**3. Tensions between teaching and entrepreneurship**

since market logic decided which courses were given or not, public universities were pushed to act as 'educational enterprises' and it is said that their sense of mission was deteriorated A similar trend has been observed in Colombia: exaggerated adaptation to market demands has negatively affected knowledge generation as a university function. Due to the usually weak market demand for advanced knowledge, an 'entrepreneurial university' in Latin America will probably be asked to perform much less creative activities than in highly industrialized

Buchbinder from the context of North America and Europe [28], and Orozco from Latin America [26], agree on the fact that this market-oriented research responds more to the production of merchandise quality goods than to social knowledge enabling nations to become the solution of problems such as inequity, employment, and poverty in productive systems. The market orientation leaves education and research subordinated to the interests of those who finance and buy university services [27, 28]. Thus, market-oriented universities become mere corporate education and research units, whose purpose is the creation of knowledge to be exploited with private profit, turning the university into "an enterprise having as the main

The higher education system in Colombia is ruled by Law 30 of 1992. This frame stated that institutions must provide education, research, and other activities to contribute in socioeconomic and environmental development. Law 1014 of 2006 stated that higher education system must provide teaching in entrepreneurship without considering instruments to promote university's R&D activities to create knowledge-based firms [24]. Only the most important universities move toward the third mission and establish activities and infrastructure to pro-

Isomorphic pressures steer the introduction of policies and incentives to promote entrepreneurship. However, the general results are scant and show several gaps according to performance of higher education systems in countries like Spain, Brazil, and Mexico [29]. Colombia has been debating the model of university, and several challenges cannot be assumed because of restrictions in funding, statutory missions. and activities that remember the tension between

It has been discussed how the urgency of pertinence and satisfaction of market demands can go to the detriment of the basic concept of university and of the quality of its faculty members and their scientific teaching, if an adequate balance between the different university activities is not achieved [23, 26, 30]. In other words, if a university does not achieve better performance in teaching, there will be no legitimate capacities to evolve toward the third

According to OECD, "The examination system run by the Instituto Colombiano para la Evaluación de la Educación (ICFES) – which measures students' abilities when they enter and leave tertiary education – puts Colombia in a position to be a global leader in both the measurement of value-added in tertiary education and, perhaps more importantly, the use of

countries [22].

objective the production of profits" [27].

198 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

teaching and the third mission activities [19].

assessment findings for tertiary quality improvement" [31].

mote entrepreneurship [19].

mission.

There are several tensions in the entrepreneurship-oriented university and the development of the teaching activity. The most important is the allocation of the professors' time. It is warned by Gibbons that orientation toward the entrepreneurial university model "can also be destructive of academic work, reducing research to consultancy, subordinating academic teaching to low level repetitive performance for financial return and encouraging an approach to university management based solely on financial criteria" [32]. Likewise, Wright and colleagues stated that "academic entrepreneurs, who are expected to spend time commercializing their IP (intellectual property), will not be able to dedicate the same amount of time to the traditional areas of teaching, research and administration" [14].

Research universities have policies that establish the time assigned to teaching, to research, and to other institutional development activities that include administrative tasks, participation in meetings, and provision of university outreach services [15] that can include entrepreneurship. Results, as evidence in the case of Los Andes University in Colombia, are positive regarding research [33].

It is also essential to admit that elite universities in the world have changed from a collegiate government model, based on academic freedom with lack of commercial interest for the progress of science, to a corporate one, based on profit and on activities that benefit trade, corporations, and political interests [28, 34, 35].

It is stated by Ridgeway that "the professor entrepreneurs, who dart back and forth from university to government to business, help shape corporate structures and policies" [35]. Likewise, "the development of entrepreneurial professors with equity in private companies and large outside funding tends to relocate power away from the departmental level to the center and to the entrepreneurial professor who often has control over large sums of money" [28].

As summarized by Gibbons "the university has moved much closer to an industrial pattern of organization with senior management teams and strategic plans, line managers, and cost centers. Just as universities have moved closer to a corporate model of management […]" [34]. This reduces the traditional democratic collegial management of universities and their autonomy to make academic decisions in the creation of knowledge and in rigorous education away from financial efficiency [28].

Another point of tension is found in the relationship of university management and professors for innovation and technology transfer. In Argentina, Vaccarezza [38] revealed the tensions between university researchers and university managers in the commercialization of research results. Researchers expect the university to develop organizational structures for the sale of technologies, while university management expects researchers to conduct the commercialization. In a similar manner, in the Colombian case, research groups are aware of the high costs in the coordination process with the university management, and these relationships hamper their work dynamics as agents of the national innovation system. This increases the complexity to time allocation for teaching and to the participation of students in the research work due to

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Another issue-generating tension in the professors' activities is concerning performance assessment. Usually, indicators on teaching, research, and other university activities are separately developed in the OECD countries [36], and there is no standard to assess results concerning entrepreneurship. Baseline indicators to obtain a chair and tenure at the university are linked to publication (and citation) records, as well as research funding and teaching skills [14]. Thus, professors face the dilemma regarding the objective of their effort, given differ-

The transition from Model 1 to Model 2 of knowledge production in universities has been discussed in Latin America, finding that the academic evaluation system is still linked to Model 1 [20, 40], and taking risks for research and entrepreneurship is something only few professors

On the other hand, Clark's work [41] shows how the entrepreneurial university model has reenergized education in the case of European universities. Clark shows that the creation of entrepreneurially oriented interdisciplinary academic research groups involving students offers new spaces fostering quality education. Student's life improves as professors devote more time

The creation of academic research groups involves professors and students in the development of new knowledge in a learning environment, understanding that the present role of professors differs from the traditional one, which is centered in the professor [41]. Present student-centered teaching models foster construction of knowledge instead of having just an

European university cases described by Clark show that the adoption of the entrepreneurship university model generates synergies between professional training, research results,

"Teaching is the university's comparative advantage, especially when linked to research and economic development. Students are also potential inventors. They represent a dynamic flowthrough of 'human capital' in academic research groups, as opposed to more static industrial laboratories and research institutes. Although they are sometimes considered a necessary distraction, the turnover of students insures the primacy of the university as a source of innovation."

and entrepreneurship [41]. As stated by Etzkowitz and colleague [43]:

to them for collective creation, while students improve their skills and capabilities [41].

the arrangements this may require [39].

ences in performance assessment in the third university mission.

are willing to do, as seen in the case of Chile [20].

information provision base [42].

The market orientation generates imbalances to provide quality training in Latin America [27]. In this line of thought referring to the market-oriented universities of Japan and the United Kingdom, Yokoyama stated that "there could be conflict between entrepreneurial and traditional collegial culture" [1].

However, the urge to commercialize research exploiting it through the creation of new organizations implies admitting the fact that professors, encouraged by the creation of personal benefits including personal recognition and new financial resources [14, 29], can lower their efforts in teaching. Devoting time to innovation and entrepreneurship can result in a reduction of the educational capabilities, given that professors can lose interest in innovation pedagogy or in reshaping and updating their teaching methods and courses and in the attention given to their students.

López-Segrera [27] indicated that low wages of university professors in developing countries affect academic quality in universities. This could influence in the decision of professors to opt for the entrepreneurial approach as a means to improve their income, as has been the case in Chile [20], at the expense of educational quality [28].

As sustained by Fuller, teaching deprives the researcher of the advantage on a specific knowledge by giving others the possibility of using that knowledge to explore or exploit it. There can be conflict of interests to the extent that professors involved in the development of innovation and entrepreneurship projects may avoid sharing their knowledge and progress with their students to preserve their priority, excluding them from a wider and rigorous education process [36].

As shown by Stephan, in the United States, professors involved in innovation activities avoid sharing their research outcomes, an attitude that can generate negative impacts in students' education [37]. In a similar way, students avoid sharing the full progress of their work and their findings with their professors for fear of losing their advantage to exploit it when they graduate or when they leave the university. In an interview to an entrepreneurial student of the Universidad Distrital in Colombia, evidence of both cases can be found.

There can also be resistance in university faculty members concerning the activities required to comply with the third mission. Not all professors are convinced that becoming involved in entrepreneurship is valuable for their performance and that of their students [12]. Professors who consider science and teaching as a public service, in the Mertonian spirit, can oppose the merchandizing and privatization of knowledge for economic exploitation, as described by Bönte in the case of the Max Planck Society in Germany [29]. Therefore, these professors can contribute to have higher results in universities regarding education, to the detriment of the universities' performance in innovation and entrepreneurship.

Another point of tension is found in the relationship of university management and professors for innovation and technology transfer. In Argentina, Vaccarezza [38] revealed the tensions between university researchers and university managers in the commercialization of research results. Researchers expect the university to develop organizational structures for the sale of technologies, while university management expects researchers to conduct the commercialization. In a similar manner, in the Colombian case, research groups are aware of the high costs in the coordination process with the university management, and these relationships hamper their work dynamics as agents of the national innovation system. This increases the complexity to time allocation for teaching and to the participation of students in the research work due to the arrangements this may require [39].

This reduces the traditional democratic collegial management of universities and their autonomy to make academic decisions in the creation of knowledge and in rigorous education away

The market orientation generates imbalances to provide quality training in Latin America [27]. In this line of thought referring to the market-oriented universities of Japan and the United Kingdom, Yokoyama stated that "there could be conflict between entrepreneurial and

However, the urge to commercialize research exploiting it through the creation of new organizations implies admitting the fact that professors, encouraged by the creation of personal benefits including personal recognition and new financial resources [14, 29], can lower their efforts in teaching. Devoting time to innovation and entrepreneurship can result in a reduction of the educational capabilities, given that professors can lose interest in innovation pedagogy or in reshaping and updating their teaching methods and courses and in the attention

López-Segrera [27] indicated that low wages of university professors in developing countries affect academic quality in universities. This could influence in the decision of professors to opt for the entrepreneurial approach as a means to improve their income, as has been the case in

As sustained by Fuller, teaching deprives the researcher of the advantage on a specific knowledge by giving others the possibility of using that knowledge to explore or exploit it. There can be conflict of interests to the extent that professors involved in the development of innovation and entrepreneurship projects may avoid sharing their knowledge and progress with their students to preserve their priority, excluding them from a wider and rigorous education

As shown by Stephan, in the United States, professors involved in innovation activities avoid sharing their research outcomes, an attitude that can generate negative impacts in students' education [37]. In a similar way, students avoid sharing the full progress of their work and their findings with their professors for fear of losing their advantage to exploit it when they graduate or when they leave the university. In an interview to an entrepreneurial student of

There can also be resistance in university faculty members concerning the activities required to comply with the third mission. Not all professors are convinced that becoming involved in entrepreneurship is valuable for their performance and that of their students [12]. Professors who consider science and teaching as a public service, in the Mertonian spirit, can oppose the merchandizing and privatization of knowledge for economic exploitation, as described by Bönte in the case of the Max Planck Society in Germany [29]. Therefore, these professors can contribute to have higher results in universities regarding education, to the detriment of the universities' performance in innovation and

the Universidad Distrital in Colombia, evidence of both cases can be found.

from financial efficiency [28].

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traditional collegial culture" [1].

given to their students.

process [36].

entrepreneurship.

Chile [20], at the expense of educational quality [28].

Another issue-generating tension in the professors' activities is concerning performance assessment. Usually, indicators on teaching, research, and other university activities are separately developed in the OECD countries [36], and there is no standard to assess results concerning entrepreneurship. Baseline indicators to obtain a chair and tenure at the university are linked to publication (and citation) records, as well as research funding and teaching skills [14]. Thus, professors face the dilemma regarding the objective of their effort, given differences in performance assessment in the third university mission.

The transition from Model 1 to Model 2 of knowledge production in universities has been discussed in Latin America, finding that the academic evaluation system is still linked to Model 1 [20, 40], and taking risks for research and entrepreneurship is something only few professors are willing to do, as seen in the case of Chile [20].

On the other hand, Clark's work [41] shows how the entrepreneurial university model has reenergized education in the case of European universities. Clark shows that the creation of entrepreneurially oriented interdisciplinary academic research groups involving students offers new spaces fostering quality education. Student's life improves as professors devote more time to them for collective creation, while students improve their skills and capabilities [41].

The creation of academic research groups involves professors and students in the development of new knowledge in a learning environment, understanding that the present role of professors differs from the traditional one, which is centered in the professor [41]. Present student-centered teaching models foster construction of knowledge instead of having just an information provision base [42].

European university cases described by Clark show that the adoption of the entrepreneurship university model generates synergies between professional training, research results, and entrepreneurship [41]. As stated by Etzkowitz and colleague [43]:

"Teaching is the university's comparative advantage, especially when linked to research and economic development. Students are also potential inventors. They represent a dynamic flowthrough of 'human capital' in academic research groups, as opposed to more static industrial laboratories and research institutes. Although they are sometimes considered a necessary distraction, the turnover of students insures the primacy of the university as a source of innovation."

The activities of universities in technology transfer [37], innovation, and entrepreneurship constitute an advantage for students given that it improves the efficiency of their involvement with industry dynamics as a result of a better academic training to respond to the challenges of economic development. We also know that the time devoted by professors to postgraduate teaching in the United States (especially with postdocs, with which progress in research is made) has a positive relationship with university entrepreneurship in the field of health care [44].

commercialization activities, while private ones can profit from their autonomy to develop the third mission [10, 22]. Therefore, this variable can influence the connection between market-oriented activities and academic quality, as sustained in the case of Management

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The number of industrial property registrations is a key variable since it determines the invention capability of universities. It is the indicator of a university's potential to generate innovations that can be applied in the creation of enterprises that will exploit their commercial value. As indicated in the American universities included in their sample, patenting is a highly significant variable for the creation of enterprises and also the size

However, other US studies indicate that having industrial property registrations does not necessarily mean more academic entrepreneurship [45, 50]. In the United States, academicians in the life science field are more prone to do business based on patenting, while in social sciences, like management, entrepreneurs are focused on the creation of consulting and industrial advisory firms that do not require patents [51]; thus, this can have an impact on the

Therefore, the number of schools in universities can affect both the entrepreneurship and the students' results. This will affect the possibility of creating multidisciplinary research groups [52]. As stated by Bernasconi, there is an imbalance among the different schools in the adoption of the entrepreneurial university model [20]. According to their discipline, some schools find it easier to adopt the entrepreneurship model [51]. Social science professors tend to be critical of the entrepreneurial model, while this is not the case with doctors

Finally, as we discussed above, full-time professors can neglect teaching when centering on research and knowledge marketing activities. On the other hand, professors can improve their teaching activities through entrepreneurship by transmitting knowledge and experiences valuable for undergraduate students. The main result of teaching activities is the student performance, and the most important indicator to entrepreneurial activity is the participation

Therefore, the research question is what is the relationship between entrepreneurship orientation (EO) and the results obtained by graduating students in the Saber Pro exam in

A sample of 114 higher educational institutions (HEI) out of a total population of 288 registered at the Ministry of National Education of Colombia in October 2013 was obtained. They were selected for having presented the proof Saber Pro in 2013 and have complete and consistent information about professors. The result of the 2013 Saber Pro exam was obtained for

Schools in Ibero-America [49].

scope of disciplines of a university.

on awards and the promotion of new firms in the market.

each university in the sample from ICFES database.

of TTO [47].

and engineers [12].

Colombia?

**5. Methodology**

Latin American university progress is being made in the creation of interdisciplinary research groups and that Orozco stated:

we are witnessing, in a word, "a world market of knowledge" with characteristics quite different to those shown by amor sciendi, at the beginning of the institution of universities, when they moved on the field of knowledge on purely academic pathways. That being the case, universities are in need of redefining their relationships vis-à-vis knowledge and the use of the human talent they possess. [23]
