*3.5.1. Amaranthus silage*

**Silage types DM OM CP NDF ADF Citation**

 (100) Brazil *Gliricidia sepium* 27.6 – 12.83 39.5 25.6 Gliricidia (100) Vietnam *–* 21.7 92.9 20.3 52.7 35.4 [34] Mexican sunflower Nigeria *Tithonia diversifolia* 17.6 – 17.00 – – [22] Moringa (100) Nigeria *–* 31.9 97.9 18.45 11.2 11.1 [35]

(100) Brazil *Panicum maximum* 28.2 – 8.95 67.1 41.3 [33]

Brazil *–* 28.3 – 10.07 60.9 40.1

Brazil *–* 28.1 – 11.06 53.7 37.2

Brazil *–* 27.5 – 12.0 46.5 30.4

Nigeria *–* 36.2 90.9 14.35 12.1 9.95

Nigeria *Panicum maximum* 32.1 97.9 8.25 12.3 11.1

Nigeria *–* 32.1 97.5 10.48 11.2 9.16

Nigeria *–* 32.3 97.6 12.27 11.0 9.16

Nigeria *–* 33.5 97.5 13.13 10.9 8.90

Nigeria *–* 35.9 97.6 13.40 10.7 8.54

Amaranth Iran *A. hypochondriacus* 48.8 91.8 14.70 30.0 17.2 [36]

Cassava peel Nigeria *–* 29.2 97.8 5.72 – –

**Table 1.** Dry matter and nutrient composition (% DM basis) of different types of unconventional silages.

 byproduct silage Greece *Punica granatum* 29.2 95.9 12.00 21.8 16.9 [37] Cassava Vietnam *Manihot esculenta* 26.7 92.8 21.70 51.4 37.2 [34] Cassava leaf Indonesia *–* 30.7 92.9 16.20 [38] Cassava leaf Nigeria *–* 30.4 97.8 15.46 – – [39]

DM, dry matter; OM, organic matter; CP, crude protein; EE, ether extract; TCHO, total carbohydrates; NDF, neutral

**Local name Region/Country Botanical name\***

22 Ruminants - The Husbandry, Economic and Health Aspects

Aruana grass\*

Aruana grass + Gliricidia (75:25)

Aruana grass + Gliricidia (50:50)

Aruana grass + Gliricidia (25:75)

Moringa + Wheat\*

Moringa + Guinea\* grass (50:50)

Moringa + Guinea\* grass + Wheat offal (50:10:40)

Moringa + Guinea\* grass + Wheat offal (50:20:30)

Moringa + Guinea\* grass + Wheat offal (50:30:20)

Moringa + Guinea\* grass + Wheat offal (50:40:10)

Forages in dry form.

Fruit\*

\*

1

offal

Forages used in silage display botanical names.

detergent fiber and ADF, acid detergent fiber.

Gliricidia\*

(50:50)

Amaranth is a dicotyledonous species and commonly considered as a pseudo-cereal, which has a good yield performance up to 86.4 t fresh forage/ha [40] with promising nutritive value [30, 41–43] and CP up to 285 g/kg DM with useful minerals including Ca, Fe, Zn, Mg and P. It is adaptable to varying climatic and agronomic conditions, tolerance to drought as well as a low water requirement [44]. The use of Amaranthus silage in the diet of fattening Moghani lambs up to 300 g/kg of dietary DM improved total gain and carcass weight without any adverse effect on lean-to-fat ratio and animal health and demonstrated its replacement value for maize silage [36]. A small bag ensiling technology is being promoted as a useful and low cost tool to improve production in smallholder livestock farms [45].

#### *3.5.2. Moringa silage*

*Moringa oleifera* has attracted the attention of researchers in recent times, and its intensive cultivation with the application of fertilizer and water supply gives a DM yield up to 120 tonnes/ ha, with 7–8 cuttings in a year [46]. Moringa leaves are high in CP and phytochemicals that reported to have a positive influence on lactation performance [47, 48]. Sole Moringa silage, or in combination with fresh *Panicum maximum* in equal proportion, may not be promising dry season feed conservation strategies for ruminants, while silage mixtures of 50% Moringa +10–30% Guinea grass and 20–40% wheat offals showed great potentials [35]. It should preferably be ensiled in mixtures with conventional and/or unconventional forages to increase the VFI and nutritive value of the silage. This is often considered as a perennial forage surplus to preserve as silage to meet round the year feed requirements.

#### *3.5.3. Cactus silage*

Cactus, particularly the *Opuntia* species, is grown in semi-arid regions of many tropical countries and is often fed to livestock during summer to provide both feed and water [31]. However, the excess biomass during other season can be preserved suitable as silage for feeding during scarcity [30]. It was observed that mixing cactus and browse in silage making improved both DM and N content in the product. Similarly, it can be mixed with legume forages and hays by supplying a degradable source of organic matter. The cactus + browse or cactus + legume silages improve microbial protein flow to the lower gut for digestion and supply of amino acid for maintenance, growth and production. These silages could be used in livestock feeding to improve livelihoods in drier and resource constrained farming communities by providing opportunities for conservation of forage and maintaining their animals in periods of feed scarcity. The nutritive value of silage from cactus cladodes was evaluated and found acceptable quality silage based on pH, organic acids contents and voluntary intake. It might be advantageous to ensile cactus mixed with other ingredients and improving utilization of poor quality roughages with the addition of cactus-browse silages as supplements [31]. Abidi et al. [49] ensiled fresh cactus cladodes with olive cake and wheat bran and found no adverse effect on digestible nutrient intakes by replacing with oaten hay. In addition to feed shortage, water scarcity compromises livestock performances in dry areas. Because of its succulence, cactus could overcome this constraint as ruminants do not need to drink water when receiving cactus cladodes (35 g DM/kgW0.75) [50]. It is reported that ensiled mixture of spineless cactus, olive cake and wheat bran could be used to replace totally or partially oaten hay without affecting lamb performances and meat quality [49]. It is thus advocated to go for mixed silage with cactus and protein-rich dry forages (e.g. Ardu leaves, gram straw, pea crop residues), so as to balance the minimum moisture content (i.e. 35–40%) in making of good quality silage [31]. A reasonable intake of 3–4 kg cactus silage in adult sheep was recorded that meet 900–1200 g DM and enough nutrients to support minimum production during scarcity.

**3.7. Ensiling on nutrient composition and utilization**

fermentation to CO<sup>2</sup>

radation of plant protein to NH3

Differences in WSC and protein (particularly, the A and B fractions) contents and fermentative characteristics between plant parts and plant species contribute to the differences in ensiling process, be it lactic acid production, pH reduction and modification/reduction in the phytochemical constituents. The use of molasses has been in practice for stepping up the initial fermentation process during ensiling. It is suggested that a critical WSC concentration in herbage for successful preservation as silage without additives is 30 g/kg DM. Sugars, such as fructosans, starch, pectins and soluble fiber content, greatly decline during the fermentation process [55]. A part of the OM gets lost in the initial phase owing to respiration of plants and during

ity. Total DM losses for optimal lactic acid fermentation are relatively low and should range between 2 and 6%. The proteolytic activities are restricted when the pH of the silage is ≤4.3 [56], and in good silage, the process will stop earlier and limit the loss of protein. Tannin might limit the proteolytic activities and reduce the loss of silage CP (soluble NPN) [19]. Different ratios of grass to red clover silage in TMR demonstrated improved performance when they were offered as a mixture than when fed alone [57]. Red clover contains PPO, which binds protein and it tended to reduce whole body N balance at higher inclusion levels due to increased partitioning of N into urine and feces. Legumes that contain CT also have the potential to reduce the deg-

leading to improvements in feed efficiency and reduction of N excretion. Research emphasis should therefore be needed to explore the interactions of CT-containing legume feeds with other dietary components, fiber digestion and the consequential N partitioning effects, thereby

Phytochemical determination showed that ensiling reduces the presence of some anti-nutritional factors such as tannins, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors [58]. A low pH, which is critical to make good silages from wet crops, also dissociates tannin-protein complexes and may compromise formation of rumen escape protein that can improve protein utilization. Invariably, ensiling of tannin-rich, legume, cereal or mixed forages shows a pH decline not beyond 4.0, and hence, any possibility of dissociation of tannin-protein binding complex does not arise, which requires pH of 2–3 [59]. Increase in ensiling duration also reduces tannin concentration. At pH range 3.5–5.5, insoluble tannin and plant leaf protein complex was established [60]. A reduction of 25 and 42% in the tannin content of fresh cassava and Gliricidia tops, respectively, was found after ensiling [34]. This phenomenon can be correlated to hydrolysis of hydrolysable tannins. Moreover, diets containing 2–4% of CT reduce proteolysis during ensiling and rumen fermentation by up to 50% [61]. Similarly, a continuous decline in HCN to the tune of 68 and 43 % was found in ensiled cassava and Gliricidia tops, respectively after 2 months of ensiling [60]. Handling and ensiling process and the initial environment of the aerobic phase created favorable environment for reducing the HCN. A rapid reduction in pH restricts the enzyme activities that reduce the speed of HCN elimination during storage. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids remain unaltered in silage and are not toxic [62]. The PPO activity, associated predominately with the detrimental effect of browning fruit and vegetables,

reducing N excretion and improving efficiency and environmental quality.

**3.8. Ensiling effect on phytochemicals/anti-nutritive factors**

and other fermentation products and storage of silage by microbial activ-


Silage for Climate Resilient Small Ruminant Production http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74667 25
