**1. Introduction**

Today's world has made knowing several languages almost a necessity. We need foreign languages to establish business communication, to travel, and for other personal reasons, whether we wish to learn a new language for entertainment or for studying in a foreign country or to better understand a different culture. A foreign language can be chosen deliberately, or it could be necessary for someone trying to adapt to a certain community. We distinguish between **multilingualism** and **plurilingualism** as follows: the first refers to "the simultaneous presence, availability or use of several languages in a given place, territory or nation," while the

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latter refers to "the simultaneous knowledge of, and acquaintance with, several languages by a given person or a given community, and the use of, or competence in, more than one language in thinking, speaking, writing and/or reading." ([1], p. 12).

It is clear that political entities such as the European Union can only encourage multilingualism. The search for a feeling of unity has always been associated with a common language. From this point of view, the European Union struggles to implement the slogan "unity through diversity" and the wish to artificially create a sense of community. The feeling of nationalism goes hand in hand with the respect for one single language: in Europe, from early modernism until the twentieth century, "a single national language" was regarded "as a guarantee of the unity and indeed the identity of a people, the language often being interpreted and praised as the purest expression of a nation's soul." The process of the standardization of a language is done through "normative prescriptions, appropriate actions for identity formation, sociocultural policies and educational policy, even measures for the unification of religious idiom by imposing specific translations of the Bible or prayer books." We could regard all these practices as part of an ideology, which has in mind a "cultural conquest" performed by means of language policy. "The

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same holds, of course, for variations of 'standard' language, and dialects." ([1], p. 11).

munity, created through common culture, values, and interests.

The use of a national language has been promoted through various policies, ranging from educational to sociocultural. By speaking of bilingualism and multilingualism, we automatically speak of a political pact: of two or more nations or cultures living at peace with each other, of collaboration. As Anderson [6] has taught us, a nation is, after all, an imagined com-

Before the European Union, we could establish an identity between country, culture, and language. Every country was associated with a unique language. Nowadays, the EU has declared its goal for the citizens of its member states to know several languages, which is in fact a rule: "The European Framework of Reference regulates and demands multilingual language competence in Europe. Each European citizen should understand at least two languages other than the mother tongue." ([5], p. 9). We speak nowadays of language awareness in a world that is interconnected, an awareness which is clearly necessary since we need it to communicate and to show respect toward other cultures: "Critical literacy (Fairclough 1992) has become an important democratic value in a world that has developed into an interconnected network shared by many. This requires awareness that democratic structures only exist on the surface layer as social networks are dictated by the few who own them." ([5], p. 11). Political changes have always been reflected in language policies: "Language policy has always been seen as the vehicle of nation building, and political changes usually bring language changes." ([5], p. 12).

In some countries, there are two or more official languages, for example: Canada (English and French), Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Switzerland (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), and Singapore (English, Chinese, Malay, and Tamil). If we examine the history of those territories, we see that this attitude toward language has to do with their colonization. In Canada, French has been used since the French settlers emigrated to Canada in 1604 and English has been used in the provinces' government ever since colonization by the British. Areas where two ethnicities live together usually have two languages, such as in Romanian cities like Oradea, where both Romanian and Hungarian are spoken, or in Mulhouse, where both German and French are spoken. Areas located close to a border also often use more than one language. Language is always part of a certain cultural identity and of the symbols and practices associated with nationalism and patriotism. In some official bilingual areas, some persons can

Multilingualism relates to public life, as it refers to the use of multiple languages in a certain territory. Plurilingualism is related more to the personal side, although it can extend to a community.

We live in a culture where individuals often learn foreign languages as a hobby, yet this choice is not always a personal one. In some cases, even if individuals have become multilingual as a personal choice, the official language of a community can be a single one. The key to bilingualism and multilingualism is represented by language contact and interaction ([2], p. 26).

Multilingualism and bilingualism can imply accepting other cultures, getting to know them better, and adapting to them, their values, and their ways of life. Multilingualism and bilingualism mean, politically, the recognition of the way that different cultures live together and the historical basis of this symbiosis.

The issue of bilingual education dates back to first-century Rome, when there were discussions regarding which language should be taught to students: Greek or Latin ([3], pp. 109–110).

Certain countries are more closely associated with foreign language learning in the school curricula than others. According to Devlin [4], learning a foreign language is more specific to schools in Europe than to schools in America. A second foreign language is compulsory in over 20 countries in Europe, with Ireland and Scotland as exceptions, although, in Irish schools, two local languages are taught: English and Gaelic. English is the most popular choice of foreign language in European schools, followed by French, German, Spanish, and Russian, according to Devlin [4], while the United States "does not have a nationwide foreign-language mandate at any level of education." The situation in the United States is likely influenced by the fact that English has become a globalized language of understanding for and with people of other nationalities. Due to this, it is not vital for Americans to learn a second language for the sake of their professional lives.

The teaching and learning of foreign languages can be seen as a political act even in schools and language classrooms. Certain languages are spoken on a global scale, which gives one more reason for individuals to prefer these languages over others:

"Although there are around 5,000–7,000 languages worldwide, a few languages predominate in the interconnected world described above. According to the Ethnologue, 40% of the world's population speak the eight most common languages, namely Mandarin, Hindi, Spanish, English, Bengali, Portuguese, Arabic, and Russian (Gordon 2005 in Cenoz 2009, p. 1). Around 6.1% of all people speak minority languages, such as Frisian, Basque, Welsh, Irish, and Catalan in Europe." ([5], p. 12).

English, which is believed to have become a global language, is spoken officially in countries in Africa as well as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Philippines, etc. In such countries, we also encounter varieties of New Englishes, which differ in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation from standard British English (RP English). The varieties of New Englishes have gone through major interference from the first language of its speakers. These varieties are found in former British colonies.

It is clear that political entities such as the European Union can only encourage multilingualism. The search for a feeling of unity has always been associated with a common language. From this point of view, the European Union struggles to implement the slogan "unity through diversity" and the wish to artificially create a sense of community. The feeling of nationalism goes hand in hand with the respect for one single language: in Europe, from early modernism until the twentieth century, "a single national language" was regarded "as a guarantee of the unity and indeed the identity of a people, the language often being interpreted and praised as the purest expression of a nation's soul." The process of the standardization of a language is done through "normative prescriptions, appropriate actions for identity formation, sociocultural policies and educational policy, even measures for the unification of religious idiom by imposing specific translations of the Bible or prayer books." We could regard all these practices as part of an ideology, which has in mind a "cultural conquest" performed by means of language policy. "The same holds, of course, for variations of 'standard' language, and dialects." ([1], p. 11).

latter refers to "the simultaneous knowledge of, and acquaintance with, several languages by a given person or a given community, and the use of, or competence in, more than one language

Multilingualism relates to public life, as it refers to the use of multiple languages in a certain territory. Plurilingualism is related more to the personal side, although it can extend to a community.

We live in a culture where individuals often learn foreign languages as a hobby, yet this choice is not always a personal one. In some cases, even if individuals have become multilingual as a personal choice, the official language of a community can be a single one. The key to bilingualism and multilingualism is represented by language contact and interaction ([2], p. 26).

Multilingualism and bilingualism can imply accepting other cultures, getting to know them better, and adapting to them, their values, and their ways of life. Multilingualism and bilingualism mean, politically, the recognition of the way that different cultures live together and the histori-

The issue of bilingual education dates back to first-century Rome, when there were discussions regarding which language should be taught to students: Greek or Latin ([3], pp. 109–110).

Certain countries are more closely associated with foreign language learning in the school curricula than others. According to Devlin [4], learning a foreign language is more specific to schools in Europe than to schools in America. A second foreign language is compulsory in over 20 countries in Europe, with Ireland and Scotland as exceptions, although, in Irish schools, two local languages are taught: English and Gaelic. English is the most popular choice of foreign language in European schools, followed by French, German, Spanish, and Russian, according to Devlin [4], while the United States "does not have a nationwide foreign-language mandate at any level of education." The situation in the United States is likely influenced by the fact that English has become a globalized language of understanding for and with people of other nationalities. Due to this, it is not vital for Americans to learn a second language for the sake of their professional lives.

The teaching and learning of foreign languages can be seen as a political act even in schools and language classrooms. Certain languages are spoken on a global scale, which gives one

"Although there are around 5,000–7,000 languages worldwide, a few languages predominate in the interconnected world described above. According to the Ethnologue, 40% of the world's population speak the eight most common languages, namely Mandarin, Hindi, Spanish, English, Bengali, Portuguese, Arabic, and Russian (Gordon 2005 in Cenoz 2009, p. 1). Around 6.1% of all people speak minority languages, such as Frisian, Basque, Welsh, Irish, and Catalan in Europe."

English, which is believed to have become a global language, is spoken officially in countries in Africa as well as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Philippines, etc. In such countries, we also encounter varieties of New Englishes, which differ in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation from standard British English (RP English). The varieties of New Englishes have gone through major interference from the first language of its speakers. These varieties are found

more reason for individuals to prefer these languages over others:

in thinking, speaking, writing and/or reading." ([1], p. 12).

cal basis of this symbiosis.

38 Multilingualism and Bilingualism

([5], p. 12).

in former British colonies.

The use of a national language has been promoted through various policies, ranging from educational to sociocultural. By speaking of bilingualism and multilingualism, we automatically speak of a political pact: of two or more nations or cultures living at peace with each other, of collaboration. As Anderson [6] has taught us, a nation is, after all, an imagined community, created through common culture, values, and interests.

Before the European Union, we could establish an identity between country, culture, and language. Every country was associated with a unique language. Nowadays, the EU has declared its goal for the citizens of its member states to know several languages, which is in fact a rule: "The European Framework of Reference regulates and demands multilingual language competence in Europe. Each European citizen should understand at least two languages other than the mother tongue." ([5], p. 9). We speak nowadays of language awareness in a world that is interconnected, an awareness which is clearly necessary since we need it to communicate and to show respect toward other cultures: "Critical literacy (Fairclough 1992) has become an important democratic value in a world that has developed into an interconnected network shared by many. This requires awareness that democratic structures only exist on the surface layer as social networks are dictated by the few who own them." ([5], p. 11). Political changes have always been reflected in language policies: "Language policy has always been seen as the vehicle of nation building, and political changes usually bring language changes." ([5], p. 12).

In some countries, there are two or more official languages, for example: Canada (English and French), Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Switzerland (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), and Singapore (English, Chinese, Malay, and Tamil). If we examine the history of those territories, we see that this attitude toward language has to do with their colonization. In Canada, French has been used since the French settlers emigrated to Canada in 1604 and English has been used in the provinces' government ever since colonization by the British. Areas where two ethnicities live together usually have two languages, such as in Romanian cities like Oradea, where both Romanian and Hungarian are spoken, or in Mulhouse, where both German and French are spoken. Areas located close to a border also often use more than one language.

Language is always part of a certain cultural identity and of the symbols and practices associated with nationalism and patriotism. In some official bilingual areas, some persons can refuse to answer in a language that they do not consider to be their own. This raises the issues of cultural and political tensions in areas where two cultures are supposed to coexist peacefully. By recognizing two or more official languages in a territory, we recognize the strong impact of past historical events, such as conquests. In its turn, the use of a certain language indicates the belonging of someone to a certain culture and cultural identity.

The wish to learn a culture's language out of passion and personal empathy "with a particular ethnic, cultural, or social group" is not excluded. The main issue, however, remains the economic aspect that triggers migration in search for better living conditions. Accordingly, "Economic factors account for most of the linguistic diversity of the United States and an increasing proportion of the bilingualism and multilingualism in present-day Europe." [2].

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Nowadays, the movement from one country to another has become possible due to many reasons. One such example is the politics related to migration, which has been allowed among countries in Europe. When poor countries join the European Union, this allows their citizens, Romanians, for example, to move to work and live in other European countries with better

According to Hebden [7], "Multilingualism is vital for an inclusive EU." Hebden [7] believes that the current mobility provided by the EU offers great opportunities, such as the possibility "to move to another country for study or retirement." However, attention should be paid to

The freedom to move across Europe allows citizens to feel equal with one another, as this sort of migration is so common that it has become almost a lifestyle in our contemporary world. Media advertising of classes focused on foreign languages and cultures, some even given free online, has advertised this lifestyle as something usual nowadays. In the past, moving to another country was a more isolated phenomenon and the person felt alone in the process; nowadays, the cultural shock is minimized through all the information made available worldwide and for free on the Internet. Even traveling has become something very usual as it has become simpler than it was in the past. We get lots of advertisements praising the reduced prices for flights and hotels. The plane has become, through low cost offers, a very common means of transportation. Working abroad has become something common, especially for citizens of poorer countries of the EU, such as Romania. The business of foreign language teaching seems to be supported by the EU, as "Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment" was in fact a strategy adopted by the European Commission in 2008. Regional and minority languages were included in the strategy. Afterwards, "In November 2008, the Council adopted for the first time a resolution on multilingualism. They recognised the need

In what way do these movements influence languages? Varieties of New English, such as Malaysian English, Philippine English, Indian English, and others, borrow ways of pronunciation, grammar structures, and words from the languages spoken natively in Malaysia, the Philippines, and India. Even English as lingua franca in European countries has led to borrowings; young people especially use English words and expressions mixed into discussions in their mother language. IT terms are often borrowed from English, but so are terms that already exist in the other languages. The reactions to this phenomenon have been varied: while some countries still accept this linguistic borrowing, other countries such as France have violently opposed this practice and have argued for the need to keep the purity of the country's language. Countries such as Hungary use their language only, avoiding borrowing at all costs; they go as far as translating proper names belonging to other nations into

the "new challenges of inclusion within a host community." ([7], p. 2).

to widen the range of languages offered in the education system." [8].

economic situations.

Hungarian.

Using two different languages can raise the issue of belonging to two different cultures, which can have an impact on personal identity. The novels by Hanif Kureishi (1990–2017), for example, feature characters who are half-Indian and half-British and often explore these themes. The same identity issues often affect immigrants, who come from cultures and speak languages other than those of the country in which they now live.

On the other hand, promoting a certain culture requires promoting its language. We find ourselves drawn by exotic languages, such as Japanese, whose cultures we wish to discover. Through the inclusion of Spanish dramas in Romanian television programs, the respective language and culture are promoted.

Learning different languages is an aspect of politics, and it is done through various manifestations: through wars and physical, armed conflict, or imposed through culture.
