**2. Advantages of bilingualism and multilingualism**

The issue of advantages or benefits of bilingualism to the individual and the community is very topical; yet, it does not often benefit from a comprehensive presentation of knowledgebased information that is informed by research findings; findings that make such information authentic. The challenge is undertaken in this work, which ensures that the compendium of claims of benefits of bilingualism and multilingualism articulated are logical conclusions drawn from well-resourced research findings and not merely the fruit of a fertile imagination or wishful thinking. Presentation of the benefits of bilingualism to the individual below precedes benefits of bilingualism to the society (community, nation, or state). Assertions of benefit and advantages are followed by verifiable and verified sources.

Bilinguals have t*he potentials to attain high academic standards with less effort* than monolinguals (Curtain and Dahlberg [9]), *because those who speak multiple languages tend to have a stereoscopic vision of the world from two or more perspectives, enabling them to learn reading more easily***,** develop

Introductory Chapter: Relevance of Bilingualism and Multilingualism in a Multilingual World

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77083

5

Bilingualism delays aging mental disorders, dementia, or Alzheimer's disease. Studies show that there is a *significant delay of the symptoms of old age dementia recorded in bilinguals*, which on the other hand manifests faster in monolinguals. The onset of dementia in some studies is at

Aphasia can be better managed in bilinguals than monolinguals because in post-stroke aphasia, for instance, therapy will involve a "transfer effect," whereby **"***the second, less dominant language can be used to transfer knowledge to the primary one, helping with rehabilitation"* [11].

Bilinguals are better equipped for information processing as a result of the constant code-switching between languages, which provides bilinguals with potentials to switch the functionality strategies of one language to the other as the need demands. "*When the brain is constantly so exercised, it doesn't have to work as hard as the monolingual's to perform most cognitive tasks effectively"* [12].

There are sociocultural advantages to bilingualism and multilingualism in that multilinguals are more obviously multicultural (since language and culture are related). Bilinguals, therefore, have more **intercultural competence. Multilinguals are more open and can better** appreciate and accommodate a foreign culture than monolinguals. Such a predisposition is a factor in lessening racism, xenophobia, intolerance and enabling intercultural dialog, and social cohesion [9, 13].

Bilingualism has economic advantages in that multilingualism is an investment in human capital; for knowledge of several languages can afford one the opportunity of earning the higher income and obtaining aspiring employment status in any influential knowledge society. The use of a second or third language in the workplace is associated with positive earning

A survey of empirical findings leads to the conclusion that the opportunities and privileges of multilingual societies outnumber those of monolingual societies for many reasons. State

differentials, ranging from 3 to 8% in different Western European countries [14, 15].

**better critical thinking abilities,** *and be more flexible in their thinking.*

least 5–10 years earlier in monolinguals than bilinguals [10].

*2.1.4. Bilingualism and dementia*

*2.1.5. Bilingualism and aphasia*

*2.1.6. Bilingualism and information processing*

*2.1.7. Sociocultural benefits of bilingualism*

*2.1.8. Economic advantages of bilingualism*

**2.2. Advantages of societal bilingualism**

#### **2.1. Advantages of individual bilingualism**

#### *2.1.1. Bilingualism and cognition*

Research on bilingualism and cognition leads to the empirical findings that on the whole, bilinguals (as individuals), *have more improved cognitive abilities than monolinguals*. Bilinguals "**exercise … superiority in cognitive, metalinguistic awareness, linguistic, and academic performances**" over monolinguals [2].

Bilinguals are cognitively more creative with respect to flexible thinking ability and more proactive in nature [3, 4]; bilinguals have **executive control advantage**, which stimulates the memory giving them a better capacity for recollection.

#### *2.1.2. Bilingualism and communicative competence*

Bilingualism enhances the communicative ability and communicative competence [4, 5]. The bilingual experience fosters linguistic competences in varied verbal tasks, resulting in having increased competence or **multi-competence;** that is, **added capacity.** *Thus, a bilingual that is seeking to solve a problem in one language is thought to be able to draw on the other language and related frames of mind to bring extra cognitive capacity to bear in solving a problem* [6, 7].

Besides, there is evidence that bilinguals with a multilingual competence have high selfconfidence, and stronger willingness to communicate without fear of constructing non-wellformed utterances [6, 7].

#### *2.1.3. Bilingualism and language learning*

Bilingualism has significant advantages for language learning in particular and knowledge appropriation in general in that bilinguals in using more than one language, *tend to develop better language proficiency, sensitivity, and definitely more in-depth understanding and control of their mother tongue* [6]. In learning another language, bilinguals have more opportunities to *transfer knowledge and language governing rules from one language to the oth*er, making it easier for them to learn overlapping cognates in form and meaning across languages [8].

Bilinguals have t*he potentials to attain high academic standards with less effort* than monolinguals (Curtain and Dahlberg [9]), *because those who speak multiple languages tend to have a stereoscopic vision of the world from two or more perspectives, enabling them to learn reading more easily***,** develop **better critical thinking abilities,** *and be more flexible in their thinking.*

#### *2.1.4. Bilingualism and dementia*

**2. Advantages of bilingualism and multilingualism**

benefit and advantages are followed by verifiable and verified sources.

**2.1. Advantages of individual bilingualism**

*2.1.1. Bilingualism and cognition*

4 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

formed utterances [6, 7].

*2.1.3. Bilingualism and language learning*

**performances**" over monolinguals [2].

memory giving them a better capacity for recollection.

*2.1.2. Bilingualism and communicative competence*

The issue of advantages or benefits of bilingualism to the individual and the community is very topical; yet, it does not often benefit from a comprehensive presentation of knowledgebased information that is informed by research findings; findings that make such information authentic. The challenge is undertaken in this work, which ensures that the compendium of claims of benefits of bilingualism and multilingualism articulated are logical conclusions drawn from well-resourced research findings and not merely the fruit of a fertile imagination or wishful thinking. Presentation of the benefits of bilingualism to the individual below precedes benefits of bilingualism to the society (community, nation, or state). Assertions of

Research on bilingualism and cognition leads to the empirical findings that on the whole, bilinguals (as individuals), *have more improved cognitive abilities than monolinguals*. Bilinguals "**exercise … superiority in cognitive, metalinguistic awareness, linguistic, and academic** 

Bilinguals are cognitively more creative with respect to flexible thinking ability and more proactive in nature [3, 4]; bilinguals have **executive control advantage**, which stimulates the

Bilingualism enhances the communicative ability and communicative competence [4, 5]. The bilingual experience fosters linguistic competences in varied verbal tasks, resulting in having increased competence or **multi-competence;** that is, **added capacity.** *Thus, a bilingual that is seeking to solve a problem in one language is thought to be able to draw on the other language and* 

Besides, there is evidence that bilinguals with a multilingual competence have high selfconfidence, and stronger willingness to communicate without fear of constructing non-well-

Bilingualism has significant advantages for language learning in particular and knowledge appropriation in general in that bilinguals in using more than one language, *tend to develop better language proficiency, sensitivity, and definitely more in-depth understanding and control of their mother tongue* [6]. In learning another language, bilinguals have more opportunities to *transfer knowledge and language governing rules from one language to the oth*er, making it easier for them

*related frames of mind to bring extra cognitive capacity to bear in solving a problem* [6, 7].

to learn overlapping cognates in form and meaning across languages [8].

Bilingualism delays aging mental disorders, dementia, or Alzheimer's disease. Studies show that there is a *significant delay of the symptoms of old age dementia recorded in bilinguals*, which on the other hand manifests faster in monolinguals. The onset of dementia in some studies is at least 5–10 years earlier in monolinguals than bilinguals [10].

#### *2.1.5. Bilingualism and aphasia*

Aphasia can be better managed in bilinguals than monolinguals because in post-stroke aphasia, for instance, therapy will involve a "transfer effect," whereby **"***the second, less dominant language can be used to transfer knowledge to the primary one, helping with rehabilitation"* [11].

#### *2.1.6. Bilingualism and information processing*

Bilinguals are better equipped for information processing as a result of the constant code-switching between languages, which provides bilinguals with potentials to switch the functionality strategies of one language to the other as the need demands. "*When the brain is constantly so exercised, it doesn't have to work as hard as the monolingual's to perform most cognitive tasks effectively"* [12].

#### *2.1.7. Sociocultural benefits of bilingualism*

There are sociocultural advantages to bilingualism and multilingualism in that multilinguals are more obviously multicultural (since language and culture are related). Bilinguals, therefore, have more **intercultural competence. Multilinguals are more open and can better** appreciate and accommodate a foreign culture than monolinguals. Such a predisposition is a factor in lessening racism, xenophobia, intolerance and enabling intercultural dialog, and social cohesion [9, 13].

#### *2.1.8. Economic advantages of bilingualism*

Bilingualism has economic advantages in that multilingualism is an investment in human capital; for knowledge of several languages can afford one the opportunity of earning the higher income and obtaining aspiring employment status in any influential knowledge society. The use of a second or third language in the workplace is associated with positive earning differentials, ranging from 3 to 8% in different Western European countries [14, 15].

#### **2.2. Advantages of societal bilingualism**

A survey of empirical findings leads to the conclusion that the opportunities and privileges of multilingual societies outnumber those of monolingual societies for many reasons. State multilingualism governed by a policy of ethno-linguistic pluralism that consecrates societal bilingualism has a plethora of advantages for individuals that benefit the society or state as well.

*and demands multilingual language competence in Europe, and to this effect, each European citizen should understand at least two languages other than the mother tongue* [21–23]. Such requirements at the level of the Union impose national language policies in favor of societal multilingualism and *ipso facto,* encourage individual bilingualism in the European community of nations. **Language contact within the nation-state** may require the acquisition of a majority language by minorities and migrants who come in with a minority language. This leads to issues of **polarization** of *minority or heritage languages versus majo***rity or official languages,** *inclusions versus exclusion, insiders versus outsiders, and so on.* Language policy and planning has a duty to mediate and diffuse tension by **devising and** implementing policies that ensure revitalization, revalorization, and use of minority and heritage languages along with the major languages for development, to ensure an inclusive society. Multilingualism as a national objective, occasion's intensive foreign language learning in Europe, the rise of English as a dominant lingua franca and the advent of a thriving translation industry for building bridges of intercultural

Introductory Chapter: Relevance of Bilingualism and Multilingualism in a Multilingual World

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77083

7

The **Colombian** constitution recogn**izes the promotion of** indigenous languages and the development of Spanish-English bilingualism (or bilingualism in Spanish and another foreign language) in the school system, where Spanish is the official language, legacy o**f the colonial past.** English is adopted as a language necessary **for knowledge appropriation** and interaction with the global community for national development. The main objectives of the evaluation process are to determine to what extent the Colombian Bilingual Program is effective, efficient, and successful and ultimately, to what extent the Ministry of Education's overall goal of achieving 40% success in English (and ipso facto, Spanish**-**English bilingualism) by 2014 was attained. Detailed results show that despite the efforts conceded, the overall success rate falls below the expected target. Significant observations follow from the case study and make recommendations on challenges to be faced on the way forward to the 2025 phase of the program. The case study is quite instructive and patently useful with lessons to be learned in the enterprise of nation building in developing countries, especially in the face of challenges of multilingualism and socio-economic development, not only for what is achieved in the Colombian experience, but perhaps more importantly, for what is not achieved and why.

Psycholinguistics perspectives of bilingualism have been an important aspect of studies in

How do bilingual children come to distinguish phonetic details of the two linguistic systems they are internalizing in the language acquisition process? The central issue in this respect is,

and **cross-cultural understanding.**

*2.3.2. Evaluation of national bilingual policy in Columbia*

**3. Psycholinguistic perspectives on bilingualism**

bilingualism recently, two of which are elucidated here below.

**3.1. Phonetic category formation in bilingual children**

## *2.2.1. Advantages of multilingualism and multiculturalism*

Multilingualism implies multiculturalism, which as indicated above helps in strengthening social cohesion, intercultural dialog, and so on. This is possible provided, there are policies on state pluralism that provide guarantees for recognition of ethno-linguistic communities. When ethno-linguistic communities are guaranteed recognition of their identity, they tend to feel a sense of security and a sense inclusion and belonging to the nation or state [13, 16].

#### *2.2.2. Academic advantages of multilingualism in the area of education*

These are quite obvious in that, inter alia, multilingual skills, and competence open up access to a huge store of knowledge through access to a wider scope of sources and resources in the educational institutions and beyond. Thus, the lack of multilingual language skills limits researchers in their ability to engage internationally in or with their research, and in their career opportunities [10, 17].

#### *2.2.3. Benefits of multilingualism for national security*

Multilingualism has benefits for national security and conflict resolution. Garamone [18] extolls the power of multilingualism for national security and Samire [19] advises a *multilingual approach to solving conflicts in a multilingual setting.*

#### *2.2.4. Multilingualism, governance, and policy implementation*

The implementation of government policies, for instance, in health care delivery, agriculture, environmental action, and so on in multilingual societies is best carried out in the various mother tongues or "languages of the heart.," for dissemination of information and knowledge in the mother tongue **(**or better known language) leads to a greater level of comprehension and appropriation of knowledge and innovations [20].

### **2.3. Sample case studies of bilingualism and multilingualism**

Societal multilingualism has gained acceptance as a desirable objective in the implementation of a paradigm of national development predicated on ideals of ethno-linguistic unity in diversity. **Case studies are** quite illuminating with respect to efforts to face challenges of pluralism.

#### *2.3.1. Bilingualism and multilingualism in the European Union*

The European Union's language policy seeks to consecrate and consolidate multilingualism and multiculturalism in the Union as a new-found ideological paradigm for nation building congruent with ideals of pluralism. It is known that *the European framework of reference, regulates*  *and demands multilingual language competence in Europe, and to this effect, each European citizen should understand at least two languages other than the mother tongue* [21–23]. Such requirements at the level of the Union impose national language policies in favor of societal multilingualism and *ipso facto,* encourage individual bilingualism in the European community of nations. **Language contact within the nation-state** may require the acquisition of a majority language by minorities and migrants who come in with a minority language. This leads to issues of **polarization** of *minority or heritage languages versus majo***rity or official languages,** *inclusions versus exclusion, insiders versus outsiders, and so on.* Language policy and planning has a duty to mediate and diffuse tension by **devising and** implementing policies that ensure revitalization, revalorization, and use of minority and heritage languages along with the major languages for development, to ensure an inclusive society. Multilingualism as a national objective, occasion's intensive foreign language learning in Europe, the rise of English as a dominant lingua franca and the advent of a thriving translation industry for building bridges of intercultural and **cross-cultural understanding.**

#### *2.3.2. Evaluation of national bilingual policy in Columbia*

multilingualism governed by a policy of ethno-linguistic pluralism that consecrates societal bilingualism has a plethora of advantages for individuals that benefit the society or state as well.

Multilingualism implies multiculturalism, which as indicated above helps in strengthening social cohesion, intercultural dialog, and so on. This is possible provided, there are policies on state pluralism that provide guarantees for recognition of ethno-linguistic communities. When ethno-linguistic communities are guaranteed recognition of their identity, they tend to feel a sense of security and a sense inclusion and belonging to the nation or state [13, 16].

These are quite obvious in that, inter alia, multilingual skills, and competence open up access to a huge store of knowledge through access to a wider scope of sources and resources in the educational institutions and beyond. Thus, the lack of multilingual language skills limits researchers in their ability to engage internationally in or with their research, and in their

Multilingualism has benefits for national security and conflict resolution. Garamone [18] extolls the power of multilingualism for national security and Samire [19] advises a *multilin-*

The implementation of government policies, for instance, in health care delivery, agriculture, environmental action, and so on in multilingual societies is best carried out in the various mother tongues or "languages of the heart.," for dissemination of information and knowledge in the mother tongue **(**or better known language) leads to a greater level of comprehension

Societal multilingualism has gained acceptance as a desirable objective in the implementation of a paradigm of national development predicated on ideals of ethno-linguistic unity in diversity. **Case studies are** quite illuminating with respect to efforts to face challenges of pluralism.

The European Union's language policy seeks to consecrate and consolidate multilingualism and multiculturalism in the Union as a new-found ideological paradigm for nation building congruent with ideals of pluralism. It is known that *the European framework of reference, regulates* 

*2.2.1. Advantages of multilingualism and multiculturalism*

career opportunities [10, 17].

6 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

*2.2.3. Benefits of multilingualism for national security*

*gual approach to solving conflicts in a multilingual setting.*

and appropriation of knowledge and innovations [20].

**2.3. Sample case studies of bilingualism and multilingualism**

*2.3.1. Bilingualism and multilingualism in the European Union*

*2.2.4. Multilingualism, governance, and policy implementation*

*2.2.2. Academic advantages of multilingualism in the area of education*

The **Colombian** constitution recogn**izes the promotion of** indigenous languages and the development of Spanish-English bilingualism (or bilingualism in Spanish and another foreign language) in the school system, where Spanish is the official language, legacy o**f the colonial past.** English is adopted as a language necessary **for knowledge appropriation** and interaction with the global community for national development. The main objectives of the evaluation process are to determine to what extent the Colombian Bilingual Program is effective, efficient, and successful and ultimately, to what extent the Ministry of Education's overall goal of achieving 40% success in English (and ipso facto, Spanish**-**English bilingualism) by 2014 was attained. Detailed results show that despite the efforts conceded, the overall success rate falls below the expected target. Significant observations follow from the case study and make recommendations on challenges to be faced on the way forward to the 2025 phase of the program. The case study is quite instructive and patently useful with lessons to be learned in the enterprise of nation building in developing countries, especially in the face of challenges of multilingualism and socio-economic development, not only for what is achieved in the Colombian experience, but perhaps more importantly, for what is not achieved and why.
