**3. Silage making**

climate change should be converted into an opportunity for developing and spreading climate resilient small ruminant farming and production systems. Natural pastures, crop residues and indigenous fodder trees are the main feed resources for ruminant livestock. But, due to seasonal fluctuations in the availability and quality of these feed resources, intake of energy, protein and some essential minerals by most ruminant species fall below their maintenance requirements resulting in 'under-nutrition' and low productivity in most animal production systems [1]. The leftover natural pastures, particularly the abundantly grown monsoon grasses/herbages that get matured (lignified) and dried have limited intake and characterized by low nutritive value, digestibility and utilization. In dealing with the rainy season crop harvest, and due to the difficulties in hay storage, ensiling is considered as one of the preferable preservation techniques especially with the greatest potential for protein-

Silage making is an effective and common method of forage preservation and also a form of treatment to occasionally retrieve the underutilized pastures for better acceptability, degradability and utilization. It is universally agreed that silage making is one of the principal approaches if feed and nutrition is to be ensured round the year. In the rainy season, there is an abundance of grass, while it becomes scarce in the dry season, and therefore, silage production in the tropics has been established as a sustainable means of supplementing feed for ruminants in the dry scarcity periods. Maize is observed to be the major crop for silage making, but as the demand for maize/corn outpaces its production due to current changes in global energy system for the production of biodiesel, coupled with increasing competition between animals and humans for this major food/feed item; it has become imperative to research into suitable, or even better, alternatives to this conventional crop for silage making. Low cost unconventional plant biomass offering promising nutrients may serve as an alternative, because of changing climatic conditions and lack of opportunity to cultivate fodder due to shortage of water resources. Hence, the perennial forage surplus obtained when the weather is favorable is recommended for storage as silage in order to meet the animal requirements throughout the year [2]. Alternate forage resources (browses and tree forages, field and crop wastes), succulent plant biomass (roots and tubers, cactus, fruits and vegetables co-products/wastes) and conceptualization of legume silage, mixed silage, total mixed ration (TMR) silage and their application would certainly expand the forage resource base and feed

Climate change leading to adverse changes in temperature, precipitation and sea level will disturb the food, water and livelihood security systems. The impacts of climate change on livestock are on its growth, milk production, reproduction, metabolic activity and disease occurrences. The indirect impacts include (i) scarce availability of water, pasture and other feed resources, (ii) health anomalies associated with modified/unknown vector-borne and parasitic diseases, (iii) competing environmental interaction with other livestock species. It is important to understand the small ruminant vis-à-vis other livestock responses to the changed

rich foliage.

banking for ensuring nutritional input.

12 Ruminants - The Husbandry, Economic and Health Aspects

**2. Climate resilient small ruminant production**

Ensilage of forage crops has been practiced in one form or another for more than 3000 years. Several technical advances in silage making, such as multiple application of forage harvester, rapid and efficient silo packing, effective exclusion of air from silos, control of undesirable bacteria and use of silage additives (e.g. formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, sodium hydroxide, sodium acrylate, urea, formic acid, etc.), and their application have expanded production and application of silage in livestock feeding. Emphasis has also been given on its qualitative enhancement due to increase in its usage in dairy and other ruminants. Ensiling forage enables preservation of succulent nature besides converting it to a form considered more utilizable by the ruminant livestock. Good silage is light brown in color, has a sour taste and pleasant acidic smell due to its lactic acid content, which make the product stable and can be kept for 6 months to 1 year, if required. This technology can be practiced round the year as and when any surplus plant biomass is available and yield better quality conserved forage to feed during scarcity.

Ideally, crops for silage are harvested at right stage, i.e. at 50% flowering, and then chopped into 2–5 cm pieces and left for wilting if needed to have moisture content not more than 60%. It is important to note that the influence of forage characteristics (epiphytic lactic acid bacteria (LAB), buffer capacity and sugar: buffer capacity ratio) on treatment effectiveness varied with DM content. Any additives (molasses, probiotic culture, etc.) can be added and mixed uniformly by spreading the chopped materials on a pucca (concrete) floor or polythene (plastic) sheet and then transferred to polythene lined silo pit (**Figure 1**) or plastic bags (**Figure 2**)/ drums (**Figure 3**) and compressed tightly in order to make it air free. It is kept anaerobically away from direct sunlight under the shade for 55–60 days under anaerobic condition. To make good quality silage, one must have quality assessment of the plant, microbial and environmental factors that influence the fermentation process and, ultimately, the nutrient value of the silage. It is essential to harvest forage at the right time, from the point of view of nutritional

containing cactus, azola, residual/leftover vegetables and fruits to prepare mixed silage of desired quality with proper balancing for appropriate moisture, degradable and water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and N-fractions. The preservation of forage crops as silage depends principally on the production of sufficient acid to inhibit activity of undesirable microorgan-

Silage for Climate Resilient Small Ruminant Production http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74667 15

Forage crops should be harvested for silage making from flowering to milk stage of the crop. Forage characteristics, viz. type of forage, maturity, DM and WSC content, at the time of ensiling influence the ease of ensiling and ultimately the quality of silage. Cereals, in general, are easier to ensile than legumes or grasses, because of their lower buffering capacity and high WSC content. As forage matures from the vegetative stage into reproductive stage (i.e. heading for cereals; flowering for legumes), stems and leaves become more lignified, and the digestibility of these plant components declines. Several factors influence the rate of maturation of a crop including variety, moisture level, temperature, nutrient stress and time of season. Thus, optimal timing of harvest usually encompasses a compromise between DM and nutrient yield. DM content of forage tends to increase with advancing maturity, but silage DM can also be increased by wilting a less mature forage in the field prior to ensiling. Grass family crops are more suitable for making silage because of higher sugar and WSC, e.g. jowar (*Sorghum bicolor*), bajra (*Pennisetum glaucum*), maize (*Zea mays*), guinea grass (*Panicum maximum*), cenchrus grass (*Cenchrus ciliaris*, *C. setigerus*), sudan grass (*Sorghum sudanense*), oats (*Avena sativa*), barley (*Hordeum vulgare*), napier (*Pennisetum purpureum*), etc. [5]. Making silage only from leguminous crops like berseem (*Trifolium alexandrinum*), Lucerne (*Medicago sativa*), soybean (*Glycine max*), lobia/cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*) is not advisable since they contain high moisture and

less carbohydrate. Hence, they are mixed with grasses for making quality silage.

Current restrictions on the use of animal-based protein supplements coupled with increasing demand for soya protein concentrates put pressure on the livestock farmers and researchers to

isms under anaerobic conditions [4].

**Figure 3.** Silage making in plastic drums.

**3.1. Suitable crops for making silage**

**3.2. Ensiling legume crops/fodder**

**Figure 1.** Silage pits lined with plastic sheet to prevent seepage.

**Figure 2.** Packing of fodder in plastic bag for silage making.

quality, quantity available and climatic conditions, and then to store it properly to reduce losses. Silage made from grasses and cereals is dark yellowish green in color, while it is blackish green when made of legumes. A good silage is friable, non-sticky and free from mold/ fungal growth and should have an acceptable and pleasant aroma (fruity odor) and mild acidic taste. It should have a pH < 4.5; the lactic acid should be higher than other acids with a low butyric acid content (0.2–0.5%) and ammoniacal N not higher than 9–15% of total N.

Farmers' friendly ensiling process has been developed in many countries for its wider adaptation, which is relatively simple, can be performed manually, is flexible in handling and feedout according to needs and does not require much input. Dry tree forages, less palatable fallen tree leaves, less preferable stovers and mature crop residues can be mixed with high moisture

**Figure 3.** Silage making in plastic drums.

containing cactus, azola, residual/leftover vegetables and fruits to prepare mixed silage of desired quality with proper balancing for appropriate moisture, degradable and water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and N-fractions. The preservation of forage crops as silage depends principally on the production of sufficient acid to inhibit activity of undesirable microorganisms under anaerobic conditions [4].

## **3.1. Suitable crops for making silage**

Forage crops should be harvested for silage making from flowering to milk stage of the crop. Forage characteristics, viz. type of forage, maturity, DM and WSC content, at the time of ensiling influence the ease of ensiling and ultimately the quality of silage. Cereals, in general, are easier to ensile than legumes or grasses, because of their lower buffering capacity and high WSC content. As forage matures from the vegetative stage into reproductive stage (i.e. heading for cereals; flowering for legumes), stems and leaves become more lignified, and the digestibility of these plant components declines. Several factors influence the rate of maturation of a crop including variety, moisture level, temperature, nutrient stress and time of season. Thus, optimal timing of harvest usually encompasses a compromise between DM and nutrient yield. DM content of forage tends to increase with advancing maturity, but silage DM can also be increased by wilting a less mature forage in the field prior to ensiling. Grass family crops are more suitable for making silage because of higher sugar and WSC, e.g. jowar (*Sorghum bicolor*), bajra (*Pennisetum glaucum*), maize (*Zea mays*), guinea grass (*Panicum maximum*), cenchrus grass (*Cenchrus ciliaris*, *C. setigerus*), sudan grass (*Sorghum sudanense*), oats (*Avena sativa*), barley (*Hordeum vulgare*), napier (*Pennisetum purpureum*), etc. [5]. Making silage only from leguminous crops like berseem (*Trifolium alexandrinum*), Lucerne (*Medicago sativa*), soybean (*Glycine max*), lobia/cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*) is not advisable since they contain high moisture and less carbohydrate. Hence, they are mixed with grasses for making quality silage.
