**3. Advantages of individual bilingualism and multilingualism**

In this section, we appraise empirical evidence of advantages to individuals with respect to cognitive development, aging complications, linguistic awareness, communicative competence, academic or educational performance, as well as sociocultural and economic benefits.

English and Italian achieved **higher scores on the creativity, metalinguistic awareness, and reading achievement tests**." The outcome of his study is not very different from what Mohanty [26] observed with the bilinguals in his research population as stated in the above paragraph.

Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74625

19

With the neurocognitive perspective, using *neuroimaging methodologies*, Wodniecka et al. [28] provided a comprehensive account to justify their claim that "Given that the differences observed spanned several measures of structural integrity, including enhanced gray and white matter as well as enhanced long-range connectivity in bilinguals compared to monolinguals, it has been suggested that the enhanced cognitive and neural functioning in bilinguals may rely upon this enriched neural architecture." These researchers, based on their findings, concluded that "These results consequently suggest that the **bilingual executive control advantage** does indeed extend to memory as **bilinguals were selectively** 

Furthermore, and in the same light about the advantage in cognitive development, Rodriguez [29] investigated the effect of bilingualism on the cognitive development and linguistic performance of children at various ages living in the same cultural environment. Here, abstract thinking was measured using *verbal and nonverbal cognition test*. He reported from his findings that "The bilingual children used higher order rules more frequently than the monolingual children. The evidence seems to suggest that **bilingualism may scaffold concept formation and general mental flexibility.**" The avalanche of research evidence discussed underscores the fact that bilinguals are undoubtedly endowed with cognitive benefits as a result of their

Studies conducted on patients with cognitive complaints (dementia or Alzheimer's disease) in a memory clinic, using the measurement of *the rate of decline in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores*, as recorded over a span of 4 years from diagnosis date, indicated that there is a **significant delay of the symptoms of old age dementia recorded in bilinguals**, which on the other hand manifests faster in monolinguals. This prevalence of delayed Alzheimer's disease in bilinguals is also what [7] 105) describe as "strong epidemiologic evidence to suggest that older adults who maintain an active lifestyle in terms of social, mental, and physical engagement are protected to some degree against the onset of dementia. Such factors are said to contribute to cognitive reserve, which acts to compensate for the accumulation of amyloid and other brain pathologies." This finding highlights multiple advantages, including **efficient and sustainable executive functioning and cognitive control, old age mental or cognitive health guarantee,** 

**and even socioeconomic benefits** since it saves healthcare expenses for the bilinguals.

The bilingual status as a major factor enhancing the cognitive reserve of bilinguals' brain atrophy (delay) in dementia symptoms has been well articulated by Schweizer et al. [30], conforming with and confirming earlier findings by the likes of Bialystok et al. [7], Craik et al. [31], and Chertkow et al. [32]. Schweizer et al. [30] did carry out, in both bilingual and monolingual Alzheimer's patients, a significant number of linear measurements of brain atrophy from the *computed tomography (CT) scan*. After controlling other variables like level

**advantaged in recollection as opposed to familiarity judgments.**"

capacity to use and process two or more linguistic codes.

**3.2. Bilingualism and delay of Alzheimer's disease or aging mental disorder**

#### **3.1. Advantages of bilingualism in cognitive development**

Asserting that bilinguals or multilingual individuals have **more improved cognitive abilities** than monolinguals is not a sentimental claim, but one substantiated by scientific experiments conducted to validate the point. The 1989 publication of Foster and Reeves [24], for example, details the use of the *Ross test* for cognitive function and the *Butterfly and Moths test instruments* for the assessment of metacognitive processes in a group of English-French bilinguals receiving instruction in French and the control group of English monolinguals. They came up with the findings that "the students who had received foreign language instruction scored higher on tasks involving evaluation which is the highest cognitive skill according to Bloom's taxonomy. The linear trend analysis showed that the students who had studied French the longest, performed the best."

That bilinguals and multilinguals have proven to be more creative and apt with respect to flexible thinking ability is now a widely accepted fact supported by Landry [25] for whom bilinguals not only have "… the ability to depart from the traditional approaches to a problem, but bilingual competence also supplies them with possible rich resources for new and different ideas." Landry's statement is a conclusion arrived after his research on the evaluation of thinking figural tasks assigned to both bilingual and monolingual groups of elementary students using both *historiometric* and *psychometric research methods.* At the end of his study, the bilinguals came out with significantly higher grades than the monolinguals. Hence, the outstanding performance realized from his experimental group buttresses his claims that the bilinguals are cognitively more creative and proactive in nature.

Another study, conducted by Mohanty [26], indicates that bilinguals "**exercise […] superiority in cognitive, linguistic, and academic performances**" over monolinguals. He reported that in "[a] series of studies involving the comparison of unilingual and balanced bilingual children, with respect to the *metalinguistic hypothesis* these studies show that the bilinguals outperform the unilinguals on a number of cognitive, linguistic, and metalinguistic tasks, even when the differences in intelligence were controlled." His interpretation of the results is incontrovertible in that, after the control of all the other obvious interfering factors and variables, the only possible variable that could be contributing to the excellent performance of the experimental group was their bilingual status.

Furthermore, on cognitive-related advantages for bilinguals, Ricciardelli [27] carried out a similar research on Italian-English bilingual and Italian monolingual children, in which he measured their metalinguistic awareness, creativity, nonverbal abilities, and reading achievement through *proficiency testing.* His report states that "Results of comparison of performance on the measures of cognitive development indicate that students who demonstrated high proficiency in both English and Italian achieved **higher scores on the creativity, metalinguistic awareness, and reading achievement tests**." The outcome of his study is not very different from what Mohanty [26] observed with the bilinguals in his research population as stated in the above paragraph.

**3. Advantages of individual bilingualism and multilingualism**

**3.1. Advantages of bilingualism in cognitive development**

bilinguals are cognitively more creative and proactive in nature.

experimental group was their bilingual status.

longest, performed the best."

18 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

In this section, we appraise empirical evidence of advantages to individuals with respect to cognitive development, aging complications, linguistic awareness, communicative competence, academic or educational performance, as well as sociocultural and economic benefits.

Asserting that bilinguals or multilingual individuals have **more improved cognitive abilities** than monolinguals is not a sentimental claim, but one substantiated by scientific experiments conducted to validate the point. The 1989 publication of Foster and Reeves [24], for example, details the use of the *Ross test* for cognitive function and the *Butterfly and Moths test instruments* for the assessment of metacognitive processes in a group of English-French bilinguals receiving instruction in French and the control group of English monolinguals. They came up with the findings that "the students who had received foreign language instruction scored higher on tasks involving evaluation which is the highest cognitive skill according to Bloom's taxonomy. The linear trend analysis showed that the students who had studied French the

That bilinguals and multilinguals have proven to be more creative and apt with respect to flexible thinking ability is now a widely accepted fact supported by Landry [25] for whom bilinguals not only have "… the ability to depart from the traditional approaches to a problem, but bilingual competence also supplies them with possible rich resources for new and different ideas." Landry's statement is a conclusion arrived after his research on the evaluation of thinking figural tasks assigned to both bilingual and monolingual groups of elementary students using both *historiometric* and *psychometric research methods.* At the end of his study, the bilinguals came out with significantly higher grades than the monolinguals. Hence, the outstanding performance realized from his experimental group buttresses his claims that the

Another study, conducted by Mohanty [26], indicates that bilinguals "**exercise […] superiority in cognitive, linguistic, and academic performances**" over monolinguals. He reported that in "[a] series of studies involving the comparison of unilingual and balanced bilingual children, with respect to the *metalinguistic hypothesis* these studies show that the bilinguals outperform the unilinguals on a number of cognitive, linguistic, and metalinguistic tasks, even when the differences in intelligence were controlled." His interpretation of the results is incontrovertible in that, after the control of all the other obvious interfering factors and variables, the only possible variable that could be contributing to the excellent performance of the

Furthermore, on cognitive-related advantages for bilinguals, Ricciardelli [27] carried out a similar research on Italian-English bilingual and Italian monolingual children, in which he measured their metalinguistic awareness, creativity, nonverbal abilities, and reading achievement through *proficiency testing.* His report states that "Results of comparison of performance on the measures of cognitive development indicate that students who demonstrated high proficiency in both With the neurocognitive perspective, using *neuroimaging methodologies*, Wodniecka et al. [28] provided a comprehensive account to justify their claim that "Given that the differences observed spanned several measures of structural integrity, including enhanced gray and white matter as well as enhanced long-range connectivity in bilinguals compared to monolinguals, it has been suggested that the enhanced cognitive and neural functioning in bilinguals may rely upon this enriched neural architecture." These researchers, based on their findings, concluded that "These results consequently suggest that the **bilingual executive control advantage** does indeed extend to memory as **bilinguals were selectively advantaged in recollection as opposed to familiarity judgments.**"

Furthermore, and in the same light about the advantage in cognitive development, Rodriguez [29] investigated the effect of bilingualism on the cognitive development and linguistic performance of children at various ages living in the same cultural environment. Here, abstract thinking was measured using *verbal and nonverbal cognition test*. He reported from his findings that "The bilingual children used higher order rules more frequently than the monolingual children. The evidence seems to suggest that **bilingualism may scaffold concept formation and general mental flexibility.**" The avalanche of research evidence discussed underscores the fact that bilinguals are undoubtedly endowed with cognitive benefits as a result of their capacity to use and process two or more linguistic codes.

#### **3.2. Bilingualism and delay of Alzheimer's disease or aging mental disorder**

Studies conducted on patients with cognitive complaints (dementia or Alzheimer's disease) in a memory clinic, using the measurement of *the rate of decline in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores*, as recorded over a span of 4 years from diagnosis date, indicated that there is a **significant delay of the symptoms of old age dementia recorded in bilinguals**, which on the other hand manifests faster in monolinguals. This prevalence of delayed Alzheimer's disease in bilinguals is also what [7] 105) describe as "strong epidemiologic evidence to suggest that older adults who maintain an active lifestyle in terms of social, mental, and physical engagement are protected to some degree against the onset of dementia. Such factors are said to contribute to cognitive reserve, which acts to compensate for the accumulation of amyloid and other brain pathologies." This finding highlights multiple advantages, including **efficient and sustainable executive functioning and cognitive control, old age mental or cognitive health guarantee, and even socioeconomic benefits** since it saves healthcare expenses for the bilinguals.

The bilingual status as a major factor enhancing the cognitive reserve of bilinguals' brain atrophy (delay) in dementia symptoms has been well articulated by Schweizer et al. [30], conforming with and confirming earlier findings by the likes of Bialystok et al. [7], Craik et al. [31], and Chertkow et al. [32]. Schweizer et al. [30] did carry out, in both bilingual and monolingual Alzheimer's patients, a significant number of linear measurements of brain atrophy from the *computed tomography (CT) scan*. After controlling other variables like level of cognitive performance and years of education, they arrived at a finding that bilinguals did manifest an increased cognitive reserve (CR) with greater amount of brain atrophy (delay) than the monolinguals—indicating **a delay in the onset of Alzheimer disease and much better cognitive performance** than would be expected from their level of dementia disease. They further emphasize that the advantaged cognitive reserve of bilinguals serves as **a protective mechanism that helps to increase their brain's potential to cope with Alzheimer's pathology**.

communication act, **helping to orientate the portion of the bilinguals' brains that stimulate** 

Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74625

21

The edge that bilinguals have over monolinguals has also been shown by the Barac and Bialystok [39] investigative research on how language, cultural background, and education can **enhance cognitive and linguistic development in bilinguals**. They experimented with a population of four groups of 6-year-olds (English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, French-English bilinguals, Spanish-English bilinguals), testing them *verbally and nonverbally with executive control tasks*. The result of their findings was that all the bilingual groups performed exceedingly better than the monolingual groups and the best performances registered on the language task were produced by the bilinguals whose language of instruction was English, the testing language. The outcome of this study led the researchers to claim that **bilingual experiences foster linguistic competences in varied verbal tasks in life**. As these sets of research studies testify, the bilinguals, eventually, in their use of more than one language, **develop better language proficiency, sensitivity, and definitely more in-depth** 

The benefits of communicative poise and competence of bilinguals have also been voiced by Cook [40]. He comments that bilinguals have "a more extensive range of affordances or interpretations providing them with a greater number of options from which to choose". This leads to a view of the **bilingual as having increased competence or multi-competence** (where multi-competence is defined as the added capacity resulting from bilingualism. This notion of

*These subtle differences consistently suggest that people with multi-competence are not simply equivalent to two monolinguals but are a unique combination … so the multicompetence state (L1+ L2) yields more than the sum of its parts, L1 and L2. Thus, a bilingual that is seeking to solve a problem in one language is thought to be able to draw on the other language and related frames of mind to bring extra* 

A study carried out by Kessler and Quinn [42] on grade 6 students (monolingual English speaking and bilingual Spanish and English speaking groups), using both *standardized reading and verbalized test*, came up with the findings that the bilinguals outperformed the monolinguals in generating more complex hypotheses. They interpreted their findings to mean that the complexities of the language structures of the bilinguals are occasioned by **their ability to undertake convergent high thinking activity, and this relates to a property possessed by most bilinguals** from their studied population. This smart trait in bilinguals equips them with the inflected potential to be metaphorical in their expressions, as later captured by Baker's [43] claim that the **bilinguals are "creative" in nature**. Also, their communicative sensitivity, which was part of the findings of Kessler and Quinn [42], May et al. [1], confirms that the multilinguals, as a result of their diverse language experiences**, have high self-confidence and stronger willingness to communicate without fear of construct-**

As far as linguistic awareness, communication ability, and competences go, it can be briefly affirmed that all the authors outlined in this subsection of the chapter attest that the advantages of **being a multilingual speaker extend to other problem-solving aspects in life, besides the communicative resourcefulness and creativity privilege** they have over monolinguals.

**linguistic awareness and subsequently improving their communication skills**.

**understanding and control of their mother tongue**.

multi-competence was later (1992) further elaborated on by Cook thus:

*cognitive capacity to bear in solving a problem.* ([41] 557)*.*

**ing non-well-formed utterances**.

#### **3.3. Bilingualism in the management of chronic aphasia**

Aphasia, defined by the US National Aphasia Association as "an impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words, usually acquired as a result of a stroke or other brain injury," is "a communication disorder resulting from a stroke or traumatic brain injury" [33]. This acute or chronic condition can be better treated in bilinguals than monolinguals. Haynes' research team carried out their study on nine chronic aphasia patients under the framework of *Outcome Measurements in Aphasia* study, where the patients were exposed to "teletherapy services that combined group therapy with one-on-one therapy sessions and online *TalkPath* language exercises." The findings were that **poststroke aphasia therapy was more responsive in bilinguals** than in monolinguals. They explained that the bilinguals were able, after stroke, to undergo a process of "transfer effect" to the primary language. Their findings go to confirm Ellis et al.'s [34] claims that "… when a person who speaks two languages experiences brain damage leading to a language condition called aphasia, the second, less dominant language can be used to transfer knowledge to the primary one, helping with rehabilitation."

#### **3.4. Bilingualism and enhancement of linguistic awareness and communicative competence**

In appreciating some of the benefits of communicative ability and communicative competence of bilinguals, Dickinson et al. [35] used the results from their investigation on "whether there is a cross-language transfer of phonological awareness" to support this added advantage for bilinguals. They engaged 123 Spanish-English 4-year-olds in a number of testing techniques such as the acronymic EPAP or *Early Phonological Awareness Profile* measurement technique [36]; the *Emergent Literacy Profile* competence assessment task, abbreviated ELP [37]; and *rhyme recognition* tasks. Their findings go to support the fact that there is a significant transfer of phonological features from a speaker's first language to the second, especially when they share some phonological entry similarities. This positive transfer is no doubt a bonus to bilinguals since **it develops their linguistic competence in other languages and broadens their content exposures of different academic or literary materials across linguistic boundaries**.

Abutalebi et al. [38] employed functional *magnetic resonance imaging techniques* in the investigation of the neural correlates of language selection processes in German-French bilingual subjects during picture naming in different monolingual and bilingual selection contexts. Their scientifically aligned evidence bolsters the fact that bilinguals have an added advantage in their capacity to switch-on one language when in use and deactivate the other during a

#### communication act, **helping to orientate the portion of the bilinguals' brains that stimulate linguistic awareness and subsequently improving their communication skills**.

of cognitive performance and years of education, they arrived at a finding that bilinguals did manifest an increased cognitive reserve (CR) with greater amount of brain atrophy (delay) than the monolinguals—indicating **a delay in the onset of Alzheimer disease and much better cognitive performance** than would be expected from their level of dementia disease. They further emphasize that the advantaged cognitive reserve of bilinguals serves as **a protective mechanism that helps to increase their brain's potential to cope with** 

Aphasia, defined by the US National Aphasia Association as "an impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words, usually acquired as a result of a stroke or other brain injury," is "a communication disorder resulting from a stroke or traumatic brain injury" [33]. This acute or chronic condition can be better treated in bilinguals than monolinguals. Haynes' research team carried out their study on nine chronic aphasia patients under the framework of *Outcome Measurements in Aphasia* study, where the patients were exposed to "teletherapy services that combined group therapy with one-on-one therapy sessions and online *TalkPath* language exercises." The findings were that **poststroke aphasia therapy was more responsive in bilinguals** than in monolinguals. They explained that the bilinguals were able, after stroke, to undergo a process of "transfer effect" to the primary language. Their findings go to confirm Ellis et al.'s [34] claims that "… when a person who speaks two languages experiences brain damage leading to a language condition called aphasia, the second, less dominant language can be used to transfer knowledge to the primary one,

**3.4. Bilingualism and enhancement of linguistic awareness and communicative** 

In appreciating some of the benefits of communicative ability and communicative competence of bilinguals, Dickinson et al. [35] used the results from their investigation on "whether there is a cross-language transfer of phonological awareness" to support this added advantage for bilinguals. They engaged 123 Spanish-English 4-year-olds in a number of testing techniques such as the acronymic EPAP or *Early Phonological Awareness Profile* measurement technique [36]; the *Emergent Literacy Profile* competence assessment task, abbreviated ELP [37]; and *rhyme recognition* tasks. Their findings go to support the fact that there is a significant transfer of phonological features from a speaker's first language to the second, especially when they share some phonological entry similarities. This positive transfer is no doubt a bonus to bilinguals since **it develops their linguistic competence in other languages and broadens their content exposures of different academic or literary materials across linguistic boundaries**. Abutalebi et al. [38] employed functional *magnetic resonance imaging techniques* in the investigation of the neural correlates of language selection processes in German-French bilingual subjects during picture naming in different monolingual and bilingual selection contexts. Their scientifically aligned evidence bolsters the fact that bilinguals have an added advantage in their capacity to switch-on one language when in use and deactivate the other during a

**Alzheimer's pathology**.

20 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

helping with rehabilitation."

**competence**

**3.3. Bilingualism in the management of chronic aphasia**

The edge that bilinguals have over monolinguals has also been shown by the Barac and Bialystok [39] investigative research on how language, cultural background, and education can **enhance cognitive and linguistic development in bilinguals**. They experimented with a population of four groups of 6-year-olds (English monolinguals, Chinese-English bilinguals, French-English bilinguals, Spanish-English bilinguals), testing them *verbally and nonverbally with executive control tasks*. The result of their findings was that all the bilingual groups performed exceedingly better than the monolingual groups and the best performances registered on the language task were produced by the bilinguals whose language of instruction was English, the testing language. The outcome of this study led the researchers to claim that **bilingual experiences foster linguistic competences in varied verbal tasks in life**. As these sets of research studies testify, the bilinguals, eventually, in their use of more than one language, **develop better language proficiency, sensitivity, and definitely more in-depth understanding and control of their mother tongue**.

The benefits of communicative poise and competence of bilinguals have also been voiced by Cook [40]. He comments that bilinguals have "a more extensive range of affordances or interpretations providing them with a greater number of options from which to choose". This leads to a view of the **bilingual as having increased competence or multi-competence** (where multi-competence is defined as the added capacity resulting from bilingualism. This notion of multi-competence was later (1992) further elaborated on by Cook thus:

*These subtle differences consistently suggest that people with multi-competence are not simply equivalent to two monolinguals but are a unique combination … so the multicompetence state (L1+ L2) yields more than the sum of its parts, L1 and L2. Thus, a bilingual that is seeking to solve a problem in one language is thought to be able to draw on the other language and related frames of mind to bring extra cognitive capacity to bear in solving a problem.* ([41] 557)*.*

A study carried out by Kessler and Quinn [42] on grade 6 students (monolingual English speaking and bilingual Spanish and English speaking groups), using both *standardized reading and verbalized test*, came up with the findings that the bilinguals outperformed the monolinguals in generating more complex hypotheses. They interpreted their findings to mean that the complexities of the language structures of the bilinguals are occasioned by **their ability to undertake convergent high thinking activity, and this relates to a property possessed by most bilinguals** from their studied population. This smart trait in bilinguals equips them with the inflected potential to be metaphorical in their expressions, as later captured by Baker's [43] claim that the **bilinguals are "creative" in nature**. Also, their communicative sensitivity, which was part of the findings of Kessler and Quinn [42], May et al. [1], confirms that the multilinguals, as a result of their diverse language experiences**, have high self-confidence and stronger willingness to communicate without fear of constructing non-well-formed utterances**.

As far as linguistic awareness, communication ability, and competences go, it can be briefly affirmed that all the authors outlined in this subsection of the chapter attest that the advantages of **being a multilingual speaker extend to other problem-solving aspects in life, besides the communicative resourcefulness and creativity privilege** they have over monolinguals.

#### **3.5. Benefit of bilingualism to academic performance**

When we talk of exposure as a better teacher, we align with Cook's [44] conviction that.

*…a person who speaks multiple languages has a stereoscopic vision of the world from two or more perspectives, enabling them to be more flexible in their thinking, and learn reading more easily. Multilinguals, therefore, are not restricted to a single world-view, but also have a better understanding that other outlooks are possible. Indeed, this has always been seen as one of the main educational advantages of language teaching.*

as well as exposure to tasks in syntax. Multilingual subjects were also more capable of structuring their strategies to the task and used a wider variety of different strategies. They concluded that **multilinguals, compared to monolinguals, have superior flexibility in switching strategies,** which is a skill that equips them to better handle concepts and rules governing the

Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings

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23

The advantages of being bilingual are more visible in today's job market than in the past, especially with the advent of globalization and the rapid rate of technological advancement reaching all nooks and crannies of the world. This is evidenced in a *survey* of 581 alumni of The American Graduate School of International Management in Glendale, Arizona, where most respondents said they had **gained a competitive advantage from their knowledge of foreign languages and other cultures.** They said that not only was **language study often a critical factor in hiring decisions and in enhancing their career paths, but that it also pro-**

**vided personal fulfillment, mental discipline, and cultural enlightenment** (cf. [51]).

Also, in recent years, the US government has expressed **a need for fluent speakers of languages other than English,** particularly in less commonly taught languages such as Arabic and Chinese (US General Accounting Office 2002). It is obvious that even official monolingual countries like the USA have recognized the advantages of having citizens with competence in more than one or two languages in its job market and that multilingualism is a force to reckon

There is evidence that **bilinguals are better equipped for information processing than monolinguals.** The fact that multilinguals have knowledge of at least two language systems provides them with **potentials to switch the functionality strategies of one language to the other as the need demands.** This vantage position of the bilinguals was articulated by Meiran [52] after her experiment with the use of *functional magnetic resonance imaging* (*fMRI*) in testing coactivation and inhibition in bilinguals during spoken language comprehension. According to the researcher, "It's like a stop light […] Bilinguals are always giving the green light to one language and red to another. When you have to do that all the time, you get really good at inhibiting the words you don't need." Benefits accrue because the bilingual brain is constantly activating both languages, choosing which to use and which to ignore. When the brain is constantly so exercised, **it does not have to work as hard as the monolingual's to perform most** 

Also, the simple ability of bilinguals to switch from one language to the other indicates that **they can, with limited effort, relate to reflexes and transfer of language rules, which is a pointer of general task-specific switching mechanism in operation**. This talent claim has been supported by Yehene and Meiran [53] who specify that "bilingual language switching may increase general switching efficiency, and might be stronger at a long *cue–target interval (CTI)*, which may better tap general switching abilities." They justify this claim with findings from their experiment on 80 Spanish-English bilinguals and 80 monolinguals engaged on a

acquisition of languages and related aspects.

with and to encourage.

**cognitive tasks effectively**.

**3.6. Bilingualism and enhancement of career opportunities**

**3.7. Bilingualism and information processing edge**

This perspective of the benefits for bilinguals sees them as **persons with a better ear for listening […and] endowed with sharper memories on diverse issues in life.** It is but normal then to consider **the bilinguals as better problem solvers**, since their bilingual exposure provides them with multiple perspectives on issues at hand and **better critical thinking abilities**.

Knowledge of a second language also seems to coincide with high academic achievement. A study by Horn and Kojaku [45] shows that students who were in "rigorous" programs in high school, which included 3 years of foreign language study, were more likely to earn better grades in college and less likely to drop out. This finding is a pointer to the claim that **bilinguals have the potentials to attain high academic standards with less effort** than monolinguals. This position is reinforced by Curtain and Dahlberg [46] who assert that "… the positive impact of cultural information is significantly enhanced when that information is experienced through foreign language and accompanied by experiences in culturally authentic situations." Thus, experiences in learning a second language and learning another culture will facilitate teachers' interactions with their students' learning experience. In other words, competent teachers understand that a positive self-concept and a positive identification with one's culture are the basis for academic success.

Academic advantages for bilinguals have been affirmed by research conducted by Keshavarz and Astanch [47] with one group of Persian monolinguals and two groups of bilinguals. They used the *Controlled Productive Ability Test* in English to evaluate their knowledge and performance in English language. Their performances revealed a clear difference in marks between the bilinguals and the monolinguals as bilinguals performed significantly better than monolinguals. They suggest that the prior foreign language experience of bilinguals place them in vantage position in learning another language, as this helps to **improve their ability to learn and recall English vocabulary better than their monolingual counterparts.** This claim is also attested to by Murphy [48] and MacWhinney [49] who say that **bilinguals have more opportunities to transfer knowledge and language governing rules from one language to the other, making it easier for them to learn overlapping cognates in form and meaning across languages—**opportunities which of course monolinguals do not have. From their analysis, by virtue of the fact that bilinguals already know two languages, positive transfer and familiarity with language structures and rules of previous languages become very useful in their acquisition of another foreign language.

To this stack of evidences must be added (Nayak et al. [50]), whose study of a group of monolingual and multilingual subjects concluded that multilingual subjects performed better than monolinguals in learning the rules for syntax when exposed to formal teaching of such rules, as well as exposure to tasks in syntax. Multilingual subjects were also more capable of structuring their strategies to the task and used a wider variety of different strategies. They concluded that **multilinguals, compared to monolinguals, have superior flexibility in switching strategies,** which is a skill that equips them to better handle concepts and rules governing the acquisition of languages and related aspects.

#### **3.6. Bilingualism and enhancement of career opportunities**

**3.5. Benefit of bilingualism to academic performance**

22 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

*educational advantages of language teaching.*

one's culture are the basis for academic success.

tion of another foreign language.

When we talk of exposure as a better teacher, we align with Cook's [44] conviction that.

*…a person who speaks multiple languages has a stereoscopic vision of the world from two or more perspectives, enabling them to be more flexible in their thinking, and learn reading more easily. Multilinguals, therefore, are not restricted to a single world-view, but also have a better understanding that other outlooks are possible. Indeed, this has always been seen as one of the main* 

This perspective of the benefits for bilinguals sees them as **persons with a better ear for listening […and] endowed with sharper memories on diverse issues in life.** It is but normal then to consider **the bilinguals as better problem solvers**, since their bilingual exposure provides them with multiple perspectives on issues at hand and **better critical thinking abilities**. Knowledge of a second language also seems to coincide with high academic achievement. A study by Horn and Kojaku [45] shows that students who were in "rigorous" programs in high school, which included 3 years of foreign language study, were more likely to earn better grades in college and less likely to drop out. This finding is a pointer to the claim that **bilinguals have the potentials to attain high academic standards with less effort** than monolinguals. This position is reinforced by Curtain and Dahlberg [46] who assert that "… the positive impact of cultural information is significantly enhanced when that information is experienced through foreign language and accompanied by experiences in culturally authentic situations." Thus, experiences in learning a second language and learning another culture will facilitate teachers' interactions with their students' learning experience. In other words, competent teachers understand that a positive self-concept and a positive identification with

Academic advantages for bilinguals have been affirmed by research conducted by Keshavarz and Astanch [47] with one group of Persian monolinguals and two groups of bilinguals. They used the *Controlled Productive Ability Test* in English to evaluate their knowledge and performance in English language. Their performances revealed a clear difference in marks between the bilinguals and the monolinguals as bilinguals performed significantly better than monolinguals. They suggest that the prior foreign language experience of bilinguals place them in vantage position in learning another language, as this helps to **improve their ability to learn and recall English vocabulary better than their monolingual counterparts.** This claim is also attested to by Murphy [48] and MacWhinney [49] who say that **bilinguals have more opportunities to transfer knowledge and language governing rules from one language to the other, making it easier for them to learn overlapping cognates in form and meaning across languages—**opportunities which of course monolinguals do not have. From their analysis, by virtue of the fact that bilinguals already know two languages, positive transfer and familiarity with language structures and rules of previous languages become very useful in their acquisi-

To this stack of evidences must be added (Nayak et al. [50]), whose study of a group of monolingual and multilingual subjects concluded that multilingual subjects performed better than monolinguals in learning the rules for syntax when exposed to formal teaching of such rules, The advantages of being bilingual are more visible in today's job market than in the past, especially with the advent of globalization and the rapid rate of technological advancement reaching all nooks and crannies of the world. This is evidenced in a *survey* of 581 alumni of The American Graduate School of International Management in Glendale, Arizona, where most respondents said they had **gained a competitive advantage from their knowledge of foreign languages and other cultures.** They said that not only was **language study often a critical factor in hiring decisions and in enhancing their career paths, but that it also provided personal fulfillment, mental discipline, and cultural enlightenment** (cf. [51]).

Also, in recent years, the US government has expressed **a need for fluent speakers of languages other than English,** particularly in less commonly taught languages such as Arabic and Chinese (US General Accounting Office 2002). It is obvious that even official monolingual countries like the USA have recognized the advantages of having citizens with competence in more than one or two languages in its job market and that multilingualism is a force to reckon with and to encourage.

#### **3.7. Bilingualism and information processing edge**

There is evidence that **bilinguals are better equipped for information processing than monolinguals.** The fact that multilinguals have knowledge of at least two language systems provides them with **potentials to switch the functionality strategies of one language to the other as the need demands.** This vantage position of the bilinguals was articulated by Meiran [52] after her experiment with the use of *functional magnetic resonance imaging* (*fMRI*) in testing coactivation and inhibition in bilinguals during spoken language comprehension. According to the researcher, "It's like a stop light […] Bilinguals are always giving the green light to one language and red to another. When you have to do that all the time, you get really good at inhibiting the words you don't need." Benefits accrue because the bilingual brain is constantly activating both languages, choosing which to use and which to ignore. When the brain is constantly so exercised, **it does not have to work as hard as the monolingual's to perform most cognitive tasks effectively**.

Also, the simple ability of bilinguals to switch from one language to the other indicates that **they can, with limited effort, relate to reflexes and transfer of language rules, which is a pointer of general task-specific switching mechanism in operation**. This talent claim has been supported by Yehene and Meiran [53] who specify that "bilingual language switching may increase general switching efficiency, and might be stronger at a long *cue–target interval (CTI)*, which may better tap general switching abilities." They justify this claim with findings from their experiment on 80 Spanish-English bilinguals and 80 monolinguals engaged on a *color-shape switching task and an analogous language-switching task, varying CTI* (*short vs. long*) in both tasks. At the end of the study, it was determined that the cost of task-switching among the bilinguals was smaller, more economical, and more cost-effective than that required by the monolinguals. They explain that these findings substantiate the association between bilingualism and the **switching efficiency trait, an advantage in fast and successful diversifying task engagements in the life of a bilingual,** especially with respect to information processing.

of human capital for **it can afford one the opportunity of earning higher income and obtaining aspiring employment status in any influential society**. A research study by Di Paolo and Tansel [58] shows that in the Turkish labor market, knowledge of Russian and English as foreign languages, on the average, **brings about positive earning differentials for individuals** (20 and 10.7%, respectively). These differentials increase with the level of competence. Knowledge of French and German is also positively rewarded in the Turkish labor market, although to a lesser extent (8.4 and 8.2%, respectively). In Williams' estimation, the use of a second language in the workplace is associated with positive earning differentials, ranging

Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74625

25

Since individuals make a society, the higher the number of residents with foreign language competence in a community, the more benefits that community will get from the positive attributes and affluence that come with bilingualism and multilingualism. Most of the advantages of individual bilingualism aggregate to quantifiable economic gains for the individual and the society or community. That is why some countries like Britain, America, France, and Holland which are officially monolingual realize the benefits of official bilingual or multilingual nations by virtue of intense de facto unofficial bilingualism and multilingualism attested within the nation state. These noted national advantages of multilingualism transition us into

The advantages that any multilingual society would gain outrightly supersede that from a monolingual society in many dimensions given the aggregate advantages of individual bilingualism as seen above. However, considering societies as multilingual does not bring out the same vivid anticipation as in individual bilingualism or multilingualism. When it is societal multilingualism, the state has to install institutions and policies to legally and officially implement the different languages concerned, clearly defining their societal functional domains and so creating an environment of diglossia or multiglossia. This is explained by Fishman [60, 61] as follows: "Diglossia (Greek root for two languages, *di*-*glossia*), the use of two languages for different purposes *in a societal group*, is different from bilingualism (Latin roots for two languages, *bilingual*), which is the use of two languages *by individuals without societal support*." From this background, it is clear that individual bilingualism or multilingualism may or may not be officially supported. Therefore, multilingual advantages become selective and restricted to those who practice it in any society, whereas societal multilingualism is officially and legally backed with policies and structures to implement them within that confined society, putting in place language planning functional operation and implementation processes of revalorization, revitalization, instrumentalization, and intellectualization of the different

Properties of societal bilingualism or multilingualism are better judged or derived from the societies that operate on the premise of the status of official bilingualism or multilingualism such as *Belgium*, with the Dutch-speaking Flemish in the north and French-speaking Walloons in the south [65]; *Cameroon*, stemming from a union of territories of the British and

from 3 to 5% in different Western European countries [59].

**4. Advantages of societal multilingualism**

languages recognized in that society (see [62–64]).

the discussion of the advantages that bilingual and multilingual states get.

#### **3.8. Sociocultural advantages of bilingualism**

It is now well accepted that language and culture are inextricably linked because, as articulated in Chumbow [11, 54], language is the means by which people who share the same culture express their belonging to a common or shared cultural experience. Considering the fact that culture is transmitted and expressed through language, multilinguals are obviously multicultural individuals who can adapt different cultures more easily. The implication is that they are better placed to handle cultural shocks than monolinguals. This is closely related to **intercultural competence,** summarized by Curtain and Dahlberg [46] who states that "… exposure to a foreign language serves as a means of helping children to intercultural competence. The awareness of a global community can be enhanced when children have the opportunity to experience involvement with another culture through a foreign language." Here, intercultural competence is considered as the ability for successful communication with people of other cultures. This ability can exist already at a young age or be developed and improved, thanks to willpower and competence [55]. In any case, high intercultural competence in multilinguality **enables multilingual individuals to appreciate and accommodate any foreign culture easier than monolinguals.**

Cook [44] supports the sociocultural advantage by stating that "multilinguals can expand their personal horizons and — **being simultaneously insiders and outsiders** — see their own culture from a new perspective, not available to monoglots, enabling the comparison, contrast, and understanding of cultural concepts." Thus, **multilinguals can better understand and appreciate people of other countries, a factor in lessening racism, xenophobia, and intolerance**, since the learning of a new language usually brings with it a revelation of a new culture.

Related to cultural flexibility, one opportune factor for bilinguals is **their ability to excel in conflict resolution tasks.** In two experiments, using the *Flanker task test* [56], both monolinguals and bilinguals were asked to perform a flanker test task under two low-monitoring and two high-monitoring versions of congruent and incongruent trials, respectively. The result was that the bilinguals had the overall reaction time during the high-monitoring condition in which they outperformed the monolinguals. This indicates that **the bilinguals could more easily affect the monitoring processes involved in executive control during conflict condition** than their monolingual counterparts.

#### **3.9. Economic advantages of bilingualism**

It has been asserted that "language is power" and it is an invisible force that can penetrate visible social and economic boundaries [57]. Being multilingual can be considered as a form of human capital for **it can afford one the opportunity of earning higher income and obtaining aspiring employment status in any influential society**. A research study by Di Paolo and Tansel [58] shows that in the Turkish labor market, knowledge of Russian and English as foreign languages, on the average, **brings about positive earning differentials for individuals** (20 and 10.7%, respectively). These differentials increase with the level of competence. Knowledge of French and German is also positively rewarded in the Turkish labor market, although to a lesser extent (8.4 and 8.2%, respectively). In Williams' estimation, the use of a second language in the workplace is associated with positive earning differentials, ranging from 3 to 5% in different Western European countries [59].

Since individuals make a society, the higher the number of residents with foreign language competence in a community, the more benefits that community will get from the positive attributes and affluence that come with bilingualism and multilingualism. Most of the advantages of individual bilingualism aggregate to quantifiable economic gains for the individual and the society or community. That is why some countries like Britain, America, France, and Holland which are officially monolingual realize the benefits of official bilingual or multilingual nations by virtue of intense de facto unofficial bilingualism and multilingualism attested within the nation state. These noted national advantages of multilingualism transition us into the discussion of the advantages that bilingual and multilingual states get.
