**3. Bilingualism and multilingualism: a reflection of political trends and contemporary lifestyles**

The current discourse on bilingualism and multilingualism reflects the political issues of the time and the political situation in various countries. We speak of language policies, of requiring that certain languages be studied in schools. In Romanian schools, minority students have the chance to study the mother tongue of their ethnic group instead of Romanian literature and culture. Such a practice shows that they are accepted and not forcibly assimilated by the culture of the country they live in. However, they also need to speak Romanian as they need to communicate with people belonging to this culture.

In today's world, we try to show respect to several languages spoken in the same territory, to respect the language and culture of minority groups, and, at the same time, to bring them together, offering a sense of unity through a common language, a lingua franca. Brexit [13], when Great Britain voted to leave the European Union, affected the translation industry in Great Britain. This was because "The EU allows the free movement of people across the continent which necessitates a lot of public spending on language services," (https://www. empowerlingua.com/brexit-will-affect-translation-industry/) which will no longer be necessary if Great Britain establishes business relationships with America and China, where the English language is used. However, despite these claims, Brexit does not represent any danger: free movement in Europe will continue, and English will still be the lingua franca for a good number of years at least. There could be in fact an advantage to Brexit: more interpreters and translators will be needed, in case English will no longer be the lingua franca. Since once the majority uses English as a lingua franca, there is no need for many translators and interpreters. Once English is no longer a lingua franca, other languages will be needed, and more interpreters and translators, as once Romanian is your native language and you can use no lingua franca, an interpreter will be needed to help you understand someone who speaks Spanish. The interpreter will need to use Romanian; otherwise, he would have had to use

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43

While multilingualism allows for opportunities for the flourishing of the translation industry, there is also a search for a lingua franca. For certain countries, it is English. In the case of immigrants, the lingua franca becomes the language of the country they have migrated to, as they need to communicate with the inhabitants of the respective country. In any country, there can also be immigrants of other nations, and they may need to establish business com-

**3.1. Causes and cases of multilingualism: official languages and heritage languages**

In every country, there is one, but often more, official language(s), constituting the majority language, and there are also languages spoken by minorities, which can be official languages or not. The situation of immigration has raised the subject of heritage languages, defined by Valdés [14] as the immigrants' languages. The term refers to languages that are not English and is defined as follows: "In the United States the term 'heritage language' refers to a language learned at home that is different from the dominant language of the community." ([15], p. 452).

Of course, a heritage language can have different status depending on the way it is used and on the number of its speakers: for instance, Spanish is, in the United States, a second language as well as "the most widely studied foreign language in middle schools and high schools. […] And because Spanish is spoken by Latino immigrants, it is also a heritage language." Other languages, such as Romanian, Polish, and Finnish, are, in the United States, "heritage

Other heritage languages are Native American languages in the USA and Canada. McCarthy discusses the situation of these languages as follows: "Most Native American languages are

English, the lingua franca, and not be forced to know Romanian.

languages whose distribution is highly restricted." ([16], p. 170).

munication with them as well.

Belgium is another example. It is a federal state, divided into three regions: the Flemish (where Dutch is used), the bilingual region (which is bilingual), and the Walloon region (where French and German are used). Yet, it manages to preserve a sense of unity that makes it a model for the European Union, according to http://www.eutrio.be/structure-de-letat-federal-belge [9].

Immigrants and refugees are often multilingual, due to their living in multiethnic home countries as well as having to learn the language of the country they moved to ([1], p. 12).

As a reflection of contemporary lifestyles, the use of several languages has led to the creation of a new domain of linguistics, **forensic linguistics:** "The study of bi- and multilingualism, together with that of social media, represents new frontiers in the field that has come to be known as 'forensic linguistics.'" ([10], p. 671). This field investigates the way online criminals talk: "In a world connected by social media and globalization, the role of the study of multilingualism in forensic linguistics is increasing rapidly." ([10], p. 671). The trend of multilingualism has affected all aspects of our lifestyle, on- and off-line.

Of course, there is the case of the European Union, discussed by Sokol [11]. He draws attention to "the political role of language," as much more than a simple tool for communication. According to him, unity of religion and political unity, mean unity of language, as he offers an example from history: "Political and religious unification went hand in hand with linguistic unification, as occurred in the Albigensian Wars in France, the English conquest of Ireland and Wales or in the Reconquista in Spain." ([11], p. 185).The English language strives to be a common language of understanding among different countries in the European Union. This was needed as "Modern society as well as democratic politics is based on communication among citizens," and as "Everybody knows that Europe, and particularly Central and Eastern Europe, is divided by a wide variety of languages into linguistic groups, whose members are not able to communicate with each others."

According to Mkhize and Hlongwa [12], "Historically, higher education in South Africa and Africa in general has relied on foreign languages; this has become a basis for social discrimination and inequality." The authors claim that English is seen as the language of the elites, while indigenous languages are associated with an inferior status, which is a clear example of how a conqueror's language can be imposed as the elite language on the conquered population.

In today's world, we try to show respect to several languages spoken in the same territory, to respect the language and culture of minority groups, and, at the same time, to bring them together, offering a sense of unity through a common language, a lingua franca. Brexit [13], when Great Britain voted to leave the European Union, affected the translation industry in Great Britain. This was because "The EU allows the free movement of people across the continent which necessitates a lot of public spending on language services," (https://www. empowerlingua.com/brexit-will-affect-translation-industry/) which will no longer be necessary if Great Britain establishes business relationships with America and China, where the English language is used. However, despite these claims, Brexit does not represent any danger: free movement in Europe will continue, and English will still be the lingua franca for a good number of years at least. There could be in fact an advantage to Brexit: more interpreters and translators will be needed, in case English will no longer be the lingua franca. Since once the majority uses English as a lingua franca, there is no need for many translators and interpreters. Once English is no longer a lingua franca, other languages will be needed, and more interpreters and translators, as once Romanian is your native language and you can use no lingua franca, an interpreter will be needed to help you understand someone who speaks Spanish. The interpreter will need to use Romanian; otherwise, he would have had to use English, the lingua franca, and not be forced to know Romanian.

**3. Bilingualism and multilingualism: a reflection of political trends** 

The current discourse on bilingualism and multilingualism reflects the political issues of the time and the political situation in various countries. We speak of language policies, of requiring that certain languages be studied in schools. In Romanian schools, minority students have the chance to study the mother tongue of their ethnic group instead of Romanian literature and culture. Such a practice shows that they are accepted and not forcibly assimilated by the culture of the country they live in. However, they also need to speak Romanian as they need to com-

Belgium is another example. It is a federal state, divided into three regions: the Flemish (where Dutch is used), the bilingual region (which is bilingual), and the Walloon region (where French and German are used). Yet, it manages to preserve a sense of unity that makes it a model for the

Immigrants and refugees are often multilingual, due to their living in multiethnic home coun-

As a reflection of contemporary lifestyles, the use of several languages has led to the creation of a new domain of linguistics, **forensic linguistics:** "The study of bi- and multilingualism, together with that of social media, represents new frontiers in the field that has come to be known as 'forensic linguistics.'" ([10], p. 671). This field investigates the way online criminals talk: "In a world connected by social media and globalization, the role of the study of multilingualism in forensic linguistics is increasing rapidly." ([10], p. 671). The trend of multilin-

Of course, there is the case of the European Union, discussed by Sokol [11]. He draws attention to "the political role of language," as much more than a simple tool for communication. According to him, unity of religion and political unity, mean unity of language, as he offers an example from history: "Political and religious unification went hand in hand with linguistic unification, as occurred in the Albigensian Wars in France, the English conquest of Ireland and Wales or in the Reconquista in Spain." ([11], p. 185).The English language strives to be a common language of understanding among different countries in the European Union. This was needed as "Modern society as well as democratic politics is based on communication among citizens," and as "Everybody knows that Europe, and particularly Central and Eastern Europe, is divided by a wide variety of languages into linguistic groups, whose members are

According to Mkhize and Hlongwa [12], "Historically, higher education in South Africa and Africa in general has relied on foreign languages; this has become a basis for social discrimination and inequality." The authors claim that English is seen as the language of the elites, while indigenous languages are associated with an inferior status, which is a clear example of how a conqueror's language can be imposed as the elite language on the conquered population.

European Union, according to http://www.eutrio.be/structure-de-letat-federal-belge [9].

tries as well as having to learn the language of the country they moved to ([1], p. 12).

gualism has affected all aspects of our lifestyle, on- and off-line.

not able to communicate with each others."

**and contemporary lifestyles**

42 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

municate with people belonging to this culture.

While multilingualism allows for opportunities for the flourishing of the translation industry, there is also a search for a lingua franca. For certain countries, it is English. In the case of immigrants, the lingua franca becomes the language of the country they have migrated to, as they need to communicate with the inhabitants of the respective country. In any country, there can also be immigrants of other nations, and they may need to establish business communication with them as well.

#### **3.1. Causes and cases of multilingualism: official languages and heritage languages**

In every country, there is one, but often more, official language(s), constituting the majority language, and there are also languages spoken by minorities, which can be official languages or not. The situation of immigration has raised the subject of heritage languages, defined by Valdés [14] as the immigrants' languages. The term refers to languages that are not English and is defined as follows: "In the United States the term 'heritage language' refers to a language learned at home that is different from the dominant language of the community." ([15], p. 452).

Of course, a heritage language can have different status depending on the way it is used and on the number of its speakers: for instance, Spanish is, in the United States, a second language as well as "the most widely studied foreign language in middle schools and high schools. […] And because Spanish is spoken by Latino immigrants, it is also a heritage language." Other languages, such as Romanian, Polish, and Finnish, are, in the United States, "heritage languages whose distribution is highly restricted." ([16], p. 170).

Other heritage languages are Native American languages in the USA and Canada. McCarthy discusses the situation of these languages as follows: "Most Native American languages are no longer acquired as a first language by children. They are nonetheless languages of identity and heritage, and in this sense can and should be considered mother tongues." ([17], p. 201). These are endangered languages that need to be protected. The Native American Languages act was passed in Congress in the USA in 1990, and as a result, we find nowadays Native American immersion programs for learners.

The issue of multilingualism is tied to modern democracies, and it is presented as such in the description of courses. For instance, part of the description of a Bachelor in Minorities and Multilingualism at the University of Groningen claims that the main challenge of democracies nowadays is to minimize the tensions caused by minorities, as they fight for "independence from encompassing majority states. At the same time migratory movements around the globe have created all kinds of new minorities like for instance Kurds in Germany or Turks in the Netherlands." The main problem "is to find a stable balance between unity and diversity. How to deal with ethnic and cultural differences, that is the main question." (http://minori-

Aspects and Dimensions of Bilingualism and Multilingualism in Europe

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45

The topic of foreign language learning cannot be separated from its cultural and political component. Students of foreign languages cannot be without knowledge of political issues.

At the same time, since language makes up a culture, and a feeling of nationality, in what way are we supposed to look at a second and third and even fourth language? Are they a threat or are they an act of reconciliation and understanding among cultures? How peaceful is today's world? We know that there are areas of the world still engaged in conflict and we also talk of cyberwars. If you know a second language, do you distance yourself from your own emotional expression when you use it, and if so, does this have an effect of creating a distance from your own culture?

Immigration could be seen as something usual in today's world. It has been shown that "Interestingly, attitudes towards immigration in Japan become more positive the more fluent a person is in English, suggesting that boosting English education may help to make the Japanese more accepting of immigration." (http://www.vdare.com/posts/the-english-language-as-a-trojan-horse-in-japan [21]) Through a second language, politics could simply attempt to encourage people to adapt to the world they will have to live in from now on. Romanian newspaper authors have drawn attention to the fact that the use of English for communication among young Romanians has made them more open to accepting immigration, and they have taken a psychological distance from their own culture. It is known that young people from Romania wish to emigrate in search of a better future. Does the use of language lead to the wish to immigrate or does the wish to live abroad aid in learning English? This is still a matter of debate and

Once an individual speaks two or more languages, we deal with individual bilingualism. In this case, we could have to do with a personal preference or decision. When a country or com-

Romaine [15] wishes to establish the distinction between individual and societal bilingualism, but she believes that this distinction is difficult to make. Certain communities can be larger and others smaller. Sometimes, certain individuals are part of a small community, but they are also part of larger communities of speakers of a certain language. A community can be formed of two or more individuals, according to Romaine [15]. However, if we look at the

munity uses two or more languages, the phenomenon is called societal bilingualism.

In what way? Do you become more objective or do you lose your identification with it?

Contemporary political situations cannot be ignored by university curricula.

ties.nl/courses/bachelor/ [20])

personal perspective.

**3.3. Individual vs. societal bilingualism**

The heritage speakers will also have to learn the standard, official language of the country they live in and they will be at least bilingual. The issue of heritage speakers has appeared due to the possibilities of mobility in today's world.

#### **3.2. Benefits of being bilingual and multilingual**

The theories showing the importance and benefits of being bilingual encourage learning at least one additional language. This practice supports the political need to set up the current "unity in diversity" and to legitimize the official bilingualism and multilingualism in countries where there are two or more official languages. At the same time, the practice is encouraged as there are professional opportunities for translators and interpreters in our contemporary world.

The benefits of being bilingual come from the need to adapt to and function in certain cities. For instance, Hong Kong is a bilingual city. Its inhabitants use both English and Cantonese. The Hong Kong Basic Law (Article 9) and the Official Languages Ordinance (Chapter 5) have established that English and Chinese are Hong Kong's official languages.

Leaving the issue of cultural adaptation aside, there are political reasons for promoting bilingualism and even multilingualism through psychological theories. Linguistic studies have proved that we can take cognitive distance from an issue in a second language. Multilingualism is promoted for political purposes, in order to help people accept the concept of unity in diversity. Persons speaking two or more languages could be regarded as more diplomatic and more likely to be on good terms with other cultures, which is in the interest of the European Union. The European Union promotes the study of languages so that its citizens will find it natural to live on good terms with other cultures.

The benefits of being bilingual (enhancing cognitive abilities, task-switching, adjustment to "C" of 7-month-old children and "less cognitive decline" for seniors) are also constantly advertised through scientific research [18].

The cognitive benefits of better attention and task-switching among bilinguals can only encourage and motivate learners to learn a second language. What is more, we are told that in today's world bilinguals outnumber monolinguals, this being another challenge we set up for ourselves, to be like the majority, and not to be left out. What is more, a definition of being bilingual is under debate, as "Language proficiency can vary from having some conversational fluency in one language, to being fully versed in reading, writing, and speaking two languages." ([19], p. 292).

Nobody wishes to be an outsider in any social group. Scientific research constantly promotes the benefits of knowing several languages and people are beginning to expect that school or work will require that they learn a second, third, or even fourth language.

The issue of multilingualism is tied to modern democracies, and it is presented as such in the description of courses. For instance, part of the description of a Bachelor in Minorities and Multilingualism at the University of Groningen claims that the main challenge of democracies nowadays is to minimize the tensions caused by minorities, as they fight for "independence from encompassing majority states. At the same time migratory movements around the globe have created all kinds of new minorities like for instance Kurds in Germany or Turks in the Netherlands." The main problem "is to find a stable balance between unity and diversity. How to deal with ethnic and cultural differences, that is the main question." (http://minorities.nl/courses/bachelor/ [20])

The topic of foreign language learning cannot be separated from its cultural and political component. Students of foreign languages cannot be without knowledge of political issues. Contemporary political situations cannot be ignored by university curricula.

At the same time, since language makes up a culture, and a feeling of nationality, in what way are we supposed to look at a second and third and even fourth language? Are they a threat or are they an act of reconciliation and understanding among cultures? How peaceful is today's world? We know that there are areas of the world still engaged in conflict and we also talk of cyberwars. If you know a second language, do you distance yourself from your own emotional expression when you use it, and if so, does this have an effect of creating a distance from your own culture? In what way? Do you become more objective or do you lose your identification with it?

Immigration could be seen as something usual in today's world. It has been shown that "Interestingly, attitudes towards immigration in Japan become more positive the more fluent a person is in English, suggesting that boosting English education may help to make the Japanese more accepting of immigration." (http://www.vdare.com/posts/the-english-language-as-a-trojan-horse-in-japan [21]) Through a second language, politics could simply attempt to encourage people to adapt to the world they will have to live in from now on. Romanian newspaper authors have drawn attention to the fact that the use of English for communication among young Romanians has made them more open to accepting immigration, and they have taken a psychological distance from their own culture. It is known that young people from Romania wish to emigrate in search of a better future. Does the use of language lead to the wish to immigrate or does the wish to live abroad aid in learning English? This is still a matter of debate and personal perspective.

#### **3.3. Individual vs. societal bilingualism**

no longer acquired as a first language by children. They are nonetheless languages of identity and heritage, and in this sense can and should be considered mother tongues." ([17], p. 201). These are endangered languages that need to be protected. The Native American Languages act was passed in Congress in the USA in 1990, and as a result, we find nowadays Native

The heritage speakers will also have to learn the standard, official language of the country they live in and they will be at least bilingual. The issue of heritage speakers has appeared due

The theories showing the importance and benefits of being bilingual encourage learning at least one additional language. This practice supports the political need to set up the current "unity in diversity" and to legitimize the official bilingualism and multilingualism in countries where there are two or more official languages. At the same time, the practice is encouraged as there are professional opportunities for translators and interpreters in our contemporary world.

The benefits of being bilingual come from the need to adapt to and function in certain cities. For instance, Hong Kong is a bilingual city. Its inhabitants use both English and Cantonese. The Hong Kong Basic Law (Article 9) and the Official Languages Ordinance (Chapter 5) have

Leaving the issue of cultural adaptation aside, there are political reasons for promoting bilingualism and even multilingualism through psychological theories. Linguistic studies have proved that we can take cognitive distance from an issue in a second language. Multilingualism is promoted for political purposes, in order to help people accept the concept of unity in diversity. Persons speaking two or more languages could be regarded as more diplomatic and more likely to be on good terms with other cultures, which is in the interest of the European Union. The European Union promotes the study of languages so that its citizens will find it natural to

The benefits of being bilingual (enhancing cognitive abilities, task-switching, adjustment to "C" of 7-month-old children and "less cognitive decline" for seniors) are also constantly advertised

The cognitive benefits of better attention and task-switching among bilinguals can only encourage and motivate learners to learn a second language. What is more, we are told that in today's world bilinguals outnumber monolinguals, this being another challenge we set up for ourselves, to be like the majority, and not to be left out. What is more, a definition of being bilingual is under debate, as "Language proficiency can vary from having some conversational fluency in one language, to being fully versed in reading, writing, and speaking two languages." ([19], p. 292).

Nobody wishes to be an outsider in any social group. Scientific research constantly promotes the benefits of knowing several languages and people are beginning to expect that school or

work will require that they learn a second, third, or even fourth language.

established that English and Chinese are Hong Kong's official languages.

American immersion programs for learners.

44 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

to the possibilities of mobility in today's world.

**3.2. Benefits of being bilingual and multilingual**

live on good terms with other cultures.

through scientific research [18].

Once an individual speaks two or more languages, we deal with individual bilingualism. In this case, we could have to do with a personal preference or decision. When a country or community uses two or more languages, the phenomenon is called societal bilingualism.

Romaine [15] wishes to establish the distinction between individual and societal bilingualism, but she believes that this distinction is difficult to make. Certain communities can be larger and others smaller. Sometimes, certain individuals are part of a small community, but they are also part of larger communities of speakers of a certain language. A community can be formed of two or more individuals, according to Romaine [15]. However, if we look at the number of languages and countries, we find it is impossible. There is a "concentration of the world's 6,900 languages into about 200 countries," which "means that there are over 30 times as many languages as there are countries, or in other words, that bilingualism or multilingualism is present" ([15], p. 448).

hero varies according to the passage of time. When literary works and historical documents are studied in schools, they impose certain values on which to build a strong national identity. This national identity is used to keep unity among the members of the community. In this way, they will protect their country and the model of the hero will motivate them to succeed.

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Bilingualism and multilingualism are promoted in order to encourage adaptation to today's world, together with preservation of national identity. Evolutionary psychology explains bilingualism and multilingualism as a survival tactic for certain communities and of smaller groupings of migrants that seek to adapt and be accepted. Within this approach, "knowledge and principles from evolutionary biology are put to use in research on the structure of the

Certain countries function due to the respect shown to a multilingual community. One issue regarding the study of bilingualism from an evolutionary perspective has been the fact that "Intuitively, learning two languages is harder than learning one, yet bilingualism is prevalent in the world." [24]. However, the conclusion is the following: bilingualism is a result of the interaction among multilingual communities. It "is seen as a secondary linguistic ability - a sort

The common element of bilingualism and multilingualism is the need for adaptation and communication with those with whom we live. This is confirmed by Sternberg and Christiansen [25], who refer to multilingualism as something normal in the world. In India, there are "twenty-two official languages, and only 18% of the population is a native Hindi speaker. Half of the popula-

Crowd psychology may also play a role. Once an individual is part of a crowd, and the crowd behaves in a certain way, the individual believes that this is a universal type of behavior, to which he will have to adapt. The larger the crowd, the larger the feeling of its universal behav-

Once bilingualism and multilingualism are the official rule, individuals have no choice but to adapt to the crowd that has adopted the rules. If they do not conform to the crowd, they will be left out. Romaine [15] supports this claim: "Bilingualism and multilingualism are normal, unremarkable necessities of everyday life for the majority of the world's population." This does not apply only to communication related to business necessities. Students need to learn foreign languages in order to pass their exams, graduate, and then be able to apply for a job

Certain countries have been, historically, built by immigrants, such as the USA. They were

In this case, "The sociolinguistic profile of speakers of non-English languages in the USA is a direct reflection of the country's constantly ongoing history as a nation of immigrants. Such speakers are overwhelmingly either immigrants themselves or the children of immigrants."

This could be the reason why Anderson sustained his theory of a nation as an imagined community. Since language is not common, and several languages are officially accepted,

human mind" (http://www.cep.ucsb.edu/primer.html [23]).

of by-product." ([24], p. 1).

to make their living.

([28], pp. 466–467).

tion of sub-Saharan Africa is bilingual as well."

ior, and the individual's loss of responsibility [26, 27].

"voluntary and involuntary immigrants" ([28], p. 467).

Thus, contrary to the understanding we got in the introduction of this paper, European countries are not entirely monolingual. We do make this mental association, however. We do associate Spain with the Spanish language, France with the French language, and so on. Yet, these countries have minority ethno-linguistic communities that speak a language of their own in addition to the national language. Thus, for instance, Great Britain has the 'Welsh,' France has the "Bretons,' and Spain has 'Catalan' as indigenous ethno-linguistic minorities. They also have more or less large populations of immigrants speaking other languages. The European Union expects every member country to take into consideration the language needs of minorities and immigrants. In their turn, immigrants and minorities have no choice but to learn standard languages used in the countries where they now reside, and used by those with whom they wish to interact.

Romaine raises the question of the existence of nation-states, which by definition recognize several languages. This is because within the nation-states there are several groups, and each and every one uses different languages. Not all languages are official languages, used in institutions and schools. Certain groups are more powerful and this leads to their language becoming the used one ([15], p. 449).

Due to the contemporary organization of the world, it is impossible not to speak of bilingualism and multilingualism. This naturally follows the structure of states and nation-states, as well as the connections among communities.

#### **3.4. Evolutionary psychology: knowledge of several languages for survival**

Multilingualism and bilingualism could be, in certain cases, ways of keeping culturally significant languages alive. For instance, the French try to preserve the Breton language by using it in haiku poetry contests and, of course, by speaking it in a restricted community. (NB: This is not a French government initiative but a resistance initiative of Bretons who want their language recognized by France aided by the multilingualism policy of the EU).The connection between language and culture is integral to the history of the respective country. By preserving languages through bilingualism and multilingualism, they try to preserve their civilization. Even if English is a lingua franca, it does not attempt to replace the languages spoken historically in the countries in Europe. Civilizations could be defined as a combination between a particular view of the world and history. According to Mozaffari [22], civilizations are formed by "an explicit *world vision*," meaning "a set of cultural system, an ideology or a religion" and by "a *historical system*," meaning "a coherent political, military and economic system."

Since language is part of a country's and people's national identity, it is natural to regard it as part of history. Language is inseparable from history as it was used to create a nation's cultural products and identity. World vision refers to the values of a culture—which are, in turn, established and legitimized through literature and recorded history, especially in legends of local heroes. The hero could be a character in either literary or historical works, and the model of the hero varies according to the passage of time. When literary works and historical documents are studied in schools, they impose certain values on which to build a strong national identity. This national identity is used to keep unity among the members of the community. In this way, they will protect their country and the model of the hero will motivate them to succeed.

number of languages and countries, we find it is impossible. There is a "concentration of the world's 6,900 languages into about 200 countries," which "means that there are over 30 times as many languages as there are countries, or in other words, that bilingualism or multilingual-

Thus, contrary to the understanding we got in the introduction of this paper, European countries are not entirely monolingual. We do make this mental association, however. We do associate Spain with the Spanish language, France with the French language, and so on. Yet, these countries have minority ethno-linguistic communities that speak a language of their own in addition to the national language. Thus, for instance, Great Britain has the 'Welsh,' France has the "Bretons,' and Spain has 'Catalan' as indigenous ethno-linguistic minorities. They also have more or less large populations of immigrants speaking other languages. The European Union expects every member country to take into consideration the language needs of minorities and immigrants. In their turn, immigrants and minorities have no choice but to learn standard languages used in the

countries where they now reside, and used by those with whom they wish to interact.

**3.4. Evolutionary psychology: knowledge of several languages for survival**

*historical system*," meaning "a coherent political, military and economic system."

Since language is part of a country's and people's national identity, it is natural to regard it as part of history. Language is inseparable from history as it was used to create a nation's cultural products and identity. World vision refers to the values of a culture—which are, in turn, established and legitimized through literature and recorded history, especially in legends of local heroes. The hero could be a character in either literary or historical works, and the model of the

Romaine raises the question of the existence of nation-states, which by definition recognize several languages. This is because within the nation-states there are several groups, and each and every one uses different languages. Not all languages are official languages, used in institutions and schools. Certain groups are more powerful and this leads to their language becoming the

Due to the contemporary organization of the world, it is impossible not to speak of bilingualism and multilingualism. This naturally follows the structure of states and nation-states, as

Multilingualism and bilingualism could be, in certain cases, ways of keeping culturally significant languages alive. For instance, the French try to preserve the Breton language by using it in haiku poetry contests and, of course, by speaking it in a restricted community. (NB: This is not a French government initiative but a resistance initiative of Bretons who want their language recognized by France aided by the multilingualism policy of the EU).The connection between language and culture is integral to the history of the respective country. By preserving languages through bilingualism and multilingualism, they try to preserve their civilization. Even if English is a lingua franca, it does not attempt to replace the languages spoken historically in the countries in Europe. Civilizations could be defined as a combination between a particular view of the world and history. According to Mozaffari [22], civilizations are formed by "an explicit *world vision*," meaning "a set of cultural system, an ideology or a religion" and by "a

ism is present" ([15], p. 448).

46 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

used one ([15], p. 449).

well as the connections among communities.

Bilingualism and multilingualism are promoted in order to encourage adaptation to today's world, together with preservation of national identity. Evolutionary psychology explains bilingualism and multilingualism as a survival tactic for certain communities and of smaller groupings of migrants that seek to adapt and be accepted. Within this approach, "knowledge and principles from evolutionary biology are put to use in research on the structure of the human mind" (http://www.cep.ucsb.edu/primer.html [23]).

Certain countries function due to the respect shown to a multilingual community. One issue regarding the study of bilingualism from an evolutionary perspective has been the fact that "Intuitively, learning two languages is harder than learning one, yet bilingualism is prevalent in the world." [24]. However, the conclusion is the following: bilingualism is a result of the interaction among multilingual communities. It "is seen as a secondary linguistic ability - a sort of by-product." ([24], p. 1).

The common element of bilingualism and multilingualism is the need for adaptation and communication with those with whom we live. This is confirmed by Sternberg and Christiansen [25], who refer to multilingualism as something normal in the world. In India, there are "twenty-two official languages, and only 18% of the population is a native Hindi speaker. Half of the population of sub-Saharan Africa is bilingual as well."

Crowd psychology may also play a role. Once an individual is part of a crowd, and the crowd behaves in a certain way, the individual believes that this is a universal type of behavior, to which he will have to adapt. The larger the crowd, the larger the feeling of its universal behavior, and the individual's loss of responsibility [26, 27].

Once bilingualism and multilingualism are the official rule, individuals have no choice but to adapt to the crowd that has adopted the rules. If they do not conform to the crowd, they will be left out. Romaine [15] supports this claim: "Bilingualism and multilingualism are normal, unremarkable necessities of everyday life for the majority of the world's population." This does not apply only to communication related to business necessities. Students need to learn foreign languages in order to pass their exams, graduate, and then be able to apply for a job to make their living.

Certain countries have been, historically, built by immigrants, such as the USA. They were "voluntary and involuntary immigrants" ([28], p. 467).

In this case, "The sociolinguistic profile of speakers of non-English languages in the USA is a direct reflection of the country's constantly ongoing history as a nation of immigrants. Such speakers are overwhelmingly either immigrants themselves or the children of immigrants." ([28], pp. 466–467).

This could be the reason why Anderson sustained his theory of a nation as an imagined community. Since language is not common, and several languages are officially accepted, there was a need for something common to legitimize the holding together of the American community. Group cohesiveness is an evolutionary necessity; otherwise, there would not have been any security of the community during external attacks.

The language competition and conflict could be illustrated by cases of bilingual cities, such as the Romanian-Hungarian ones in Romania, where certain people traveling there who only speak Romanian report that sometimes Hungarian speakers who also know Romanian refuse

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Keeping these types of conflict under control is done through rules and through crowd psychology. Ensuring unity and respect helps keep possible armed conflicts at a distance. At the same time, multilingualism and bilingualism suggest a type of collaboration for several nations

By studying foreign languages, people can minimize the culture shock they experience when moving to another place. Knowing the language of the foreign country can help them adapt more easily, especially since foreign language courses nowadays include a cultural component. Foreign language teaching methodologies debate on the inclusion of culture in foreign lan-

The truth is that it was impossible for foreign language teaching to be separated from the culture of the respective language. However, some textbooks could have included more focus on the linguistic structures and less focus, if any at all, on the cultural background. Conversation guides, which only focus on traveling phrases or basic needs, do not include cultural aspects. Manuals for beginners in Romanian schools in the 1990s did not include cultural aspects, or they were restricted to fragments from French and English authors. They were using a different strategy: making learners adapt the language to their needs and relate it to everyday life. The awareness of cultural aspects was given later, when they would read about cultural and historical monuments such as Big Ben and the Eiffel Tower. In this way, the respective culture was felt as one's own, and then the cultural aspects were gradually introduced. Nowadays, the tendency is to introduce cultural aspects right away. The purpose is the same, to make the learner familiar with a different culture. As EU citizens, we are supposed to be already familiar with the respect and need for multilingualism. The benefit of knowing several foreign

guage curricula. According to Kramsch [29], the debate is still in progress.

languages has reached the level of communities, not of individuals as in the past.

Foreign language teachers ask themselves the following question: "how can we develop in the learners an intercultural competence that would shortchange neither their own culture nor the target culture, but would make them into cultural mediators in a globalized world?" ([29], p. 57). This question is related to an issue that has preoccupied the members of EU ever since the beginning: will the possibility of movement make people feel less tied to their own culture and identity? EU promotes cultural values and tries to preserve the cultural and national identity of its countries in order to preserve the tourist industry, which in its turn generates income. The purpose is not only political but also economical, helping countries maintain their status and budget. According to Hebden [7], the issue of the EU policy toward foreign language is the following: European citizens should be able to use two foreign languages. This was established in 2002 by the heads of states of the European Union, as knowing foreign languages can "make people more employable and build bridges between different cultures, leading to a more inclusive society."

to answer using the Romanian language.

to survive together.

*3.4.1.2. Language and culture*

#### *3.4.1. Foreign languages*

#### *3.4.1.1. Foreign language teaching*

EU has started a campaign advertising the benefits of foreign language learning with a political purpose: to keep its citizens united. Everyone wishing to learn a language can find the method that fits him or her best. If you open any Internet page, it is impossible not to find advertising regarding a wondrous method of language learning. Some promise extremely fast results; the characters used for advertising are persons that have been trying for years to learn a certain foreign language, but with no results. They needed it for their jobs and, due to the fast method, they managed to get the promotion they had been wanting for years. While skepticism regarding such methods is advisable, we cannot help but notice the campaign led by EU to unite citizens under a European identity. Raising the curiosity of its citizens toward different languages and cultures is part of the campaign. As many citizens would feel that they are losing their national identity due to constant traveling and migration, EU tells them that their language and culture will still matter and will be learned, respected and enjoyed by the other Europeans. Online correspondence courses such as EUROCOR include courses that will help their learners get a diploma to ease their access to the job they want. The courses include foreign language learning and ease the access for their learners to understand another world. In this way, every nation will feel proud that they are studied by other Europeans. It will also make them more aware of their touristic potential. Many European countries, such as France, Austria, Hungary, and others, rely on the tourist industry.

According to Hebden [7], studying a second foreign language has a political purpose: to make citizens feel included in EU. She states:

"increasing bilingual education in schools could enhance language exposure and therefore make inclusion easier, while also equipping learners with key assets for mobility without sacrificing on time spent teaching other subjects."

As not everyone can learn a second or third language in his or her family, one solution is to learn it in school. The benefit of knowing foreign languages is, according to Frijhoff et al. [1], pp. 10–11, that it brings different people together, through bringing enrichment of the vocabulary and of the new perspectives brought on reality and through the empathy with other cultures and communities.

When historical circumstances and official rules bring two or more nations together, they have no choice but to live together and communicate through learning each other's language. In this way, the functioning of the respective state is ensured.

Frijhoff et al. ([1], pp. 10–11) underline the political role of language and the political aspect of imposing it in language teaching. At the same time, they draw attention to the fact that sometimes certain languages can be in political competition with one another. They are tools used to impose "another culture, a different ideology, a new world view."

The language competition and conflict could be illustrated by cases of bilingual cities, such as the Romanian-Hungarian ones in Romania, where certain people traveling there who only speak Romanian report that sometimes Hungarian speakers who also know Romanian refuse to answer using the Romanian language.

Keeping these types of conflict under control is done through rules and through crowd psychology. Ensuring unity and respect helps keep possible armed conflicts at a distance. At the same time, multilingualism and bilingualism suggest a type of collaboration for several nations to survive together.

#### *3.4.1.2. Language and culture*

there was a need for something common to legitimize the holding together of the American community. Group cohesiveness is an evolutionary necessity; otherwise, there would not

EU has started a campaign advertising the benefits of foreign language learning with a political purpose: to keep its citizens united. Everyone wishing to learn a language can find the method that fits him or her best. If you open any Internet page, it is impossible not to find advertising regarding a wondrous method of language learning. Some promise extremely fast results; the characters used for advertising are persons that have been trying for years to learn a certain foreign language, but with no results. They needed it for their jobs and, due to the fast method, they managed to get the promotion they had been wanting for years. While skepticism regarding such methods is advisable, we cannot help but notice the campaign led by EU to unite citizens under a European identity. Raising the curiosity of its citizens toward different languages and cultures is part of the campaign. As many citizens would feel that they are losing their national identity due to constant traveling and migration, EU tells them that their language and culture will still matter and will be learned, respected and enjoyed by the other Europeans. Online correspondence courses such as EUROCOR include courses that will help their learners get a diploma to ease their access to the job they want. The courses include foreign language learning and ease the access for their learners to understand another world. In this way, every nation will feel proud that they are studied by other Europeans. It will also make them more aware of their touristic potential. Many European countries, such as France, Austria, Hungary, and others, rely on the tourist industry.

According to Hebden [7], studying a second foreign language has a political purpose: to make

"increasing bilingual education in schools could enhance language exposure and therefore make inclusion easier, while also equipping learners with key assets for mobility without

As not everyone can learn a second or third language in his or her family, one solution is to learn it in school. The benefit of knowing foreign languages is, according to Frijhoff et al. [1], pp. 10–11, that it brings different people together, through bringing enrichment of the vocabulary and of the new perspectives brought on reality and through the empathy with

When historical circumstances and official rules bring two or more nations together, they have no choice but to live together and communicate through learning each other's language.

Frijhoff et al. ([1], pp. 10–11) underline the political role of language and the political aspect of imposing it in language teaching. At the same time, they draw attention to the fact that sometimes certain languages can be in political competition with one another. They are tools used

have been any security of the community during external attacks.

*3.4.1. Foreign languages*

48 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

*3.4.1.1. Foreign language teaching*

citizens feel included in EU. She states:

other cultures and communities.

sacrificing on time spent teaching other subjects."

In this way, the functioning of the respective state is ensured.

to impose "another culture, a different ideology, a new world view."

By studying foreign languages, people can minimize the culture shock they experience when moving to another place. Knowing the language of the foreign country can help them adapt more easily, especially since foreign language courses nowadays include a cultural component. Foreign language teaching methodologies debate on the inclusion of culture in foreign language curricula. According to Kramsch [29], the debate is still in progress.

The truth is that it was impossible for foreign language teaching to be separated from the culture of the respective language. However, some textbooks could have included more focus on the linguistic structures and less focus, if any at all, on the cultural background. Conversation guides, which only focus on traveling phrases or basic needs, do not include cultural aspects. Manuals for beginners in Romanian schools in the 1990s did not include cultural aspects, or they were restricted to fragments from French and English authors. They were using a different strategy: making learners adapt the language to their needs and relate it to everyday life. The awareness of cultural aspects was given later, when they would read about cultural and historical monuments such as Big Ben and the Eiffel Tower. In this way, the respective culture was felt as one's own, and then the cultural aspects were gradually introduced. Nowadays, the tendency is to introduce cultural aspects right away. The purpose is the same, to make the learner familiar with a different culture. As EU citizens, we are supposed to be already familiar with the respect and need for multilingualism. The benefit of knowing several foreign languages has reached the level of communities, not of individuals as in the past.

Foreign language teachers ask themselves the following question: "how can we develop in the learners an intercultural competence that would shortchange neither their own culture nor the target culture, but would make them into cultural mediators in a globalized world?" ([29], p. 57). This question is related to an issue that has preoccupied the members of EU ever since the beginning: will the possibility of movement make people feel less tied to their own culture and identity? EU promotes cultural values and tries to preserve the cultural and national identity of its countries in order to preserve the tourist industry, which in its turn generates income. The purpose is not only political but also economical, helping countries maintain their status and budget.

According to Hebden [7], the issue of the EU policy toward foreign language is the following: European citizens should be able to use two foreign languages. This was established in 2002 by the heads of states of the European Union, as knowing foreign languages can "make people more employable and build bridges between different cultures, leading to a more inclusive society."

Translation has prospered, creating a bridge between cultures. Foreign language learning methodologies have also come to include communication studies.

Mok and Morris [33] draw attention to the persons who are not only bilingual, but also have to identify with two different cultures. Jewish people have tried to minimize these problems

Aspects and Dimensions of Bilingualism and Multilingualism in Europe

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51

The contact between two different languages and cultures could lead to negative experiences, such as that of not knowing where home is. Literature has described such experiences; for instance, Chimamanda Ngozi-Adichie in *Americanah* portrays a girl who wishes to return home to Nigeria after living for a while in the US, the country where she hoped her dreams would come true. Due to their many diasporas and persecutions, Jewish people have historically adapted to living in several cultures. They have needed to make their home in various different cultures. Ashkenazi Jews especially, through their use of Yiddish, prove that the phenomenon of knowing several languages and living in at least two cultures has existed

Any history of multilingualism originates in the myth of Babel. The myth of Babel preserves the hope for a universal language that would help different nations understand each other ([1], p. 7).

We have noted the use of English as lingua franca today. However, there may be places where members of the older generations cannot speak and understand English. There is also a distinction between languages used at various levels in communities, from vernacular to regional and national, as they are "owned by specific social groups and cultural communities." ([1], p. 7).

Wright [34] underlines the way different language groups come into contact and the inevitability of bilingual and multilingual education. What is more, he gives examples from history, showing that bilingual education dates back to the age before Christ, to the ancient Greece and Rome.

Schendl [35] believes that multilingualism has been commonplace in societies throughout history and that monolingualism is an impossibility, or "a marginal and unwanted phenomenon." He also states that "There is strong evidence that this was even more true of earlier historical

This could happen as part of the consequences of historical conquests and conflict. There is a conflict between conquerors, expressing their conquest through imposing their language, and nationalists, who oppose themselves to this type of domination. Through language policy, a certain perspective, with values, social order, and cultural discourse, is imposed. In Europe, using a certain language can be seen as a sign of resistance, when minorities and oppressed groups use their native language. This act can be seen as a political way of freedom from

The global spread of English has been accepted as normal. This is because it has become very useful to know English and people have understood the advantages. Even advertising can be done in English in certain non-Anglophone cultures; examples are Russia and China, where there are laws that "regulate the use of English in global advertising." English is used creatively in the advertising industry, and sometimes in France, they put the French translation

*3.4.4. The universality of bilingualism and multilingualism through history*

by choosing Yiddish as common language.

since early history.

stages, including medieval Europe."

domination of a certain language and culture ([1], p. 11).

of the English words for explanation ([10], p. 594).

Perhaps in this way the differences between minority and majority languages would be minimized. This is one of the reasons why nowadays there is an active promotion of learning foreign languages, in schools, in universities, or within business companies and even as hobby courses.

#### *3.4.2. Multilingualism in cyberspace*

A UNESCO brochure of 2015 draws attention to issues of multilingualism in cyberspace, focusing on the fact that the Internet should be multilingual; otherwise, minorities will not have access to quality resources and communication. This would lead them not to be able to be included in current debates and online communities, "which are critical elements in support of sustainable development." ([30], p. 2).

The Internet works similarly to the real world, dividing its users into communities. They either look for their communities or have to adapt, using the lingua franca, English.

The Internet, being multilingual, helps preserve rare languages: "interest in the role that a multilingual Internet can play in the preservation, revitalization and promotion of languages" ([30], p. 6).

The Internet itself has become part and parcel of our everyday lives. Communication via Internet has become a necessary and a compulsory skill in every working environment. We need to adapt to it just like it needs to adapt to the contemporary world.

#### *3.4.3. Yiddish as multilingualism*

An example of adaptation to multilingualism is that of the Jewish people. They have been multilingual throughout history, as their communities have spread throughout Europe. Yiddish itself is a language containing elements of several languages. It was called "a fusion language" by Weinreich [31], since it can bring into one single word three elements, from German, Hebrew, and Russian, as shown in the example of the word "*shlimezalnik* (an unfortunate person)": "*schlimmazlnik* (German, Hebrew, and Russian) and the general European "doctor" gets a Hebrew plural: *doktoyrim*." (http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Multilingualism [32])

As a multilingual language, Yiddish has been a connection to both Jewish culture and European culture. Its speakers "could easily adapt to speaking German (Yiddish minus Hebrew and Slavic words) and Yiddish speakers revived modern Hebrew." (http://www.yivoencyclopedia. org/article.aspx/Language/Multilingualism [32]).

The Jewish people have, historically, been largely 'nomadic,' both through choice and for the sake of escaping persecution. They can be regarded as an example of multilingualism, just like the Yiddish language. In other circumstances, problems may arise related to identity issues. The Jewish people have sought to minimize these potential issues by preserving their sense of culture and identity wherever they lived and traveled by preserving the Yiddish language, while other nationalities, which immigrated but did not maintain a single cultural language, faced identity issues.

Mok and Morris [33] draw attention to the persons who are not only bilingual, but also have to identify with two different cultures. Jewish people have tried to minimize these problems by choosing Yiddish as common language.

The contact between two different languages and cultures could lead to negative experiences, such as that of not knowing where home is. Literature has described such experiences; for instance, Chimamanda Ngozi-Adichie in *Americanah* portrays a girl who wishes to return home to Nigeria after living for a while in the US, the country where she hoped her dreams would come true. Due to their many diasporas and persecutions, Jewish people have historically adapted to living in several cultures. They have needed to make their home in various different cultures. Ashkenazi Jews especially, through their use of Yiddish, prove that the phenomenon of knowing several languages and living in at least two cultures has existed since early history.

#### *3.4.4. The universality of bilingualism and multilingualism through history*

Translation has prospered, creating a bridge between cultures. Foreign language learning meth-

Perhaps in this way the differences between minority and majority languages would be minimized. This is one of the reasons why nowadays there is an active promotion of learning foreign languages, in schools, in universities, or within business companies and even as hobby courses.

A UNESCO brochure of 2015 draws attention to issues of multilingualism in cyberspace, focusing on the fact that the Internet should be multilingual; otherwise, minorities will not have access to quality resources and communication. This would lead them not to be able to be included in current debates and online communities, "which are critical elements in sup-

The Internet works similarly to the real world, dividing its users into communities. They either

The Internet, being multilingual, helps preserve rare languages: "interest in the role that a multilingual Internet can play in the preservation, revitalization and promotion of languages" ([30],

The Internet itself has become part and parcel of our everyday lives. Communication via Internet has become a necessary and a compulsory skill in every working environment. We need to adapt

An example of adaptation to multilingualism is that of the Jewish people. They have been multilingual throughout history, as their communities have spread throughout Europe. Yiddish itself is a language containing elements of several languages. It was called "a fusion language" by Weinreich [31], since it can bring into one single word three elements, from German, Hebrew, and Russian, as shown in the example of the word "*shlimezalnik* (an unfortunate person)": "*schlimmazlnik* (German, Hebrew, and Russian) and the general European "doctor" gets a Hebrew plural: *doktoyrim*." (http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Multilingualism [32])

As a multilingual language, Yiddish has been a connection to both Jewish culture and European culture. Its speakers "could easily adapt to speaking German (Yiddish minus Hebrew and Slavic words) and Yiddish speakers revived modern Hebrew." (http://www.yivoencyclopedia.

The Jewish people have, historically, been largely 'nomadic,' both through choice and for the sake of escaping persecution. They can be regarded as an example of multilingualism, just like the Yiddish language. In other circumstances, problems may arise related to identity issues. The Jewish people have sought to minimize these potential issues by preserving their sense of culture and identity wherever they lived and traveled by preserving the Yiddish language, while other nationalities, which immigrated but did not maintain a single cultural language,

look for their communities or have to adapt, using the lingua franca, English.

odologies have also come to include communication studies.

*3.4.2. Multilingualism in cyberspace*

50 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

*3.4.3. Yiddish as multilingualism*

faced identity issues.

p. 6).

port of sustainable development." ([30], p. 2).

to it just like it needs to adapt to the contemporary world.

org/article.aspx/Language/Multilingualism [32]).

Any history of multilingualism originates in the myth of Babel. The myth of Babel preserves the hope for a universal language that would help different nations understand each other ([1], p. 7).

We have noted the use of English as lingua franca today. However, there may be places where members of the older generations cannot speak and understand English. There is also a distinction between languages used at various levels in communities, from vernacular to regional and national, as they are "owned by specific social groups and cultural communities." ([1], p. 7).

Wright [34] underlines the way different language groups come into contact and the inevitability of bilingual and multilingual education. What is more, he gives examples from history, showing that bilingual education dates back to the age before Christ, to the ancient Greece and Rome.

Schendl [35] believes that multilingualism has been commonplace in societies throughout history and that monolingualism is an impossibility, or "a marginal and unwanted phenomenon." He also states that "There is strong evidence that this was even more true of earlier historical stages, including medieval Europe."

This could happen as part of the consequences of historical conquests and conflict. There is a conflict between conquerors, expressing their conquest through imposing their language, and nationalists, who oppose themselves to this type of domination. Through language policy, a certain perspective, with values, social order, and cultural discourse, is imposed. In Europe, using a certain language can be seen as a sign of resistance, when minorities and oppressed groups use their native language. This act can be seen as a political way of freedom from domination of a certain language and culture ([1], p. 11).

The global spread of English has been accepted as normal. This is because it has become very useful to know English and people have understood the advantages. Even advertising can be done in English in certain non-Anglophone cultures; examples are Russia and China, where there are laws that "regulate the use of English in global advertising." English is used creatively in the advertising industry, and sometimes in France, they put the French translation of the English words for explanation ([10], p. 594).

English has become part of the culture of countries that are not even Anglophone and that have not been under British rule.

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