**3. Findings**

#### **3.1. Perceptions and views about school culture**

The perceptions and views of school directors, teachers, and servants about school culture are as in **Table 2**.

A total of 200 participants presented views about the subject matter as in **Table 2**. In total, 1 director, 58 teachers, and 1 servant had a common argument that the community, individuals in schools, common values, symbols, rituals, beliefs, and traditions formed the basis of school culture. D3 expressed views as, "*With its history, build up, quality, vision, mission, traditional behaviours, symbols, rituals, and the status of its population form its culture."*

T64 emphasized the factors forming school culture saying, "*In the broadest sense, school culture forms its identity and includes all materialistic and moral factors."*

It is assumed that participants advocating this view are used to transferring school culture through in-class activities.

A total of 1 director, 33 teachers, and 4 servants point out that school culture should occupy more places in education with the help of school staff and parents. This view is the second important issue raised by teachers and servants. The participants strongly argue that school culture cannot be developed without the help of the school administration and parents.

D2 expressed that "*The number of individuals appreciating, implementing, and teaching our values has gone down. Especially in recent years, there has been a decline in the quality of our life and culture to such an extent that many are dissatisfied with this. I should say that school culture should occupy more place in education."*

This expression indicates that school staff and the community should be more serious about school culture.


**Table 2.** Perceptions of school culture.

The codes for the participants are as follows:

82 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

• D1, D2, D3,………, D15 (D1 refers to Director 1). • T1, T2, T3,…………, T170 (T1 refers to Teacher 1).

• S1, S2, S3,……….., S15 (S1 refers to Servant 1).

structured questions were given to the participants.

themes in the light of the specified views.

ity of this research was calculated as 92%.

**3.1. Perceptions and views about school culture**

**3. Findings**

as in **Table 2**.

of the research and find out transferrable issues for variable platforms.

**2.5. Validity and reliability**

The aim of such a coding is not to reveal identification, which facilitates data analysis.

A content analysis technique was referred to analyze and interpret the data provided by the participants. The aim in such an analysis is to reach the content and content relations of the grouped data [13]. Through a content analysis, it is possible to carry out an objective and systematic examination of written documents focusing on words. Content analysis is defined as a process of emphasizing contracted written informational content and messages [15]. Content analysis includes four steps. These are coding according to the data obtained from the documents, setting themes, forming themes and codes, and interpreting and explaining findings [13]. In this study, firstly, coding was fulfilled according to previously agreed research and scale criterion, which provided many themes. Then, the data were grouped according to themes and explained in numbers in the best possible way. As a last step, the existing findings were explained in detail.

The questions on the interview form were developed after related fields were referred to. Necessary arrangements with three experts were done twice on the interview forms before and after the interviews. After pilot studies prior to the interviews, the open-ended and semi-

The data obtained from the participants were examined in detail while analyzing and comparative analysis was done. While analyzing, careful studies were done to assure the reality

The data obtained were analyzed separately both by the researcher and an expert for any specifications. The two sides, the researcher and the expert, worked on their own to form the

For the validity of the research, validity = agreement/(agreement + disagreement) formula was referred to [16]. An average over 70% indicates the validity of a study [16]. The average valid-

The perceptions and views of school directors, teachers, and servants about school culture are

D12 stressed that school culture needs to be taken more seriously, saying, "*School directors, teachers, servants, and particularly parents should show more effort to develop school culture."*

The participants also stressed the contribution of school culture to emotional development. "*Several activities in our school aim at social and emotional development of our students. Bazars held* 

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In total, 6 directors, 39 teachers, and 1 servant expressed worries that the functions of symbols, values, and rituals are not at the required level because of some constraints such as number of students, lack of financial support, and education system and they needed to be improved. Some participants emphasized that due to the lack of financial and moral support to the teachers, symbols, values, and rituals cannot function as expected from time to time. *"There are some deficiencies in the functions symbols, values, and rituals in our school. Our educators should be satisfied financially and morally, which leads to both the teachers and students to perform more effectively*" said T68. A small number of participants stated that the functions of symbols, values, and rituals were not at the required level. S4 expressed views saying, "*There are deficiencies in the function of symbols, values, and rituals in our school. The rituals, which are binding factors in school culture, are declining day by day."* It has been expressed that the low level of the function of symbols, values, and rituals is because of the excess number of students for each teacher. "*There are a huge number of students in each class and this is because of insufficient number of classrooms. This, naturally, decreases the function of symbols, values, and rituals*" explained T27. This indicates that financial lack is the

**3.3. Tasks and responsibilities for increasing the functions of symbols, values, and rituals**

**Table 4** shows the tasks and responsibilities of directors, teachers, and servants for the devel-

**Table 4** presents views of 200 participants about the subject in question. In total, 3 directors, 44 teachers, and 5 servants emphasize that the school staff should be well aware of their tasks and responsibilities to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals. This is the most frequently stressed view and the reason is that, as they point out, as in every phase of life, the feeling of responsibility should be in the issue of school culture, too. "*School directors and teachers should act in accordance of the needs of students and servants. Every individual should have the responsibility for each other"* explained T65. That is to say, all the involved participants should

D61 points out to the importance of being aware of one's task to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals. "*First of all, everybody in this institution should carry out what has been described. If everybody fulfills his/her responsibility, does not interfere with others, and sticks to the* 

A total of 23 teachers argue that the staff should be receptive to development and should support each other to raise the function of rituals, values, and symbols. Particularly, the directors and servants are not interested in this issue because the socioeconomic system and the law of this country do not support individual development. Only the teachers emphasized the importance of being receptive to development. This can be assumed that the number of teachers advocating life-long learning is higher compared to the other school staffs who do not advocate this view.

have the responsibility to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals.

*intervally and donations add a lot to our students' emotional development*" pointed out S9.

biggest handicap in developing school culture.

*allocated time, the functions* improve." (D61).

opment of the functions of symbols, values, and rituals.

A total of 6 directors, 32 teachers, and 10 servants expressed views that school culture contributes to communal-organizational-individual development, performance, and academic success, which is the most frequently expressed view by directors and servants. For them, the reason is that the improvement of school culture should be parallel to academic and individual development with pragmatic outcomes.

"*School culture reminds me of education and teaching. If educators do not avoid their responsibilities, school culture can possibly reflect to students' learning"* argued S2. This view indicates a possible effect of school culture on students' academic success.

"*School culture has a great effect on individual's societal and personal development. Therefore, school culture should not be academic-success, but personal and societal centered*" remarked D11. This view emphasizes the contribution of school culture on personal and societal development. "*For the sustainability of school culture, efforts should definitely focus on academic success"* pointed out D5.

#### **3.2. The functions of existing symbols, values, and rituals in educational institutions**

The views by school directors, teachers, and servants on the functions of existing symbols, values, and rituals in schools are as in **Table 3**.

Out of 200 participants, 9 directors, 131 teachers, and 14 servants expressed views and stressed that symbols, values, and rituals functioning together through existing various activities add a great deal to societal, organizational, and personal development of school culture. This view has been raised by the majority of the participants. They reasoned their views for the observable and satisfactory benefits of the presently existing school culture.

The participants also emphasized that school culture can be a factor to lead the society to better positions. "*The functions of the symbols, values, and rituals should be well organized in terms of place and time. They should function within the arranged framework. They have the potential to lead the society to a better position*" explained T65.


**Table 3.** The state of symbols, values, and rituals existing in educational institutions.

The participants also stressed the contribution of school culture to emotional development. "*Several activities in our school aim at social and emotional development of our students. Bazars held intervally and donations add a lot to our students' emotional development*" pointed out S9.

D12 stressed that school culture needs to be taken more seriously, saying, "*School directors, teachers, servants, and particularly parents should show more effort to develop school culture."*

A total of 6 directors, 32 teachers, and 10 servants expressed views that school culture contributes to communal-organizational-individual development, performance, and academic success, which is the most frequently expressed view by directors and servants. For them, the reason is that the improvement of school culture should be parallel to academic and indi-

"*School culture reminds me of education and teaching. If educators do not avoid their responsibilities, school culture can possibly reflect to students' learning"* argued S2. This view indicates a possible

"*School culture has a great effect on individual's societal and personal development. Therefore, school culture should not be academic-success, but personal and societal centered*" remarked D11. This view emphasizes the contribution of school culture on personal and societal development. "*For the sustainability of school culture, efforts should definitely focus on academic success"*

**3.2. The functions of existing symbols, values, and rituals in educational institutions**

able and satisfactory benefits of the presently existing school culture.

The views by school directors, teachers, and servants on the functions of existing symbols,

Out of 200 participants, 9 directors, 131 teachers, and 14 servants expressed views and stressed that symbols, values, and rituals functioning together through existing various activities add a great deal to societal, organizational, and personal development of school culture. This view has been raised by the majority of the participants. They reasoned their views for the observ-

The participants also emphasized that school culture can be a factor to lead the society to better positions. "*The functions of the symbols, values, and rituals should be well organized in terms of place and time. They should function within the arranged framework. They have the potential to lead* 

Total 15 100 170 100 15 100

**Stating opinion**

**Directors Teachers Servants**

9 60 131 77 14 93

6 40 39 23 1 7

**% Stating opinion** **%**

**% Stating opinion**

vidual development with pragmatic outcomes.

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values, and rituals in schools are as in **Table 3**.

*the society to a better position*" explained T65.

Various activities in school culture working in harmony add a great deal to societal, personal, and organizational development

Due to constrains in number of students, financial issues, and the educational system, applications are not at required level and

**Table 3.** The state of symbols, values, and rituals existing in educational institutions.

pointed out D5.

**Themes**

need improvement

effect of school culture on students' academic success.

In total, 6 directors, 39 teachers, and 1 servant expressed worries that the functions of symbols, values, and rituals are not at the required level because of some constraints such as number of students, lack of financial support, and education system and they needed to be improved.

Some participants emphasized that due to the lack of financial and moral support to the teachers, symbols, values, and rituals cannot function as expected from time to time. *"There are some deficiencies in the functions symbols, values, and rituals in our school. Our educators should be satisfied financially and morally, which leads to both the teachers and students to perform more effectively*" said T68.

A small number of participants stated that the functions of symbols, values, and rituals were not at the required level. S4 expressed views saying, "*There are deficiencies in the function of symbols, values, and rituals in our school. The rituals, which are binding factors in school culture, are declining day by day."*

It has been expressed that the low level of the function of symbols, values, and rituals is because of the excess number of students for each teacher. "*There are a huge number of students in each class and this is because of insufficient number of classrooms. This, naturally, decreases the function of symbols, values, and rituals*" explained T27. This indicates that financial lack is the biggest handicap in developing school culture.

#### **3.3. Tasks and responsibilities for increasing the functions of symbols, values, and rituals**

**Table 4** shows the tasks and responsibilities of directors, teachers, and servants for the development of the functions of symbols, values, and rituals.

**Table 4** presents views of 200 participants about the subject in question. In total, 3 directors, 44 teachers, and 5 servants emphasize that the school staff should be well aware of their tasks and responsibilities to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals. This is the most frequently stressed view and the reason is that, as they point out, as in every phase of life, the feeling of responsibility should be in the issue of school culture, too. "*School directors and teachers should act in accordance of the needs of students and servants. Every individual should have the responsibility for each other"* explained T65. That is to say, all the involved participants should have the responsibility to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals.

D61 points out to the importance of being aware of one's task to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals. "*First of all, everybody in this institution should carry out what has been described. If everybody fulfills his/her responsibility, does not interfere with others, and sticks to the allocated time, the functions* improve." (D61).

A total of 23 teachers argue that the staff should be receptive to development and should support each other to raise the function of rituals, values, and symbols. Particularly, the directors and servants are not interested in this issue because the socioeconomic system and the law of this country do not support individual development. Only the teachers emphasized the importance of being receptive to development. This can be assumed that the number of teachers advocating life-long learning is higher compared to the other school staffs who do not advocate this view.


**Table 4.** The tasks and responsibilities of directors, teachers, and servants for the development of the functions of symbols, values, and rituals.

T66 expressed views as, "*Directors, teachers, and servants in the school should be receptive and follow innovations.*" "*In order to adapt to time, new ideas, and materials, every teacher and director should develop themselves and be receptive to new approaches*" added T3.

In total, 3 directors, 24 teachers, and 7 servants agreed on the views that the school staff should set a common aim and provide organizational loyalty and collaboration to raise the function of systems, values, and rituals. This is the second most frequently stressed view by 34 participants with the fact that school organizations need to come together with common interests.

As it can be noted in **Table 5**, 200 people presented their views. A total of 3 directors, 51 teachers, and 6 servants commonly agreed on the need of effective communication, collaboration in common values, view exchange, motivation, organizational loyalty, and job awareness. This view is mostly advocated by 60 participants. Besides, it was the most frequently emphasized view by the teachers and servants. The reason for such a common agreement, as the participants put forward, was the belief in the effective impact of participation in decisions and

Total 15 100 170 100 15 100

**Directors Teachers Servants**

0 0 9 5 2 13

3 20 51 30 6 40

1 7 25 15 0 0

1 7 16 9 1 7

1 7 5 3 0 0

7 47 37 22 4 27

1 7 6 4 2 13

1 7 21 12 0 0

**% Stating opinion**

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**%**

87

**% Stating opinion**

How Symbols and Rituals Affect School Culture and Management

**Stating opinion**

"*School directors should increase teacher motivation to raise the quality of school culture" stated* S1*. "The working environment should be improved and the staff's motivation should be increased*" said

T53 added saying, "*Parallel to school culture, there should be a very strong communication among directors, teachers, and other staff because successful and effective management helps shape culture."* This view was shared by the participants, who emphasized that effective management would

A total of 1 director and 25 teachers argued that both teachers and students should always support and reward themselves. However, none of the servants agreed with this view. A total

T62. There were ample views about the importance of encouraging teachers.

**Table 5.** Suggestions to improve quality during the process of the development of school culture.

organizational responsibility.

staff and students should be organized

**Themes**

of school culture

and awarded

be encouraged

developed

organized

should be put in use

There should be more supervision and performance evaluation

Effective communication, collaboration in common values, organizational loyalty, and task awareness should be raised

Teacher and student self-development should be encouraged

Physical structure of schools and equipment should be

Cultural activities such as graduation ceremonies sports activities, meeting with old graduates, poetry, theater, exhibition, excursions, the meaning of the week should be

Parent involvement in education, meetings, and activities should

Training, seminars, and conferences that should be involving the

Formal arrangements should be done, programs should be prepared, and different teaching methods and technology

raise the quality of school culture.

of 26 participants put this view forward.

"*For the development of symbols, values, and rituals, directors and teachers should leave exam-based and memorization system and adapt a constructive child-centered education. If done so, symbols, values, and rituals will develop and the school will benefit from it*" stated T3. In this respect, the participants frequently emphasized the importance of student-centered education to raise the function of symbols, values, and rituals.

*"If an education system is applied to respond more to the benefits of both the society and students themselves, rather than focusing more on academic success, the function of symbols, values, and rituals will improve*" explained T17. The expectations, according to the participants' views, should be more on societal and individual development rather than on academic success.

#### **3.4. Suggestions to improve quality during the process of the development of school culture**

**Table 5** presents suggestions for quality improvement during the process of the development of school culture.


**Table 5.** Suggestions to improve quality during the process of the development of school culture.

T66 expressed views as, "*Directors, teachers, and servants in the school should be receptive and follow innovations.*" "*In order to adapt to time, new ideas, and materials, every teacher and director* 

**Table 4.** The tasks and responsibilities of directors, teachers, and servants for the development of the functions of

The staff should be open to development and support each other 0 0 23 14 0 0

The staff should share ideas and have effective communication 2 13 18 11 2 13

All adults in the school should be role models for the students 0 0 9 5 0 0 Total 15 100 170 100 15 100

**Directors Teachers Servants**

3 20 26 15 0 0

3 20 44 26 5 33

0 0 12 7 1 7

3 20 24 14 7 47

4 27 14 8 0 0

**% Stating opinion** **%**

**% Stating opinion**

**Stating opinion**

In total, 3 directors, 24 teachers, and 7 servants agreed on the views that the school staff should set a common aim and provide organizational loyalty and collaboration to raise the function of systems, values, and rituals. This is the second most frequently stressed view by 34 participants with the fact that school organizations need to come together with common interests. "*For the development of symbols, values, and rituals, directors and teachers should leave exam-based and memorization system and adapt a constructive child-centered education. If done so, symbols, values, and rituals will develop and the school will benefit from it*" stated T3. In this respect, the participants frequently emphasized the importance of student-centered education to raise the

*"If an education system is applied to respond more to the benefits of both the society and students themselves, rather than focusing more on academic success, the function of symbols, values, and rituals will improve*" explained T17. The expectations, according to the participants' views, should be

more on societal and individual development rather than on academic success.

**3.4. Suggestions to improve quality during the process of the development of school** 

**Table 5** presents suggestions for quality improvement during the process of the development

*should develop themselves and be receptive to new approaches*" added T3.

function of symbols, values, and rituals.

**culture**

**Themes**

seriously

Directors should assign and explain task effectively and do

86 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

The staff should be aware of their duties and take responsibilities

Besides academic success, directors and teachers should organize student-centered activities for personal and societal development

School staff should work for common aims in organizational

Meetings, training sessions, seminars, excursions, and activities should be organized for directors, teachers, and students

arrangements according to the teams

loyalty and collaboration

symbols, values, and rituals.

of school culture.

As it can be noted in **Table 5**, 200 people presented their views. A total of 3 directors, 51 teachers, and 6 servants commonly agreed on the need of effective communication, collaboration in common values, view exchange, motivation, organizational loyalty, and job awareness. This view is mostly advocated by 60 participants. Besides, it was the most frequently emphasized view by the teachers and servants. The reason for such a common agreement, as the participants put forward, was the belief in the effective impact of participation in decisions and organizational responsibility.

"*School directors should increase teacher motivation to raise the quality of school culture" stated* S1*.*

*"The working environment should be improved and the staff's motivation should be increased*" said T62. There were ample views about the importance of encouraging teachers.

T53 added saying, "*Parallel to school culture, there should be a very strong communication among directors, teachers, and other staff because successful and effective management helps shape culture."* This view was shared by the participants, who emphasized that effective management would raise the quality of school culture.

A total of 1 director and 25 teachers argued that both teachers and students should always support and reward themselves. However, none of the servants agreed with this view. A total of 26 participants put this view forward.

T14 stressed saying, "*We, the teachers have a great role in transferring school culture, providing and sustaining a good quality education in the best possible correct way. Therefore, teachers should be provided with a good environment they need, be supported and rewarded."* The urgent support for teacher development was frequently brought up in views.

spread more throughout education process. In their study, Karadağ and Özdemir [18] reached a different finding, which revealed that a majority of school directors demanded more appli-

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In total, 40% of the directors, 19% of the teachers, and 67% of the servants believe that school culture contributes to social—organizational—individual development, performance, and academic success. Another finding by Karadağ and Özdemir [18] is that school culture has significant importance and is a must in the transfer of sociocultural inheritance as well as in students successfully achieving their socioeconomic roles. In a study by Doğan [19], it is

**4.2. The functions of existing symbols, values, and rituals in educational institutions**

In total, 60% of the directors, 77% of the teachers, and 93% of the servants stress that when symbols, values, and rituals function together interactively and in harmony, school culture contributes a great deal to social-organizational-individual development. Özdemir [20], on the other hand, argues that, when schools with weak school-culture are considered, it is noted that the relation among directors, teachers, students, and parents is far from being strong. In a study, Özoğlu and Turan [17] found out that as a result of differences, there emerged some sub-cultures, but there was a common organizational culture and power among all the indi-

In total, 40% of the directors, 23% of the teachers, and 7% of the servants admitted that due to the number of students, financial problems, and the education system, the functions of symbols, values, and rituals was not at the expected level and needed development. Aslan et al. [21], in their study, argued that ceremonies to bring about unity were not arranged because of lack of physical places and insufficient financial support. In another study by Silman et al. [22], it was argued that new generations did not appreciate the values reflecting their traditions as in the past and there was a possibility of losing rituals and values in due course.

**4.3. Tasks and responsibilities for increasing the functions of symbols, values, and rituals**

In total, 20% of the directors and 15% of the teachers stress the need for an effective job distribution and description as well as arrangements with the characteristics of the team to raise the functions of symbols, values, and rituals. In their studies, the authors [20, 23], too, shared the similar idea and emphasized that the directors should do sound arrangements to meet the expectations of both teaches and students, who are the factors affecting the school culture. The authors [17–24]

The need for job awareness and responsibility by the school staff to raise the functions of symbols, values, and rituals was commonly shared by 20% of the directors, 26% of the teachers, and 33% of the servants. In the study by Doğan [19], the teachers expressed views that school culture affects responsibility awareness. In similar studies by the authors [20, 25, 26], task

Setting common aims through which organizational devotion and collaboration is provided to raise the functions of symbols, values, and rituals was another view put forward by 20%

state that the director in an institution is the leader in the process of school culture.

culture occupies the highest position in relation to school culture dimensions.

cations to prioritize role and task culture when defining school culture.

stated that school culture has a positive impact on students' success.

viduals belonging to that organization.

*"In order to add to quality, an educational institution needs to employ qualified staff and intake good students. For better productivity, the staff should be well satisfied with the pay. On high performance, students should be rewarded by the teacher*" remarked T19. Rewarding both teachers and students was a common expectation among the participants.

A total of 7 directors, 37 teachers, and 4 servants agreed that cultural activities such as graduation ceremonies, sports activities, meeting with old graduates, poetry, theater, excursion, and the meaning of the week are organized. This issue was frequently raised by both 48 participants and the directors. With this argument, they believe that interaction among individuals develops school culture.

"*Before anything else, when on excursions, convenient and comfortable means of transport should be provided for carrying out activities without any constraints*" explained T61. In this respect, the participants pointed at the importance of excursions in the quality of school culture.

*"I suggest that collective activities are organized and school awareness is created and adapted by all individuals"* said D5. It is believed that activities are effective means to create a unity among all the individuals in school organizations.

D2 raised views saying, *"In order to increase the quality during the process of developing school culture, activities should be organized in advance, for example, activities leading students to develop themselves in a certain field, such as sports to increase interest through competitions."*

It is advised that the quality of school culture should be raised to help the students' development. The reason for these views by the participants is that life-long learning has a positive impact on school culture, and individuals trying to develop themselves do not receive sufficient financial and moral support.
