toward the tasks. Currently, there is controversy about the type of exercise and the greater benefits in the cognitive performance; in this sense, this study suggests that physical activity is without doubt a good factor of cognitive improvement, but more studies are needed on the intensity, type of exercise, and cognitive activity, which

deserve to be analyzed in depth and from different scientific points of view [61].

Today, reduced and/or disrupted sleep has become common among people of all ages, including pre-school children. The reduction in the hours of sleep in adolescents is considered a public health problem by the American Academy of Pediatrics. These changes can lead to the deterioration of various physiological functions, particularly in the brain, such as learning, memory, and the deterioration of cognitive processes and therefore of academic performance. Sleep is a physiological process controlled and orchestrated by diverse brain areas, including the cortex, brainstem, hypothalamus, thalamus, and hippocampus, and the release of neurotransmitters that in addition to generating the wake-sleep cycle is also involved in the execution of tasks and behaviors on a daily basis [63]. It has been suggested that during sleep there is a flow and storage of information between the hippocampus and cerebral cortex; the interaction between these areas promotes the consolidation of information gained during the day, suggests that the storage´s model promote the short-term memory consolidation into hippocampus, and long-term memory on the brain cortex [63]. In the first place, it is known that Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep and slow-wave sleep (NREM) provide different processes of memory storage, for example, it has been proposed that NREM facilitates declarative memory or explicit memory, while REM facilitates the non-declarative or procedural memory and learning [64]. During NREM sleep, the hippocampus consolidates the memory and transfers the information to the cortex for the long term. Stickgold and colleagues suggest that during REM sleep cortical plasticity could be promoted, which plays an important role in procedural memory or in a high-level cognitive processing, but not so in episodic memory bound to a hippocampal process [65]. In addition, it is believed that the processes of neuronal plasticity take place both in the NREM [66] and in the REM [67].

The pace of activity currently has led us to a reduction and alteration of the wake-sleep cycle and with that the presence of many disorders associated with this. It is for this reason that many studies have focused their attention on studying the deleterious effects of deprivation and/or alteration of sleep on different processes of the body as is cognitive deterioration. Currently, sleep deprivation is very common among students, which have been associated with poor academic performance and a decrease in physical activity. For example, numerous investigations have found evidence that sleep in infants plays an important role in the consolidation of memory, making the process more stable and less prone to forgetfulness [65]. Another study conducted on infants from 6 to 12 months of age showed that taking naps for at least 30 minutes significantly improves learning and memory in association with objects in comparison with those infants who did not take naps. In addition to the benefits on learning and memory, it has been shown that naps may be beneficial for language learning. It is known that the sleep in adolescents may be affected by the use of electronic devices at night. This directly affects the neurons of the suprachiasmatic nuclei and the pineal gland, inhibiting the secretion of melatonin and delaying or disrupting sleep. In addition, the wavelength and intensity of light can negatively affect attention during the morning [68]. Given that the use of electronic devices may not be restricted completely, it is advisable not to use them at night in order to avoid the effects on sleep and health in general. In adults, a short nap has an impact on stress response. Cognitive disorders, such as the formation and storage of memory, including attention, executive functions, emotional reactivity, decision-making, and judgment, result in a reduction of their quality of life in general [69]. In this sense, a good night sleep is an essential factor for maintaining mental health on cognitive processes associated to learning and academic performance such as memory, attention, perception, and physical activity.

On the other hand, a recent study of a meta-analysis of 226 patients in a random study demonstrated that resveratrol, a natural phenolic compound contained in a normal diet, has been attributed to have a wide spectrum of biological properties, such as anti-carcinogen, antiinflammatory, and antioxidant, in addition to a therapeutic effect on cognitive disorders. Resveratrol does not have an effect on memory or cognitive skills, including linguistic ability

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23

However, the direct consumption of vitamins and other nutrients, such as iron, omega 3, among others, also shows a solid relationship between academic performance and intake [76]. The majority of studies suggest that there is an important association between the selective consumption of foods with the cognitive and academic performance. It is, therefore, necessary to research this further using animals in pre-clinical studies to provide sufficient evidence of the effect of diet, nutrients, and the quantity of food on the cognitive capacity and academic achievement.

This chapter has looked at studies in executive function and stress through the eyes of neurophysiology. Self-control of stress can promote a reduction in the action of the amygdala, and the subject can resolve the stressful situation. However, if we do not have control, it will cause alteration in the prefrontal cortex affecting the mental and physical health of the subject.

In relation to academic stressors, the lack of control strategies can promote increasing blood cortisol levels, which affect the psychomotor integrity of the individual. One of the factors that can affect executive functions is stress. The relationship between specific stressors and the deficit in executive functions in academic performance includes factors such as bullying and addictions. This knowledge leads to creating information strategies to alert teachers and

This chapter has also described a number of interventions designed to increase the level of executive function. Physical activity, good sleep, and nutrition at different stages of life are important factors for the maintenance of the body health. These are essential factors for maintaining mental health on cognitive processes associated with learning and academic performance such as memory, attention, and perception. The authors contend that using any of these different techniques may prove successful in alleviating the chronic or acute stress that

This chapter was partially supported by Catedras CONACYT project #1840 (National Council for Science and Technology) to ITCLL and DHB. Special thanks to the Nancy Gabriela Vázquez Ixtepan and Erick Hernández Baltazar for the art design, as well as to Miguel Angel Vallejo

parents about the consequences of these factors on cognition.

Vizcarra for the edition of this manuscript in English.

permeates the school setting and is predictive of executive function deficits.

or retention of information [75].

**5. Conclusion**

**Acknowledgements**

#### **4.3. Nutrition**

Academic performance may be susceptible to change or impact on various factors, such as those we have previously addressed like sleep and physical activity among others. However, it is important to know if the supply or nutrition can modify the student's academic performance or cognitive functioning, with the aim of generating strategies that support mental health in school-age children and adolescents. During childhood and adolescence, eating behaviors are very important. Given that in this stage, brain uses the most glucose or energy to the processes of attention, memory, and learning [70].

In addition to the breakfast hours, various analyses have noted the relationship between the types of food and academic performance. For example, fast food or "junk food" which contains the greatest number of calories and few nutrients. It was noted that low consumption of this type of food is associated with a better academic performance in children of preschool age, particularly with less consumption of sugary drinks [71]. As was expected, the intake of vegetables and fruit improves academic performance, although more studies are needed in this regard in different population [72].

A group of researchers recently analyzed the dietary effect of breakfast on scholar achievement in children from 8 to 15 years of age. The research consisted of a variety of diets such as fruit, vegetable, and sweetened drinks. The goal of the research was to analyze the relationship between the consumption of these diets and the grades of the students. The results showed that diet is associated with higher academic grades in children who consumed vegetables and fruits compared with those children who consumed sweetened drinks, who showed the lowest scores, mainly in grammar, reading, and writing [73].

The consumption of proteins and other nutrients from a diet of fish showed that there also exists a significant association related to academic performance and vocabulary scores in a study that observed 700 students between 12 and 18 years of age in the Netherlands. Nevertheless, more studies are necessary with respect to age, sex, and academic trajectory, as well as with different populations [74].

On the other hand, a recent study of a meta-analysis of 226 patients in a random study demonstrated that resveratrol, a natural phenolic compound contained in a normal diet, has been attributed to have a wide spectrum of biological properties, such as anti-carcinogen, antiinflammatory, and antioxidant, in addition to a therapeutic effect on cognitive disorders. Resveratrol does not have an effect on memory or cognitive skills, including linguistic ability or retention of information [75].

However, the direct consumption of vitamins and other nutrients, such as iron, omega 3, among others, also shows a solid relationship between academic performance and intake [76]. The majority of studies suggest that there is an important association between the selective consumption of foods with the cognitive and academic performance. It is, therefore, necessary to research this further using animals in pre-clinical studies to provide sufficient evidence of the effect of diet, nutrients, and the quantity of food on the cognitive capacity and academic achievement.
