**4. Advantages of societal multilingualism**

*color-shape switching task and an analogous language-switching task, varying CTI* (*short vs. long*) in both tasks. At the end of the study, it was determined that the cost of task-switching among the bilinguals was smaller, more economical, and more cost-effective than that required by the monolinguals. They explain that these findings substantiate the association between bilingualism and the **switching efficiency trait, an advantage in fast and successful diversifying task engagements in the life of a bilingual,** especially with respect to information processing.

It is now well accepted that language and culture are inextricably linked because, as articulated in Chumbow [11, 54], language is the means by which people who share the same culture express their belonging to a common or shared cultural experience. Considering the fact that culture is transmitted and expressed through language, multilinguals are obviously multicultural individuals who can adapt different cultures more easily. The implication is that they are better placed to handle cultural shocks than monolinguals. This is closely related to **intercultural competence,** summarized by Curtain and Dahlberg [46] who states that "… exposure to a foreign language serves as a means of helping children to intercultural competence. The awareness of a global community can be enhanced when children have the opportunity to experience involvement with another culture through a foreign language." Here, intercultural competence is considered as the ability for successful communication with people of other cultures. This ability can exist already at a young age or be developed and improved, thanks to willpower and competence [55]. In any case, high intercultural competence in multilinguality **enables multilingual individuals to appreciate and accommodate** 

Cook [44] supports the sociocultural advantage by stating that "multilinguals can expand their personal horizons and — **being simultaneously insiders and outsiders** — see their own culture from a new perspective, not available to monoglots, enabling the comparison, contrast, and understanding of cultural concepts." Thus, **multilinguals can better understand and appreciate people of other countries, a factor in lessening racism, xenophobia, and intolerance**, since the learning of a new language usually brings with it a revelation of

Related to cultural flexibility, one opportune factor for bilinguals is **their ability to excel in conflict resolution tasks.** In two experiments, using the *Flanker task test* [56], both monolinguals and bilinguals were asked to perform a flanker test task under two low-monitoring and two high-monitoring versions of congruent and incongruent trials, respectively. The result was that the bilinguals had the overall reaction time during the high-monitoring condition in which they outperformed the monolinguals. This indicates that **the bilinguals could more easily affect the monitoring processes involved in executive control during conflict condi-**

It has been asserted that "language is power" and it is an invisible force that can penetrate visible social and economic boundaries [57]. Being multilingual can be considered as a form

**3.8. Sociocultural advantages of bilingualism**

24 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

**any foreign culture easier than monolinguals.**

**tion** than their monolingual counterparts.

**3.9. Economic advantages of bilingualism**

a new culture.

The advantages that any multilingual society would gain outrightly supersede that from a monolingual society in many dimensions given the aggregate advantages of individual bilingualism as seen above. However, considering societies as multilingual does not bring out the same vivid anticipation as in individual bilingualism or multilingualism. When it is societal multilingualism, the state has to install institutions and policies to legally and officially implement the different languages concerned, clearly defining their societal functional domains and so creating an environment of diglossia or multiglossia. This is explained by Fishman [60, 61] as follows: "Diglossia (Greek root for two languages, *di*-*glossia*), the use of two languages for different purposes *in a societal group*, is different from bilingualism (Latin roots for two languages, *bilingual*), which is the use of two languages *by individuals without societal support*." From this background, it is clear that individual bilingualism or multilingualism may or may not be officially supported. Therefore, multilingual advantages become selective and restricted to those who practice it in any society, whereas societal multilingualism is officially and legally backed with policies and structures to implement them within that confined society, putting in place language planning functional operation and implementation processes of revalorization, revitalization, instrumentalization, and intellectualization of the different languages recognized in that society (see [62–64]).

Properties of societal bilingualism or multilingualism are better judged or derived from the societies that operate on the premise of the status of official bilingualism or multilingualism such as *Belgium*, with the Dutch-speaking Flemish in the north and French-speaking Walloons in the south [65]; *Cameroon*, stemming from a union of territories of the British and French colonial heritages; *Canada*, which has the original Protestant British and the Catholic French Quebec coming together; and *Switzerland*, where four national languages, French, German, Italian, and Romansch, are recognized from four cantons or territories ([66, 67]). It can be shown that these countries experience extra societal benefits partly due to their official multilingual-multicultural practices beyond official monolingual nations, even if they propagate unofficial linguistic heterogeneity. Some of these advantages linked to multilingual societies are manifested in the domains of economy, culture, education, security, and health. It must, however, be noted that multilingualism in most countries of the world, especially in Africa, is yet to be managed in such a way as to derive the full benefits of societal multilingualism. According to [63] "All African countries are multilingual in varying degrees; from two or three languages in Lesotho, Swaziland, Rwanda and Burundi to over 450 in Nigeria" [68]. The languages of the various ethno-linguistic communities of the nation are yet to be developed and used for development initiatives as is the case in Belgium or Switzerland for instance.

of technology, a **wide range of sociocultural exposure is very much in high demand, and this quality can be easily obtained by knowing and understanding different cultures and languages**. Thus, individuals who can communicate in at least two languages **are considered** 

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Sociocultural integration is a vital element for developmental and general societal growth since the current rate of globalization, modernization, and technological advancement has reduced the world into a global village with a complex mixture of cultures and social values. In this vain, being multilingual and ipso facto multicultural is an added advantage to any society, as summarized in [73]:21): "**Providers of basic services (health, school, local authorities and courts) are increasingly in need of communicating with people speaking other languages** [whereas] their staff is not trained to work in languages other than their mother tongue and do not possess intercultural skills." The EC statement here attests to the growing need of multilingual status to serve as a condition for social and economic integra-

The European Commission [73] further suggests that **multilingualism helps in strengthening social cohesion, intercultural dialog,** and European construction (described as *social inclusion)*, which can be defined as the process by which people resident in a given territory, regardless of their background, can achieve their full potential in life. Policies promoting equal access to (public) services and actions enabling citizens' participation in the decisionmaking processes that affect their lives are examples of efforts to enhance the said social inclusion. On the other hand, *social cohesion* is related to the feature of a society in which all groups have a sense of belonging, participation, inclusion, recognition, and legitimacy. This coalesces in what has been labeled *intercultural dialog*, defined by the Council of Europe as "an open and respectful exchange of views between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures that leads to a deeper understanding of the other's global perception." And these advantages of intercultural relationship in a society are further elaborated in the EC [69] which states that "Language skills facilitate intercultural dialogue because they increase the capability of EU citizens to understand the culture of other fellow Europeans (and migrants), thereby contrib-

A 1990 sociolinguistic survey research conducted by Lambert and Taylor in both the USA and Canada, using *questionnaires*, came up with a significant number of persons in both societies endorsing multiculturalism over assimilation. They explain that "**Pluralism and multiculturalism may lead to a positive attitude, not only to the host and minority cultures, but to the equal validity of all cultures.** With multiculturalism at its best, certain vices like prejudice and racism… are minimized in any society" (cf. [43]: 404). This reinforces the school of thought which holds the view that a multicultural setting breeds citizens who show more respect for other people and other cultures; persons who are less stereotypical, less culturally insular, and introspective in nature, hence cultivating grounds for mutual coexistence among persons from different races, ethnicity, and linguistic backgrounds

**as assets to the communities** in which they live and work [72].

tion in any society.

uting to European integration" ([69] 29).

within the same nation.

**4.2. Societal sociocultural advantage of bilingualism or multilingualism**

#### **4.1. Economic and business societal advantages**

Multilingualism has been attributed the strength of promoting mobility of the labor force in a single marketplace, thereby **fostering employment heights and subsequent economic growth in the society**. Thus, if any nation wants to benefit from this type of economic force that can be easily generated by the mobile labor force, it has no choice than to operate a multilingual context. It is in this same light that the European Commission [69] explains that "language skills are presented as a type of ability that contributes to economic prosperity, an asset that increases the competitiveness of European companies, and a form of human capital that can positively affect citizens' employability." In this document, the Commission argues that **multilingual skill opportunity in any society will generate a mobile workforce environment, which is a huge labor market asset for that society**. In the Council Conclusions on Language Competences to Enhance Mobility [70], language skills are presented as "an essential component of a competitive knowledge-based economy. Knowledge of foreign languages is a life-skill for all EU citizens, enabling them to enjoy both the economic and social benefits of free movement within the Union." It has also been attested that in Switzerland, skills in foreign or second languages (limited to English, French, and German) contribute to some 10% of the Swiss GDP, with English accounting for half of this percentage (cf. [71]). From all these studies and their skewed findings toward one direction, a positive direction, it is right to say that a multilingual society is exposed to more economic benefits than a monolingual one.

The Kiplinger Washington Editors in 1996 stated that in the USA, the Hispanic share of the work force would increase by 25% by 2010 and the Asian share by 50% and minorities would keep moving up the corporate ladder during the following 15 years. It asserted that managers who knew how to deal with a diverse work force would be advantaged. The analysis of this report underpins the fact that **the acquisition of a foreign language or being a bilingual is an added advantage over being monolingual because it broadens the margins of the speaker's choices in the job market.** With the globalization phenomenon and increasing advancement of technology, a **wide range of sociocultural exposure is very much in high demand, and this quality can be easily obtained by knowing and understanding different cultures and languages**. Thus, individuals who can communicate in at least two languages **are considered as assets to the communities** in which they live and work [72].

#### **4.2. Societal sociocultural advantage of bilingualism or multilingualism**

French colonial heritages; *Canada*, which has the original Protestant British and the Catholic French Quebec coming together; and *Switzerland*, where four national languages, French, German, Italian, and Romansch, are recognized from four cantons or territories ([66, 67]). It can be shown that these countries experience extra societal benefits partly due to their official multilingual-multicultural practices beyond official monolingual nations, even if they propagate unofficial linguistic heterogeneity. Some of these advantages linked to multilingual societies are manifested in the domains of economy, culture, education, security, and health. It must, however, be noted that multilingualism in most countries of the world, especially in Africa, is yet to be managed in such a way as to derive the full benefits of societal multilingualism. According to [63] "All African countries are multilingual in varying degrees; from two or three languages in Lesotho, Swaziland, Rwanda and Burundi to over 450 in Nigeria" [68]. The languages of the various ethno-linguistic communities of the nation are yet to be developed and used for development initiatives as is the case in Belgium or

Multilingualism has been attributed the strength of promoting mobility of the labor force in a single marketplace, thereby **fostering employment heights and subsequent economic growth in the society**. Thus, if any nation wants to benefit from this type of economic force that can be easily generated by the mobile labor force, it has no choice than to operate a multilingual context. It is in this same light that the European Commission [69] explains that "language skills are presented as a type of ability that contributes to economic prosperity, an asset that increases the competitiveness of European companies, and a form of human capital that can positively affect citizens' employability." In this document, the Commission argues that **multilingual skill opportunity in any society will generate a mobile workforce environment, which is a huge labor market asset for that society**. In the Council Conclusions on Language Competences to Enhance Mobility [70], language skills are presented as "an essential component of a competitive knowledge-based economy. Knowledge of foreign languages is a life-skill for all EU citizens, enabling them to enjoy both the economic and social benefits of free movement within the Union." It has also been attested that in Switzerland, skills in foreign or second languages (limited to English, French, and German) contribute to some 10% of the Swiss GDP, with English accounting for half of this percentage (cf. [71]). From all these studies and their skewed findings toward one direction, a positive direction, it is right to say that a multilingual society is exposed to more economic

The Kiplinger Washington Editors in 1996 stated that in the USA, the Hispanic share of the work force would increase by 25% by 2010 and the Asian share by 50% and minorities would keep moving up the corporate ladder during the following 15 years. It asserted that managers who knew how to deal with a diverse work force would be advantaged. The analysis of this report underpins the fact that **the acquisition of a foreign language or being a bilingual is an added advantage over being monolingual because it broadens the margins of the speaker's choices in the job market.** With the globalization phenomenon and increasing advancement

Switzerland for instance.

26 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

benefits than a monolingual one.

**4.1. Economic and business societal advantages**

Sociocultural integration is a vital element for developmental and general societal growth since the current rate of globalization, modernization, and technological advancement has reduced the world into a global village with a complex mixture of cultures and social values. In this vain, being multilingual and ipso facto multicultural is an added advantage to any society, as summarized in [73]:21): "**Providers of basic services (health, school, local authorities and courts) are increasingly in need of communicating with people speaking other languages** [whereas] their staff is not trained to work in languages other than their mother tongue and do not possess intercultural skills." The EC statement here attests to the growing need of multilingual status to serve as a condition for social and economic integration in any society.

The European Commission [73] further suggests that **multilingualism helps in strengthening social cohesion, intercultural dialog,** and European construction (described as *social inclusion)*, which can be defined as the process by which people resident in a given territory, regardless of their background, can achieve their full potential in life. Policies promoting equal access to (public) services and actions enabling citizens' participation in the decisionmaking processes that affect their lives are examples of efforts to enhance the said social inclusion. On the other hand, *social cohesion* is related to the feature of a society in which all groups have a sense of belonging, participation, inclusion, recognition, and legitimacy. This coalesces in what has been labeled *intercultural dialog*, defined by the Council of Europe as "an open and respectful exchange of views between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures that leads to a deeper understanding of the other's global perception." And these advantages of intercultural relationship in a society are further elaborated in the EC [69] which states that "Language skills facilitate intercultural dialogue because they increase the capability of EU citizens to understand the culture of other fellow Europeans (and migrants), thereby contributing to European integration" ([69] 29).

A 1990 sociolinguistic survey research conducted by Lambert and Taylor in both the USA and Canada, using *questionnaires*, came up with a significant number of persons in both societies endorsing multiculturalism over assimilation. They explain that "**Pluralism and multiculturalism may lead to a positive attitude, not only to the host and minority cultures, but to the equal validity of all cultures.** With multiculturalism at its best, certain vices like prejudice and racism… are minimized in any society" (cf. [43]: 404). This reinforces the school of thought which holds the view that a multicultural setting breeds citizens who show more respect for other people and other cultures; persons who are less stereotypical, less culturally insular, and introspective in nature, hence cultivating grounds for mutual coexistence among persons from different races, ethnicity, and linguistic backgrounds within the same nation.

The various findings from different researchers and organizations discussed above, especially the EC and EU positions, thus constitute empirical support for the fact that multilingualism comes with sociocultural benefits that can transform any community into an optimal social intercultural haven for all its citizens.

**4.4. National security advantage of bilingualism or multilingualism**

*volved in the battlefield as well as in negotiations.* ([77] 52)*.*

operate on official multilingualism platforms.

as follows:

Simire [78]:

*policy.*

**multilingualism**

The advantage of national security in a multilingual setting is crucial to contemporary society where technology hacking in the context of a cold war is the norm, even in developing countries. It is becoming more necessary for security or defense personnel to be able to effectively interact with diverse populations in the world. The power of foreign language for national security cannot be overemphasized {as}. This is summarized by Garamone [77]

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*Multilingualism also gives defense operations an edge in a multilingual society. The United States defense department is now encouraging its defense operation personnel to study a foreign language so that they can be more equipped in understanding the other culture that may be in-*

The essence of encouraging multilingualism in our societies has also been strongly echoed by

*… institutions, organizations and various levels of government cannot clearly and effectively perform to the expectations of their respective communities unless they can understand and be understood by their host communities. Hence, it becomes imperative that we examine the linguistic and sociolinguistic importance of adopting a multilingual approach in solving Nigeria's complex linguistic problems in public and social life at the various levels of government as well as in academic and specialized institutions, in strict compliance with the country's past and current language* 

Simire's position is geared to seeking a long-lasting crisis-resolution strategy with the aid of the multilingual tool applications for countries like Nigeria and other African countries that

The value of multilingualism encompasses even the specialized field of health sensitization. For even when officially monolingual, most countries have minority languages and speakers of some dialects, who form the illiterate masses of the entire population. In cases where crucial health information is disseminated only in the lone official language of that nation, the nonliterates of that official language are deprived of information in addition to their always being the less privileged and more greatly affected ones. If a society is multilingual, it stands to benefit from the flexibility of its variety of linguistic codes to reach out to all the villages and suburbs of the nation, which is a faster and more assuring approach to disseminate urgent information on health-threatening issues to a wider population, for instance. In the Singapore context, for example, Chinese vernacular languages were used in radio and television announcements, while Singlish was used in a song commissioned by the government to alert citizens to take note of hygiene precautions during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemic of 2003 [79]. This happened even though Singlish was usually frowned upon and discouraged by the government. Singlish was intentionally used in this

**4.5. Health sensitization flexibility advantage of societal bilingualism or** 

#### **4.3. Educational advantages of societal bilingualism or multilingualism**

Perhaps no other field so directly shows up the benefits of multilingualism as education and the academia. This is generated at the level of multicultural ideology of which Baker [43] writes:

*Multiculturalism has, as one foundation, the ideal of equal, harmonious, mutually tolerant existence of diverse languages, and of different religious, cultural and ethnic groups in a pluralist society. A multicultural viewpoint is partly based on the idea that an individual can successfully hold two or more cultural identities; where it is possible to be Ukrainian and Canadian, Chinese and Malaysian, Mexican and North American. In a different sense, it is possible to be a Ukrainian-Canadian, a Chinese-Malaysian or a Mexican-North American, sometimes called the hyphenated variety…. In this sense, identities are merged; the parts become a new whole…. [and the] person becomes a more or less integrated combination of [the] parts.* ([43] 402)

The implication of Baker's ideology of multiculturalism is that individuals who have foreign language knowledge would lead a society to experience development in diverse domains, if allowed to operate in that society and to uninterruptedly use their linguistic and cultural competences.

Academic advantages as a result of multilingual competence are succinctly captured in the Moore's [74] follow-up report in *Language Matters*: "… **the lack of language skills limits researchers in their ability to engage internationally in or with their research, and in their career opportunities."** This is a well-founded empirical advantage, for a researcher who is monolingual is limited by default from accessing very important research findings of scholars of other linguistic backgrounds from his. If this is the case, there is no doubt that such researchers will be retarded in their academic career due to limited literacy and literary materials exposure.

Nieto [75] more cogently advances the advantages of multilingualism in academia, suggesting that "multicultural education will ultimately be judged by its success or otherwise in being allied to 'high quality' and 'high standards' of education. **While multicultural education may successfully increase cultural and social awareness and stimulate critical thinking skills,** *a whole curriculum* approach must also show excellence in delivering basic skills, knowledge and understandings." It is in the same light that Cummins [76] argues for an approach to "transformative pedagogy" comprising (1) education grounded in the lives of students which is (2) multicultural, antiracist, and pro-justice, (3) participatory and experiential, (4) academically rigorous with high standards of performance, and (5) culturally sensitive. He postulates that (6) students should become critical in approach, (7) enabling them to feel safe, significant, and enthusiastic to share thoughts and feelings, and (8) active in promoting social change and justice.

#### **4.4. National security advantage of bilingualism or multilingualism**

The various findings from different researchers and organizations discussed above, especially the EC and EU positions, thus constitute empirical support for the fact that multilingualism comes with sociocultural benefits that can transform any community into an optimal social

Perhaps no other field so directly shows up the benefits of multilingualism as education and the academia. This is generated at the level of multicultural ideology of which Baker [43]

*Multiculturalism has, as one foundation, the ideal of equal, harmonious, mutually tolerant existence of diverse languages, and of different religious, cultural and ethnic groups in a pluralist society. A multicultural viewpoint is partly based on the idea that an individual can successfully hold two or more cultural identities; where it is possible to be Ukrainian and Canadian, Chinese and Malaysian, Mexican and North American. In a different sense, it is possible to be a Ukrainian-Canadian, a Chinese-Malaysian or a Mexican-North American, sometimes called the hyphenated variety…. In this sense, identities are merged; the parts become a new whole…. [and the] person becomes a more or less integrated* 

The implication of Baker's ideology of multiculturalism is that individuals who have foreign language knowledge would lead a society to experience development in diverse domains, if allowed to operate in that society and to uninterruptedly use their linguistic and cultural

Academic advantages as a result of multilingual competence are succinctly captured in the Moore's [74] follow-up report in *Language Matters*: "… **the lack of language skills limits researchers in their ability to engage internationally in or with their research, and in their career opportunities."** This is a well-founded empirical advantage, for a researcher who is monolingual is limited by default from accessing very important research findings of scholars of other linguistic backgrounds from his. If this is the case, there is no doubt that such researchers will be retarded in their academic career due to limited literacy and literary

Nieto [75] more cogently advances the advantages of multilingualism in academia, suggesting that "multicultural education will ultimately be judged by its success or otherwise in being allied to 'high quality' and 'high standards' of education. **While multicultural education may successfully increase cultural and social awareness and stimulate critical thinking skills,** *a whole curriculum* approach must also show excellence in delivering basic skills, knowledge and understandings." It is in the same light that Cummins [76] argues for an approach to "transformative pedagogy" comprising (1) education grounded in the lives of students which is (2) multicultural, antiracist, and pro-justice, (3) participatory and experiential, (4) academically rigorous with high standards of performance, and (5) culturally sensitive. He postulates that (6) students should become critical in approach, (7) enabling them to feel safe, significant, and enthusiastic to share thoughts and feelings, and (8) active in

**4.3. Educational advantages of societal bilingualism or multilingualism**

intercultural haven for all its citizens.

28 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

*combination of [the] parts.* ([43] 402)

writes:

competences.

materials exposure.

promoting social change and justice.

The advantage of national security in a multilingual setting is crucial to contemporary society where technology hacking in the context of a cold war is the norm, even in developing countries. It is becoming more necessary for security or defense personnel to be able to effectively interact with diverse populations in the world. The power of foreign language for national security cannot be overemphasized {as}. This is summarized by Garamone [77] as follows:

*Multilingualism also gives defense operations an edge in a multilingual society. The United States defense department is now encouraging its defense operation personnel to study a foreign language so that they can be more equipped in understanding the other culture that may be involved in the battlefield as well as in negotiations.* ([77] 52)*.*

The essence of encouraging multilingualism in our societies has also been strongly echoed by Simire [78]:

*… institutions, organizations and various levels of government cannot clearly and effectively perform to the expectations of their respective communities unless they can understand and be understood by their host communities. Hence, it becomes imperative that we examine the linguistic and sociolinguistic importance of adopting a multilingual approach in solving Nigeria's complex linguistic problems in public and social life at the various levels of government as well as in academic and specialized institutions, in strict compliance with the country's past and current language policy.*

Simire's position is geared to seeking a long-lasting crisis-resolution strategy with the aid of the multilingual tool applications for countries like Nigeria and other African countries that operate on official multilingualism platforms.

#### **4.5. Health sensitization flexibility advantage of societal bilingualism or multilingualism**

The value of multilingualism encompasses even the specialized field of health sensitization. For even when officially monolingual, most countries have minority languages and speakers of some dialects, who form the illiterate masses of the entire population. In cases where crucial health information is disseminated only in the lone official language of that nation, the nonliterates of that official language are deprived of information in addition to their always being the less privileged and more greatly affected ones. If a society is multilingual, it stands to benefit from the flexibility of its variety of linguistic codes to reach out to all the villages and suburbs of the nation, which is a faster and more assuring approach to disseminate urgent information on health-threatening issues to a wider population, for instance. In the Singapore context, for example, Chinese vernacular languages were used in radio and television announcements, while Singlish was used in a song commissioned by the government to alert citizens to take note of hygiene precautions during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemic of 2003 [79]. This happened even though Singlish was usually frowned upon and discouraged by the government. Singlish was intentionally used in this instance on the basis of reaching out to the "less educated Singaporeans" [79]. Thus, the use of multilingualism enables all citizens to be effectively mobilized for development in their own mother tongue or *language of the heart* [80].

**6. Conclusion**

gered languages [13].

Evelyn Fogwe Chibaka

Matters; 1997

Multilingual Matters. 1998

University of Buea, Cameroon

Address all correspondence to: efogwe@yahoo.com

and Organizational Psychology. 2004;**77**:11-37

guals. Neuropsychology. 2002;**16**:562-576

A Journal for Language Teachers. 2007;**9**:3-8

**Author details**

**References**

Bilingualism and multilingualism provide an enormous number of advantages and opportunities at both individual and societal levels. Global and globalizing sectors including financial services, pharmaceutical, chemical, automotive, IT, and other human contact (social) services rely heavily on language skills to operate for commerce and delivery. Some of the ramifications of multilingualism benefits stretch to diverse fields of life for both the individuals and the societies that practice them. In a nutshell, the research results discussed in this chapter hold up bilingual or multilingual experiences in most instances as assets to both the individual and the society that make use of it. These advantages contribute to reinforcing UNESCO's position (arrived at on independent grounds) in favor of linguistic diversity and the consequent action of revitalization and maintenance of endan-

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31

[1] May DR, Gilson RL, Harter LM. The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational

[2] Gollan TH, Montoya RI, Werner G. Semantic and letter fluency in Spanish-English bilin-

[3] Gollan TH, Bonanni MP, Montoya RI. Proper names get stuck on bilingual and monolingual speakers' tip-of-the-tongue equally often. Neuropsychology. 2005;**19**:278-287

[4] Wodniecka Z, Cepeda N.Beyond the classroom: Bilingualism. Cognitive Skills and Heath.

[5] Byram M.Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Multilingual

[6] Baker C, Jones SP, editors. Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. In:

#### **5. Bilingualism or multilingualism as a blessing**

The avalanche of empirical findings discussed here suggests that linguistic diversity in any society should be celebrated, developed, and maintained and not combated, and this requires more than just sweet-sounding policies. Accompanying institutions, resources, facilities, and proper implementation strategies and monitoring schemes are needed to make multilingual practices effectively operational. Only proper management of multilingualism will yield expected benefits.

In considering multilingualism as a blessing and not a curse for any society, we take the standpoint of an objective evaluation of certain parameters in both multilingual and monolingual societies, adopting the *linguistic disenfranchisement rate* proposed by the European Commission (cf. [81]) in evaluating the effectiveness of multilingual regime policy for European Union states. *Linguistic disenfranchisement rate* as defined by Gazzola et al. [81] is an analytic approach to give an objective picture of the benefits any society with **a multilingual regime stands to gain and exposes its country to sustainable evolution and development for its citizens**. This designed indicator check and effectiveness evaluating tool for multilingualism advantages involves "the inputs, the outputs, and the outcomes of a language regime." The *inputs* are defined as the human, regulatory, and material means used to implement a policy (e.g., the costs of language services such as translation and interpreting), while the *outputs* are what are directly produced through the resources employed, typically, the number of pages of translated documents or the amount of hours of interpreting per year. The *outcome* is the effect of the policy on the target population. The evaluation of the effectiveness and the fairness of a language regime must be carried out on the basis of outcomes (cf. [82]: 6). From projects of this magnitude, the conclusion is that communication as "information transfer" [82] in different domains of societal networks inclusively engage the majority of the citizens of the societies and also widens the scope of progressive and global megaphone benefits at all levels of those societies. Gazzola's [82] research on the disenfranchisement rate associated with some monolingual and multilingual European countries came up with the findings that the "percentage of citizens who potentially cannot understand EU documents (e.g., legal texts, regulations, webpages, call for tenders) and oral public discussions (e.g., meetings of the European Parliament transmitted via the Internet) because they do not master any official language" is higher in monolingual societies than multilingual ones, working on the interpretation that "the lower the disenfranchisement rate, the higher the effectiveness." Thus, one could rightly hypothesize that the opportunities and privileges of multilingual societies outnumber those of monolingual ones.
