**The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70789

İlknur Şentürk İlknur Şentürk

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70789

#### **Abstract**

*Problem statement*: The present study aims to determine the situations and the characteristics of these situations, in which school administrators take initiatives, and the outcomes of these initiatives for the school.

*Aim of the study*: The aim of this study is to investigate school administrators' use of initiative. Consistent with this purpose, conditions and frequencies of school administrators encountering with unordinary situations, references and strategies they apply when there is a complication without formal solution, conditions of taking initiative instead of over-validating the legislation, principles, values, ethical outlines and outcomes of taking initiative are intended to be identified.

*Methodology*: This study aims to identify the conditions of taking initiative, characteristics of these conditions and outcomes of the cases where school administrators take initiative based on interviews.

*Results*: Initiative domains of school administrators participated in this study bare very limited contribution to lead changes in daily routines and bureaucratic procedures. When legislations and regulations fall short, participating school administrators seem to feel worried, anxious, conflicted, helpless, distrustful and worried about being aggrieved and going under investigation. While taking initiative, principles and values school administrators take into account can be summarized as common interest, institutional benefit, justness, objectivity, and human-orientation.

**Keywords:** initiative, taking initiative, school administration, school administrators, qualitative study

#### **1. Introduction**

Origins of organizational and administrative complications in Turkish educational system are mainly rooted in the centralized organizational structure of the state, which is positioned

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

behind authoritarian and hierarchical power fields of administrative practices and processes. Modern democratic administration approaches on the other hand prioritize effectuation, leadership, prudential rationality, and willpower. Arranging and implementing decision-making mechanisms are a prerequisite for flexible and democratic organizations and administrations.

behavior. It requires being in compliance with the objectives of the organization, such as action- and strategy-oriented thinking, a vision, a long-term perspective, consistency, and commitment [14–16]. Aypay and Şekerci [17] indicated that initiative-taking behavior includes listening, human relations, motivating others, conflict management, and personal adaptability. Similarly, Goerdel [18] argued that administrators who take initiative were able to establish an interactive and holistic organizational structure since they grasp actions well. The logic behind initiative is to look out for the interests of the organization, instead of personal benefits. Indeed, interests of the school were the basis emphasized by the administrators during interviews. In the essence of initiative taking lies the ability to solve problems, the capacity for solving problems, creativity and innovation, courage, insight, intuition, and leadership skills. Initiative is the next door just beyond the leadership [19]. Problem solving skills are prerequisites for taking initiative. Ability of coping with challenges brought by administrative roles and responsibilities defines systematic and methodological thinking, proposing solutions and alternatives, thinking in reference to rich and deep sources and to proceed actively [14, 20, 21]. The use of initiative requires the ability to predict future situations. Features increasing the potential to take initiative are desire for innovation and working, openness to communication and suggestions, will of doing something without any driving force or supervision, desire to help others and take responsibility, adaptation to teamwork, and willingness to learn. Taking initiative may be dependent upon not only intraorganizational but also external stimuli of social origin. The use of initiative characteristics may vary with motivational levels. Indeed, taking initiative requires certain characteristics. When personal characteristics are considered, setting high personal and organizational standards [5, 22] and initiating task-oriented activities are

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Individual competencies such as proficiency in self-control, effective assessment and supervision ability, self-efficacy and a positive sense of self, being responsible, being open to change, risk and crisis management, and strategic thinking to overcome problems are other characteristics of administrators in the use of initiative. Taking initiative is a characteristic of people with high achievement motivation. However, the nature of the work and possible consequences are generally influential on the use of initiative. It may be described as a form of competency possessed by individuals with high cognitive levels and with an ability to comprehend the characteristics of the work, structure of the organization, and managerial processes in the organization. Organizational climate and culture [23] are also important factors in initiative. Qualifications of an administrator who is likely to be transformation oriented are curiosity, open-mindedness, being away from conventional ways of thinking, ability to manage learning processes and communication patterns, ability in the effective and efficient use of time, extending the realm of freedom, creative thinking, and sustaining

Hence, initiative is a form of thinking and acting that is revealed in the presence of such personal characteristics. Apart from personal characteristics mentioned above, organizational sense of belonging, commitment, and adaptability are also psychological engagements with potential effects on initiative [3]. One of the most important results of initiative taking is

primary characteristics.

high-order targets.

Decision-making procedures in educational organizations of Turkish educational system take shape with a centralist conception and lack of pluralistic and efficient participation of stakeholders. Şişman and Turan [1] argue that decentralization and democratization efforts led to greater levels of authority in schools. This in turn led to participation in decision-making processes and school-based management. Principals taking initiative can be considered as a first step toward school-based management. Initiative is defined as the ability to assess and initiate things independently and an act or strategy intended to resolve a difficulty or improve a situation, a fresh approach to a situation [2]. Initiative can also mean a plan that is targeted at solving a particular problem. It also means independent evaluation and ability to act, power to make an attempt, a behavior to overcome a difficulty or to develop a situation further, or a strategy in different languages [3]. Decision-making in an administrative process is a primary factor for determining to what extent it is democratic and autocratic. For school administrators, the extent of taking initiative on school matters is a key to more flexible, humanitarian, and creative institutional processes. Beyond the bulkiness of centralized administration, initiativetaking school administrators would indeed render these processes more effective and efficient.

Personal initiative can be considered as a concept which can contribute to popular debate and research such as leadership, modern management paradigms, decentralization, schoolbased management, school improvement, and exercise and transfer of authority [3–10]. Initiative can be described as self-starting volition of active decision-making and actualization in order to accomplish organizational objectives and overcome organizational challenges [7–9, 11, 12]. To an individual extent, initiative represents a lifestyle. It is related to intelligence, contributing to a certain profession; will of control on situations; exhibition of an active and positive attitude instead of passivity; and hence cultural descriptors of lifestyle [7, 8]. Quality of work life has been criticized with the remoteness of authority, which is explained as the power distance between the superior and the subordinate.

The concept of decision-making styles is related to the level of contribution of subordinates in decisions, and the extent of power distance in this context is a sign of centralization. There is a demand for an authoritarian leadership in organizations when power distance is large, and in such organizations, active control, low levels of job satisfaction, and fear of change in organizational structures are observed. Workforce is in constant need of orders [3, 13]. Accordingly, remoteness of the authority has to be reduced to pave the way for initiative in organizational models and administrative approaches.

In conditions where there is dense competition of powers, centralized and hierarchical organization structures, employees are expected to be more obedient to the authority and adopt an understanding of order-based conduct and not to exceed their well-defined limits. Initiative on the other hand is a potential facilitator to revoke such orthodoxy of management models. Beyond individual way of behavior, taking initiative is an organizational behavior. It requires being in compliance with the objectives of the organization, such as action- and strategy-oriented thinking, a vision, a long-term perspective, consistency, and commitment [14–16]. Aypay and Şekerci [17] indicated that initiative-taking behavior includes listening, human relations, motivating others, conflict management, and personal adaptability. Similarly, Goerdel [18] argued that administrators who take initiative were able to establish an interactive and holistic organizational structure since they grasp actions well. The logic behind initiative is to look out for the interests of the organization, instead of personal benefits. Indeed, interests of the school were the basis emphasized by the administrators during interviews. In the essence of initiative taking lies the ability to solve problems, the capacity for solving problems, creativity and innovation, courage, insight, intuition, and leadership skills. Initiative is the next door just beyond the leadership [19]. Problem solving skills are prerequisites for taking initiative. Ability of coping with challenges brought by administrative roles and responsibilities defines systematic and methodological thinking, proposing solutions and alternatives, thinking in reference to rich and deep sources and to proceed actively [14, 20, 21]. The use of initiative requires the ability to predict future situations. Features increasing the potential to take initiative are desire for innovation and working, openness to communication and suggestions, will of doing something without any driving force or supervision, desire to help others and take responsibility, adaptation to teamwork, and willingness to learn. Taking initiative may be dependent upon not only intraorganizational but also external stimuli of social origin. The use of initiative characteristics may vary with motivational levels. Indeed, taking initiative requires certain characteristics. When personal characteristics are considered, setting high personal and organizational standards [5, 22] and initiating task-oriented activities are primary characteristics.

behind authoritarian and hierarchical power fields of administrative practices and processes. Modern democratic administration approaches on the other hand prioritize effectuation, leadership, prudential rationality, and willpower. Arranging and implementing decision-making mechanisms are a prerequisite for flexible and democratic organizations and administrations.

Decision-making procedures in educational organizations of Turkish educational system take shape with a centralist conception and lack of pluralistic and efficient participation of stakeholders. Şişman and Turan [1] argue that decentralization and democratization efforts led to greater levels of authority in schools. This in turn led to participation in decision-making processes and school-based management. Principals taking initiative can be considered as a first step toward school-based management. Initiative is defined as the ability to assess and initiate things independently and an act or strategy intended to resolve a difficulty or improve a situation, a fresh approach to a situation [2]. Initiative can also mean a plan that is targeted at solving a particular problem. It also means independent evaluation and ability to act, power to make an attempt, a behavior to overcome a difficulty or to develop a situation further, or a strategy in different languages [3]. Decision-making in an administrative process is a primary factor for determining to what extent it is democratic and autocratic. For school administrators, the extent of taking initiative on school matters is a key to more flexible, humanitarian, and creative institutional processes. Beyond the bulkiness of centralized administration, initiativetaking school administrators would indeed render these processes more effective and efficient.

Personal initiative can be considered as a concept which can contribute to popular debate and research such as leadership, modern management paradigms, decentralization, schoolbased management, school improvement, and exercise and transfer of authority [3–10]. Initiative can be described as self-starting volition of active decision-making and actualization in order to accomplish organizational objectives and overcome organizational challenges [7–9, 11, 12]. To an individual extent, initiative represents a lifestyle. It is related to intelligence, contributing to a certain profession; will of control on situations; exhibition of an active and positive attitude instead of passivity; and hence cultural descriptors of lifestyle [7, 8]. Quality of work life has been criticized with the remoteness of authority, which is

The concept of decision-making styles is related to the level of contribution of subordinates in decisions, and the extent of power distance in this context is a sign of centralization. There is a demand for an authoritarian leadership in organizations when power distance is large, and in such organizations, active control, low levels of job satisfaction, and fear of change in organizational structures are observed. Workforce is in constant need of orders [3, 13]. Accordingly, remoteness of the authority has to be reduced to pave the way for initiative in organizational

In conditions where there is dense competition of powers, centralized and hierarchical organization structures, employees are expected to be more obedient to the authority and adopt an understanding of order-based conduct and not to exceed their well-defined limits. Initiative on the other hand is a potential facilitator to revoke such orthodoxy of management models. Beyond individual way of behavior, taking initiative is an organizational

explained as the power distance between the superior and the subordinate.

models and administrative approaches.

22 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

Individual competencies such as proficiency in self-control, effective assessment and supervision ability, self-efficacy and a positive sense of self, being responsible, being open to change, risk and crisis management, and strategic thinking to overcome problems are other characteristics of administrators in the use of initiative. Taking initiative is a characteristic of people with high achievement motivation. However, the nature of the work and possible consequences are generally influential on the use of initiative. It may be described as a form of competency possessed by individuals with high cognitive levels and with an ability to comprehend the characteristics of the work, structure of the organization, and managerial processes in the organization. Organizational climate and culture [23] are also important factors in initiative. Qualifications of an administrator who is likely to be transformation oriented are curiosity, open-mindedness, being away from conventional ways of thinking, ability to manage learning processes and communication patterns, ability in the effective and efficient use of time, extending the realm of freedom, creative thinking, and sustaining high-order targets.

Hence, initiative is a form of thinking and acting that is revealed in the presence of such personal characteristics. Apart from personal characteristics mentioned above, organizational sense of belonging, commitment, and adaptability are also psychological engagements with potential effects on initiative [3]. One of the most important results of initiative taking is autonomy. Ambos et al. [24], in their structural equation modeling study, found that taking initiative influences institutional autonomy positively. Taking initiative as a primary focus of administrative processes, functional autonomy, organizational change, execution of organizational behavior beyond predefined roles and responsibilities, strengthening personnel, and transfer of authority will possibly accelerate the expected structural shift, especially in educational organizations [12, 25–29]. Recent studies, which proposed that school education and administration require reconsideration of concepts like autonomy, responsibility, accountability, and effectiveness, advocate that these key concepts could make a reformist change in public schools [14]. Taking initiative, at this very point, emphasizes personal and professional competencies of school administrators for such reformist expectations of change. Demand on organizational and administrational change in educational organizations is of greater concern recently.

**3.** Do school administrators use initiative as an alternative to validate and adhere to the

The First Step to Leadership in School Management: Taking Initiative

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70789

25

**4.** What are school administrator's principles, values, rules and ethical frame in their initia-

This study aims to identify the conditions of taking initiative, characteristics of these conditions and outcomes of the conditions where an initiative was taken by school administrators based on conducted interviews. The study group included voluntary school administrators working

The present research, which aimed to define school administrators' opinions about the situations and results of taking the initiative on decision-making, was designed as a case study (single case study), one of the qualitative research methods. A case study, which is conducted with description and investigation of a restricted system, is a type of qualitative study. In a case study, an up-to-date phenomenon is generally investigated in real-life context. The object of investigation in the present study is a restricted system. A restricted system is where the investigated object is just a person, a program, a group, an institution, a society, or a special policy. In a case study, researcher defines the interaction of significant factors related to that phenomenon by focusing on the phenomenon. The model in which the researcher explores the restricted situation using the data in depth and reports it by describing the themes about this situation is an approach [30–32]. In the present study, the situation is thoughts created by the regulations concerning the appointment of school administrators. In other words, unit of analysis in the case is opinions of school administrators concerning the use of initiative-taking

Interview technique is the method where the interviewer and interviewee take part by focusing on the questions about the area of research [30]. Interview is a type of interaction [32]. Interview is a technique that is effective in defining behavior, feelings, and expressions, which are not observed [30]. For this reason, in the study, the interview method was used as a data collection tool to observe the change school administrators' views and thoughts about conditions, reasons, and results of taking initiative in the administrative processes. The questions in the semi-constructed form were constituted using flexible expressions to collect personal data. The questions in the interview form were created to focus on topics that were expected

in Eskişehir province, Turkey. Purposive sampling was used in the study.

**5.** What are the results of the situations in which school administrators took initiative?

legislation and regulations strictly much more?

tive process?

**2.1. Research model**

situations.

to be explained.

**2.2. Data collection tool**

**2. Method**

Current legal definitions of educational administrators' authority and responsibilities are insufficient for efficient and effective actions against administrative complications they often face. Consequently, hierarchically defined roles that are tied to bureaucratic mechanisms and centralized approaches have been hindering the perception of schools as an agent of change in the social structure. Studies on taking initiative have recently been emphasizing changing paradigms especially on school improvement, school-based administration, and reforming schools in an information society. Possessing similar opportunities and under similar restrictions, what make a world of difference, are leadership traits of administrators. Capitalizing the conditions of school, exploring resources of the institution, and enhancing academic and organizational performance are the outcomes of an effective leadership. Taking initiative may be regarded as a vital first step for an effective leadership. Finally, concepts such as entrepreneurship, creating alternatives, organizational citizenship, and organizational identification that appear frequently in recent literature on administration and organization emphasize the importance of taking initiative. Taking initiative emerges an important personal characteristic for educational administrators since it helps to activate the cultural dynamics of democracy in educational organizations.

The objective of this study is to investigate school administrators' use of initiative. Consistent with this objective, it also aims to identify the conditions and frequencies of school administrators' encounters with unordinary situations, references, and strategies they apply when there is a complication without formal solution, conditions under which they take initiative instead of over-validating the legislation, principles, values, ethical outlines, and outcomes of taking initiative.

Thus, the sub-objectives of the research were determined as follows:

