**2. Languages in contact**

Historical events cause languages to come into contact, as the result of invasion, colonization, annexation, resettlement, etc., and also, as is the case nowadays, for establishing business partnerships. As a result, a new language needs to be learned by people who "may become refugees, either in a new place or in their homeland." What is more, as a consequence of an invasion, "the indigenous population may have to learn the invader's language in order to prosper." (Wei 2013).

One such example is that of migrants in our contemporary world. This situation applies both to refugees and to other persons who leave their own country to find temporary work or to emigrate entirely. They have no other choice but to come into contact with another language and culture; they will need to adapt and learn the language of the country. They may join communities of their own people, if there are any in the respective country, but often, in order to find better conditions for life and work, they will need to adopt the language of the country they have moved to.

Whole populations may be forced to move due to natural disasters and find themselves faced with new languages. As a result of people's resettlement, language contact occurs. An example of such a situation is the following: "Some of the Irish and Chinese resettlements in North America were the result of natural disasters." (Wei 2013).

Religious issues can also cause people to move to other countries and deal with other languages. Religious oppression can cause people to leave the respective country and move to another country and then they will have to learn the language of the new country. "Russian speakers in Israel are a case in point." [2].

The wish to learn a culture's language out of passion and personal empathy "with a particular ethnic, cultural, or social group" is not excluded. The main issue, however, remains the economic aspect that triggers migration in search for better living conditions. Accordingly, "Economic factors account for most of the linguistic diversity of the United States and an increasing proportion of the bilingualism and multilingualism in present-day Europe." [2].

refuse to answer in a language that they do not consider to be their own. This raises the issues of cultural and political tensions in areas where two cultures are supposed to coexist peacefully. By recognizing two or more official languages in a territory, we recognize the strong impact of past historical events, such as conquests. In its turn, the use of a certain language

Using two different languages can raise the issue of belonging to two different cultures, which can have an impact on personal identity. The novels by Hanif Kureishi (1990–2017), for example, feature characters who are half-Indian and half-British and often explore these themes. The same identity issues often affect immigrants, who come from cultures and speak languages

On the other hand, promoting a certain culture requires promoting its language. We find ourselves drawn by exotic languages, such as Japanese, whose cultures we wish to discover. Through the inclusion of Spanish dramas in Romanian television programs, the respective language and

Learning different languages is an aspect of politics, and it is done through various manifesta-

Historical events cause languages to come into contact, as the result of invasion, colonization, annexation, resettlement, etc., and also, as is the case nowadays, for establishing business partnerships. As a result, a new language needs to be learned by people who "may become refugees, either in a new place or in their homeland." What is more, as a consequence of an invasion, "the indigenous population may have to learn the invader's language in order to prosper." (Wei 2013). One such example is that of migrants in our contemporary world. This situation applies both to refugees and to other persons who leave their own country to find temporary work or to emigrate entirely. They have no other choice but to come into contact with another language and culture; they will need to adapt and learn the language of the country. They may join communities of their own people, if there are any in the respective country, but often, in order to find better conditions for life and work, they will need to adopt the language of the country

Whole populations may be forced to move due to natural disasters and find themselves faced with new languages. As a result of people's resettlement, language contact occurs. An example of such a situation is the following: "Some of the Irish and Chinese resettlements in North

Religious issues can also cause people to move to other countries and deal with other languages. Religious oppression can cause people to leave the respective country and move to another country and then they will have to learn the language of the new country. "Russian

tions: through wars and physical, armed conflict, or imposed through culture.

indicates the belonging of someone to a certain culture and cultural identity.

other than those of the country in which they now live.

America were the result of natural disasters." (Wei 2013).

speakers in Israel are a case in point." [2].

culture are promoted.

40 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

they have moved to.

**2. Languages in contact**

Nowadays, the movement from one country to another has become possible due to many reasons. One such example is the politics related to migration, which has been allowed among countries in Europe. When poor countries join the European Union, this allows their citizens, Romanians, for example, to move to work and live in other European countries with better economic situations.

According to Hebden [7], "Multilingualism is vital for an inclusive EU." Hebden [7] believes that the current mobility provided by the EU offers great opportunities, such as the possibility "to move to another country for study or retirement." However, attention should be paid to the "new challenges of inclusion within a host community." ([7], p. 2).

The freedom to move across Europe allows citizens to feel equal with one another, as this sort of migration is so common that it has become almost a lifestyle in our contemporary world. Media advertising of classes focused on foreign languages and cultures, some even given free online, has advertised this lifestyle as something usual nowadays. In the past, moving to another country was a more isolated phenomenon and the person felt alone in the process; nowadays, the cultural shock is minimized through all the information made available worldwide and for free on the Internet. Even traveling has become something very usual as it has become simpler than it was in the past. We get lots of advertisements praising the reduced prices for flights and hotels. The plane has become, through low cost offers, a very common means of transportation. Working abroad has become something common, especially for citizens of poorer countries of the EU, such as Romania. The business of foreign language teaching seems to be supported by the EU, as "Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment" was in fact a strategy adopted by the European Commission in 2008. Regional and minority languages were included in the strategy. Afterwards, "In November 2008, the Council adopted for the first time a resolution on multilingualism. They recognised the need to widen the range of languages offered in the education system." [8].

In what way do these movements influence languages? Varieties of New English, such as Malaysian English, Philippine English, Indian English, and others, borrow ways of pronunciation, grammar structures, and words from the languages spoken natively in Malaysia, the Philippines, and India. Even English as lingua franca in European countries has led to borrowings; young people especially use English words and expressions mixed into discussions in their mother language. IT terms are often borrowed from English, but so are terms that already exist in the other languages. The reactions to this phenomenon have been varied: while some countries still accept this linguistic borrowing, other countries such as France have violently opposed this practice and have argued for the need to keep the purity of the country's language. Countries such as Hungary use their language only, avoiding borrowing at all costs; they go as far as translating proper names belonging to other nations into Hungarian.
