**3. Relationships with teachers**

Educators and researchers have increasingly acknowledged the imperative for creating a positive school climate, both to promote social and emotional competencies and optimize students' learning; teachers hold the key to such a learning environment [12, 33, 34]. Strong and supportive relationships provided by teachers are fundamental to the healthy development of all students in schools [35, 36]. Positive student-teacher relationships serve as a resource for students at risk of school failure, whereas conflict or disconnection between students and adults may compound that risk [37]. Although the nature of these relationships changes as students mature, the need for connection between students and adults in the school setting remains strong from preschool to high school [38]. Even as schools place increasing attention on standardized testing and accountability, the social and emotional quality of studentteacher relationships contributes to both academic and social-emotional development [39]. As such, student-teacher relationships provide a unique entry point for educators and others working toward improving the SEL environments of schools and classrooms.

#### **3.1. Associations with academic achievement**

Although students have less time with teachers during high school, there is strong evidence that relationships with adults in these settings are among the most important predictors of school success [36]. The quality of relationships that students form with their teachers has been repeatedly associated with students' academic and social-emotional outcomes [40]. High-quality student-teacher relationships are most often characterized by high levels of warmth, sensitivity, and emotional connection, and low levels of dependency, negativity, and conflict, which are highlighted in both attachment and self-determination theories [41–43]. Although the need for emotional support is perhaps more self-evidently important in the lower grades, adolescents are highly sensitive to the emotional rapport they establish with adults in school settings, and experience of strong connections to adults has been consistently linked to long-term academic success [44]. By conducting a meta-analysis, Roorda and colleagues [45] found significant associations between student-teacher relationships and students' academic engagement and achievement spanning from preschool through high school. Longitudinal research [40, 46] has also shown the positive associations between high-quality student-teacher relationships and academic adjustment. Although both family and teacher support are important in predicting students' achievement, research has indicated that student-teacher connection was the factor most closely associated with growth in academic achievement from eighth to twelfth grade [39].

#### **3.2. Associations with mental health**

disorder; similarly, stable bullies reported higher levels of anxiety, and those who shifted from victimization to bullying reported more anxiety, depression, and somatization. These findings underscore the importance of considering a child's history of involvement in bullying over

Given the growing efforts to reduce bullying, we would speculate that the prevalence of school bullying might be declining. However, this may not be the case, particularly for sexual minority students. Students who are stigmatized or marginalized due to ethnicity, sexual orientation, and mental and physical illness are often victims of bullying, and much of this harassment takes place in schools. A recent trend study on harassment among adolescents has shown that sexual minority students continued to report higher rates of victimization than exclusively heterosexual peers over time [29]. Victimized sexual minority youth were at

Educators and researchers have increasingly acknowledged the imperative for creating a positive school climate, both to promote social and emotional competencies and optimize students' learning; teachers hold the key to such a learning environment [12, 33, 34]. Strong and supportive relationships provided by teachers are fundamental to the healthy development of all students in schools [35, 36]. Positive student-teacher relationships serve as a resource for students at risk of school failure, whereas conflict or disconnection between students and adults may compound that risk [37]. Although the nature of these relationships changes as students mature, the need for connection between students and adults in the school setting remains strong from preschool to high school [38]. Even as schools place increasing attention on standardized testing and accountability, the social and emotional quality of studentteacher relationships contributes to both academic and social-emotional development [39]. As such, student-teacher relationships provide a unique entry point for educators and others

Although students have less time with teachers during high school, there is strong evidence that relationships with adults in these settings are among the most important predictors of school success [36]. The quality of relationships that students form with their teachers has been repeatedly associated with students' academic and social-emotional outcomes [40]. High-quality student-teacher relationships are most often characterized by high levels of warmth, sensitivity, and emotional connection, and low levels of dependency, negativity, and conflict, which are highlighted in both attachment and self-determination theories [41–43]. Although the need for emotional support is perhaps more self-evidently important in the lower grades, adolescents are highly sensitive to the emotional rapport they establish with adults in school settings, and experience of strong connections to adults has been consistently linked to long-term academic success [44]. By conducting a meta-analysis, Roorda and

working toward improving the SEL environments of schools and classrooms.

time and view bullying as a dynamic experience, influenced by the social ecology.

greatest risk not only for mental health concerns [30–32].

**3. Relationships with teachers**

106 Health and Academic Achievement

**3.1. Associations with academic achievement**

Connectedness to school during adolescence has emerged as a key area for building protective factors for positive educational outcomes and lower rates of health-risk behaviors [47, 48]. Students who are not engaged with learning or who have poor relationships with teachers are more likely to use drugs and engage in socially disruptive and sexual risk behaviors, report anxiety/depressive symptoms, have poorer adult relationships, and fail to complete secondary school (e.g., see [49, 50]). Therefore, the potential consequences for the students to become disconnected from school are far reaching. Longitudinal research from the U. S. reveals that high school students reporting greater connectedness to teachers display lower rates of emotional distress, suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, violence, substance abuse, and early sexual activity [51].

Teachers can also serve as a protective factor against negative developmental outcomes, especially for marginalized and minority youth (e.g., see [31, 52]). Indeed, since Werner and Smith's [53, 54] longitudinal study of over 30 years, the importance of having at least one significant adult as a means for fostering resiliency among children and youth identified as 'at risk' has become a well-documented phenomenon [55–57]. Previous research findings are in accordance with suggesting that this 'significant adult' needs not be a parent or relative. This may be especially true during adolescence when youth often seek nonparental mentors and role models. Many sexual minority youth fear or face rejection by their parents because of their sexual identity [58]. In support of this argument, a Canadian study, with populationbased data from high schools, has shown that supportive relationships with teachers significantly contributed to reducing greater risk for social-emotional problems not only for sexual minority youth experiencing peer victimization, but also for heterosexual youth who had been victimized by peers [31]. The results support the resilience perspective that a significant adult is not necessarily a parent or relative but can be an outside adult, including a teacher.
