4. Overall strategies for managing nematodes in potato fields

The effective control of potato nematodes are overall difficult and complex due to the particular biology of these plant parasites—they inhabit soil, have a short life cycle, multiply fast and have a large population build up; there are just few plant genotypes resistant to them, and chemical nematicides have limited effect due to their interaction with soil components or are being avoided due to their side effects to human and to the environment [42]. Therefore, control strategies for nematodes affecting potato should be planned carefully in order to succeed. The use of more than one control strategy (integrated management) is advised in order to optimize the control efficiency. Information required for proper nematode management, include: (i) proper diagnosis of nematode species and isolate; (ii) relationship between population density and yield losses; (iii) nematode biology (life cycle, environmental requirements, parasitism); (iv) host range; (v) population dynamics; (vi) efficiency of control methods and (vii) economic feasibility of control methods [21].

Generally used control strategies for potato nematodes are (i) planting in fields free of nematode pests, (ii) the use of certified nematode-free seed potato tubers, (iii) crop rotation and succession with non-host or poor host, (iv) fallow (including elimination of weeds), (v) antagonist plants, (vi) trap plants, (vii) resistant cultivars, (viii) avoidance to disseminate the nematodes, i.e. cleaning of tools and machineries, clean irrigation water and cleaning of footwear, (ix) planting potato at season that is less favored to nematode reproduction, i.e. dry and cold season, (x) quarantine regulations for exotic nematode species, i.e. potato cyst nematodes G. pallida and G. rostochiensis, (xi) removal of infected plants, (xii) isolation of infested areas, (xiii) the use of biological control, (xiv) cultural and tillage practices and (xv) the use of chemical nematicides [10, 21, 42, 48].

[2] Suinaga FA, Pereira AS. Introdução e importância econômica. In: Silva GO, Lopes CA, editors. Sistema de Produção da Batata. 1st ed. Brasilia, Brazil: Embrapa-CNPTIA; 2010. pp. 1-20

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[3] Medina IL, Gomes CB, Correa VR, Mattos VS, Castagnone-Sereno P, Carneiro RMDG. Genetic diversity of Meloidogyne spp. parasitizing potato in Brazil and aggressiveness of M. javanica populations on susceptible cultivars. Nematology. 2016;1:1-12. DOI: 10.1163-

[4] Lima FSO, Correa VR, Nogueira SR, Santos PRR. Nematodes affecting soybean and sustainable practices for their management. In: Kasai M, editor. Soybean – The Basis of Yield, Biomass and Productivity. 1st ed. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Open; 2016. pp. 1-16. DOI:

[5] Vovlas N, Mifsud D, Landa BB, Castillo P. Pathogenicity of the root knot nematode

[6] Pinheiro JB, Silva FO, Pereira RB. Nematoides na cultura da batata. Circular Técnica.

[7] Barker KR, Koenning R. Developing sustainable systems for nematodes management.

[8] Wesemael WML, Viaene N, Moens M. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) in Europe.

[9] Jones JT, Haegeman A, Danchin EG, Gauer HS, Helder J, Jones MG, Kikuch T, Manzanilla-Lopes R, Palomares-Rius JE, Wesemael WM, et al. Top 10 plant-parasitic nematodes in

[10] Noling JW. Nematode management in potatoes (Irish or White). University of Florida

[11] Ferraz LCCB, Brown DJF. Nematologia de Plantas: Fundamentos e importância. Manaus:

[12] Caixeta LB, Furlaneto C, Cares JE. Gênero Heterodera. In: Oliveira CMG, Santos MA, Castro LHS, editors. Diagnose de Fitonematoides. 1st ed. Campinas: Millennium; 2016.

[13] Marks RJ, Brodie BB. Potato Cyst Nematodes: Biology, Distribution and Control. 1st ed.

[14] EPPO. Globodera rostochiensis and G. Pallida PM 7-40. EPPO Bulletin. 2013;49:354-368 [15] Senasica. Nematodo dorado de la papa- Globodera rostochiensis – Mexico – Segarpa.

[16] MAPA. Instrução Normativa n. 41. Ministério da Agricultura Pecuária e Abastecimento.

[17] Jatala P, Bridge J. Nematode parasites of root and tuber crops. In: Luc M, Sikora RA, Bridge J, Editors. Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture. 1st

molecular plant pathology. Molecular Plant Pathology. 2013;14:946-961

Meloidogyne javanica on potato. Plant Pathology. 2005;54:657-664

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ed. Wallingford: CAB International; 1990. pp. 137-180

### 5. Concluding remarks

Several nematode species are associated with potato and few of them negatively impact yield and tuber quality. Severe yield losses and poor tuber quality have been reported in most regions where potatoes are grown. The importance of these nematode species depends on their adaptation to each geographical region (local climate), plant host factors and management practices of potato crop. Other minor species may be a problem to local regions as well. Nematode species have unique biology, behavior and are usually difficulty to be managed or eradicated once they are introduced in a field. In addition, their morphological similarities make them difficult to be diagnosed. Nonetheless, proper nematode identification to species and isolate level are mandatory to choose the proper control method. Overall, these nematode problems in potato are better managed when integrated management practices are used, i.e. exclusion (quarantine regulations, certified plant material, use of clean equipment and machineries), cultural practices (crop rotation, succession, cover crops), genetic control, and ultimately by the use of nematicides. Therefore, for a sustainable cropping of potato cultivars, growers, extension services and researchers must consider these nematodes holistically, the impact they cause and whether these management practices are economically, environmentally and technically sound.

### Author details

Fábia S.O. Lima1 , Vanessa S. Mattos<sup>2</sup> , Edvar S. Silva3 , Maria A.S. Carvalho<sup>1</sup> , Renato A. Teixeira<sup>4</sup> , Janaína C. Silva1 and Valdir R. Correa<sup>1</sup> \*


#### References

[1] FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC [Accessed: September 16, 2017]

[2] Suinaga FA, Pereira AS. Introdução e importância econômica. In: Silva GO, Lopes CA, editors. Sistema de Produção da Batata. 1st ed. Brasilia, Brazil: Embrapa-CNPTIA; 2010. pp. 1-20

footwear, (ix) planting potato at season that is less favored to nematode reproduction, i.e. dry and cold season, (x) quarantine regulations for exotic nematode species, i.e. potato cyst nematodes G. pallida and G. rostochiensis, (xi) removal of infected plants, (xii) isolation of infested areas, (xiii) the use of biological control, (xiv) cultural and tillage practices and (xv)

Several nematode species are associated with potato and few of them negatively impact yield and tuber quality. Severe yield losses and poor tuber quality have been reported in most regions where potatoes are grown. The importance of these nematode species depends on their adaptation to each geographical region (local climate), plant host factors and management practices of potato crop. Other minor species may be a problem to local regions as well. Nematode species have unique biology, behavior and are usually difficulty to be managed or eradicated once they are introduced in a field. In addition, their morphological similarities make them difficult to be diagnosed. Nonetheless, proper nematode identification to species and isolate level are mandatory to choose the proper control method. Overall, these nematode problems in potato are better managed when integrated management practices are used, i.e. exclusion (quarantine regulations, certified plant material, use of clean equipment and machineries), cultural practices (crop rotation, succession, cover crops), genetic control, and ultimately by the use of nematicides. Therefore, for a sustainable cropping of potato cultivars, growers, extension services and researchers must consider these nematodes holistically, the impact they cause and whether these management practices are economically, environmentally and tech-

, Edvar S. Silva3

1 Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Tocantins, Dianópolis, TO, Brazil

[1] FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC [Accessed: September 16, 2017]

, Janaína C. Silva1 and Valdir R. Correa<sup>1</sup>

, Maria A.S. Carvalho<sup>1</sup>

\*

,

the use of chemical nematicides [10, 21, 42, 48].

5. Concluding remarks

120 Potato - From Incas to All Over the World

nically sound.

Author details

Fábia S.O. Lima1

References

Renato A. Teixeira<sup>4</sup>

, Vanessa S. Mattos<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: valdir.correia@ifto.edu.br

2 Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Brasília, DF, Brazil

3 Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Acre, Brazil

4 Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Mato Grosso, Brazil


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**Chapter 7**

**Provisional chapter**

*Ralstonia solanacearum***: A Bacterial Disease and Its**

Worldwide, potato is considered the fourth most important crop for human consumption. In recent years, in some regions of the USA and Canada, the bacterium *Ralstonia solanacearum* (*Rs*), called bacterial wilt (Mb), has caused serious damage. Given the proximity of these countries, with Mexico as a tuber importer, the odds of an eventual introduction of these diseases are significant, especially in areas with large tracts of potato. Therefore, this research was performed to detect the presence of *Rs* in tuber and vegetative material of *Solanum tuberosum* and evaluated the bactericidal effect of essential oils. The results indicated that the presence of the bacterium *Rs* was negative in tuber from abroad. Nevertheless, we detected the presence of the causal agent of bacterial wilt in potatoes for domestic consumption that producers could use these tubers as production material. Oils of oregano and thyme showed inhibitory effects on the growth of *Rs*. Essential oils

**Its Biological Control by Essential Oils on** *Solanum* 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70744

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Global agriculture has been affected in recent years by phytosanitary problems caused mainly by fungi, bacteria, nematodes, weeds, and insects. With a radical change in international trade, and with the movement of vegetative material and sowing of these plant products, pests are dispersing throughout the world, becoming a more complex problem. Even when efforts are made, in the first instance to measure the introduction of diseases from other countries and secondly to

**Biological Control by Essential Oils on** *Solanum*

*Ralstonia solanacearum***: A Bacterial Disease and** 

*tuberosum* **L.**

*tuberosum* **L.**

Cristina Ruiz Alvarado,

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Cristina Ruiz Alvarado,

Ramón Jaime Holguin Peña and

Ramón Jaime Holguin Peña and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70744

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

are considered as an alternative for the control of *Rs*.

**Keywords:** diagnosis, detection, phytopathogen, control, essential oils

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Edgar Omar Rueda Puente

Edgar Omar Rueda Puente


**Provisional chapter**

#### *Ralstonia solanacearum***: A Bacterial Disease and Its Biological Control by Essential Oils on** *Solanum tuberosum* **L. Its Biological Control by Essential Oils on** *Solanum tuberosum* **L.**

*Ralstonia solanacearum***: A Bacterial Disease and** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70744

Cristina Ruiz Alvarado, Ramón Jaime Holguin Peña and Edgar Omar Rueda Puente Ramón Jaime Holguin Peña and Edgar Omar Rueda Puente Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Cristina Ruiz Alvarado,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70744

#### **Abstract**

[48] Mai WF, Brodie BB, Harisson MB, Jatala P. Nematodes. In: Hooker WJ, editor. Compendium of Potato Diseases. 1st ed. Saint Paul, USA: The American Phytopathological Soci-

[49] EPPO. Data sheet on quarantine pests: Meloidogyne chitwoodi and M. fallax. EPPO Bulletin.

[50] Castillo P, Vovlas N. Pratylenchus (Nematoda: Pratylenchidae): Diagnosis, Biology, Path-

[51] Forge TA, Larney FJ, Kawchuk LM, Pearson DC, Kock C, Blackshaw RE. Crop rotation effects on Pratylenchus neglectus populations in the root zone of irrigated potato in South-

[52] Kimpinski J, Arsenaut WJ, Gallant CE, Sanderson JB. The effects of marigolds (Tagetts spp) and other cover crops on Pratylenchus penetrans and on following potato crops.

[53] Sturhan D, Brzeski MW. Stem and bulb nematodes Dytilenchus spp. In: Nickle WR, editor. Manual of Agricultural Nematodes. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1991. pp. 423-464

[54] Asscheman IE, Brinkman H, Bus CB, van Delft M, Hotsma PH, Mejers CP, Mulder A, Turkensteen LJ, Wustman R, editors. Potato Diseases (Diseases, Pests, Defects). 1st ed.

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[57] Scurrah MI, Niere B, Bridge J. Nematodes parasite of Solanum and sweet potatoes. In: Luc M, Sikora RA, Bridge J, editors. Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Trop-

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ogenicity and Management. Leiden: Brill; 2007. 529 p

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8482-1

ern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 2015;37(3):1-12

ety; 1990. pp. 93-101

124 Potato - From Incas to All Over the World

2004;34(2):315-320

Worldwide, potato is considered the fourth most important crop for human consumption. In recent years, in some regions of the USA and Canada, the bacterium *Ralstonia solanacearum* (*Rs*), called bacterial wilt (Mb), has caused serious damage. Given the proximity of these countries, with Mexico as a tuber importer, the odds of an eventual introduction of these diseases are significant, especially in areas with large tracts of potato. Therefore, this research was performed to detect the presence of *Rs* in tuber and vegetative material of *Solanum tuberosum* and evaluated the bactericidal effect of essential oils. The results indicated that the presence of the bacterium *Rs* was negative in tuber from abroad. Nevertheless, we detected the presence of the causal agent of bacterial wilt in potatoes for domestic consumption that producers could use these tubers as production material. Oils of oregano and thyme showed inhibitory effects on the growth of *Rs*. Essential oils are considered as an alternative for the control of *Rs*.

**Keywords:** diagnosis, detection, phytopathogen, control, essential oils

#### **1. Introduction**

Global agriculture has been affected in recent years by phytosanitary problems caused mainly by fungi, bacteria, nematodes, weeds, and insects. With a radical change in international trade, and with the movement of vegetative material and sowing of these plant products, pests are dispersing throughout the world, becoming a more complex problem. Even when efforts are made, in the first instance to measure the introduction of diseases from other countries and secondly to

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

prevent their dispersion from primary inoculum sources, the negative aspects mentioned above have, to a certain degree, caused losses and major disruptions in some regions to national agriculture, so it is advisable to have the necessary measures to prevent the entry and secondly the control and dispersion of these biological agents harmful to plants [1]. In the Mexican Republic, specifically in northwestern Mexico, the area targeted for the cultivation of vegetables (mainly tomato, potato, chili, and watermelon) has increased considerably in recent years [2]. Mexico does not produce quality seed, it obliges producers to acquire tuber of foreign origin, mainly from the United States, since the varieties acquired produce fruits that meet the characteristics preferred by the consumer and also cause the tuber volumes to enter the country which is a gateway for microorganisms of quarantine importance such as *Pseudomonas solanacearum* = (currently) *Ralstonia solanacearum* to potato, *Xanthomonas campestris* pv. *vesicatoria* to chili and tomato, *Clavibacter michiganensis* ssp. *sepedonicus* to potato, *C. michiganensis* spp. *michiganensis* to tomato, and *Acidovorax avenae* pv. *citrulli* to watermelon, among others [1]. Also, the controversy is currently being generated among producers about their presence in agricultural fields in the state of Sonora, Mexico. Therefore, it is of great importance to know the current situation of *R. solanacearum* in potato (*Solanum tuberosum* L.), on material and during the different phenological stages of the crop in the agricultural zone of the state of Sonora, Mexico.

purposes in *Rs*, and their identification by ELISA technique. The second stage included a field sampled of tuber, seedling, flowering, and tubers produced in physiological maturity plants in Sonora state, to detect *Rs* by specific culture media and ELISA. Likewise, pathogenicity tests were carried out on those samples that were positive for the presence of *Rs*. Fit in mention that Detection of *Rs* in potato tuber was carried out in two types of tuber: (a) those from Canada and the United States of America (USA) and (b) tuber which it is to consumption human and used as

*Ralstonia solanacearum*: A Bacterial Disease and Its Biological Control by Essential Oils on *Solanum tuberosum* L.

It was initiated with the increase of *Rs* and was developed according to the protocol established by Rueda [1], using means of specific cultures. According to the technique described by the same author, ten test tubes were obtained in 0.85% NaCl saline solution with a concentration of 108 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml, verified with the aid of a hematometer. Bacterial suspensions in tubes were stored in refrigeration at 4°C to stabilize the bacterium and avoid

Pathogenicity tests (PPs) were developed in order to familiarize themselves with the symptomatology of *Rs* which were carried out in tuber and potato seedlings. In the case of tuber, 20 tubers were split in half and inoculated into the bundle by 200 ml with a bacterial suspension of 108 CFU/ml, and were placed in humid chambers under favorable conditions of the disease; likewise, another 20 tubers were considered as negative control when going through the same process but making use of sterile distilled water in the incision. Regarding PP in seedlings, 40 tubers were previously disinfected and were germinated in germination plates with sterile substrate, the conditions in which the seedling produced was at 25°C using sterile tap water for irrigation; at the end of 30 days after the emergency, 20 seedlings were

a cotton swab on the cotyledons of the seedlings, and the remaining 20 seedlings were considered as negative control when passing through the same process with swab plus sterile distilled water. The tubers, seedlings used for PP, after inoculation, were covered with polyethylene bags and placed in an incubation chamber with a relative humidity between 80 and 90% and a temperature of 35–41°C in a period of 4–7 days [1]; these conditions are appropri-

For the process of identification of *Rs*, the serological ELISA technique was developed, following the general protocol of identification of bacteria AGDIA. The *Rs* kit was donated by the

In the second stage, farmers donated tubers from Canada and the USA; the tuber, which is consumed by human and used as a seed, was sampled in commercial stores in Sonora state. Also, fields of potato crop were sampled in three stages: seedling, flowering stage, and physiological maturity when the plants produced tubers considered to be cut and later for sale. It should be noted that seedlings, leaves, or fruits of plants showing a symptomatology similar to that of *Rs* were also collected. Batch sampling was according to the National Potato Sampling in

CFU/ml with the aid of

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70744

127

a seed, it was sampled in commercial stores in Sonora state.

inoculated with the bacterial solution of *Rs* at a concentration of 108

*2.1.1. First stage*

a shock in the immunization.

ate to induce the signs of the disease.

project to which this research belongs.

*2.1.2. Second stage*

This research aims to expand knowledge of the situation that occurs in the detection of bacteria of quarantine importance, in addition to updating and reaffirming its null presence in the agricultural areas of the state, and later extend to the interior of the country. In addition, this screening study is aimed at involving producers with a new production scheme under phytosanitary conditions in order to safeguard our national agriculture.

On the other hand, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of biologically active compounds extracted from plant species that have the ability to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms by themselves, mainly due to the resistance that microorganisms have developed to antibiotics [3]. In addition, agriculture in the new millennium must establish new control alternatives that produce a lower environmental impact, as day-to-day increases in the percentage of consumers who demand healthy and chemical-free food [4]. Therefore, the importance of knowing new control strategies arises, especially those that have a sustainable aspect. Based on the above, the need to evaluate bactericidal products to perform tests of antimicrobial activity against *R. solanacearum* is presented.

According to the abovementioned details, the principal goals were to detect the presence of *R. solanacearum* in tuber and vegetative material of *S. tuberosum* L. and to evaluate the bactericidal effect of essential oils.
