**Author details**

on newborns due to its prebiotic activity. Furthermore, these compounds show anti-adhesive properties, protecting the intestinal epithelium against pathogens as well as enhancing the

**Table 3.** The composition of different infant formulas. Values are expressed as grams per 100 mL of reconstituted formula.

**Supplemented infant** 

**Supplemented infant formula**

**Minimum limit Maximum limit**

**formula**

Energy (kcal) 68 67 60 70 Protein (g) 1.3 1.5 1.1 2.1 Fat (g) 3.8 3.5 2.6 4.2 α-Linoleic (mg) 586 500 300 840 α-Linolenic (mg) 55.9 61.5 30 70 AA (mg) — 8.7 — 42 DHA (mg) — 8.6 12 35 Carbohydrate (g) 7.2 7.5 5.4 9.8 FOS (g) — — — 0.1 GOS (g) — 0.5 — 0.7

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be produced by newborns using its precursors (linolenic and linoleic acid), but this transformation pathway is not fully developed at this age. For that, most infant formulas are enriched with arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids (ARA and DHA, respectively), since they play an important role in neuronal function and cognitive and

Other important bioactive compounds present in human milk are polyamines that are nitrogen compounds and are present in a very low concentration in cow's milk. Nowadays, based on different studies, polyamines should be added to infant formula; however, due to the scarce information found in the literature about its specific function and the effect on human health on medium-long term, more studies should be developed. Studies performed show an interesting role of polyamines in the maturation of intestinal and immune systems of infants [75]. Studies in infant formula composition must be studied in detail. Related to this, there is no doubt that the proteins in human milk provide an important source of amino acids to rapidly growing breastfed infants. However, this is not the only one role of milk proteins since many of them also play a role in facilitating the digestion and uptake of other nutrients in breast milk. Included in this group of functional proteins are lactoferrin and haptocorrin, which may assist in the absorption of

immune system that, in infants younger than 6 months, is not still fully developed.

l-Carnitin (mg) — 1.1 0.8 — Taurin (mg) 1.0 6.0 — 8.4 Nucleotides (mg) — 3.2 3.5

**Standard infant formula**

visual development [74].

Others

Source: Ref. [73].

20 Selected Topics in Breastfeeding

Esmat Aly1 , Aliaa Ali Darwish2 , Ruben Lopez-Nicolas<sup>3</sup> , Carmen Frontela-Saseta3 and Gaspar Ros-Berruezo<sup>3</sup> \*

\*Address all correspondence to: gros@um.es

1 Special Foods and Nutrition Department, Food Technology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt

2 Dairy Technology Research Department, Food Technology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt

3 Food Science and Nutrition Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Murcia, Espinardo, Spain

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**Chapter 3**

**Provisional chapter**

**The Influence of Breastfeeding and the Infant's Social**

There is substantial evidence that breastfeeding and an enriched environment provide significant contributions to the infant's brain development. In the past 2 decades, there have been overwhelming data on the benefits of breastfeeding for 1 year and longer and its association with higher intelligence in later life. There is clear and convincing evidence from a number of disciplines, neuroscience, genetics, animal experiments and magnetic imaging techniques that indicate breastfeeding results in optimal brain development and higher IQ in later life. Magnetic imaging studies of infants, children and adolescents have provided significant evidence that the higher IQ in later life in breastfed infants is associated with larger brain size and higher degree of myelination of the white matter. Furthermore, observational studies of infants have provided clear evidence that breastfeeding and mother-baby sensory interaction result in significant cognitive and behavioral development of breastfed as compared to formula fed infants. Large-scale longitudinal studies of infants' development have shown clear and convincing evidence of higher intelligence in children who were breastfed during infancy, and that the higher IQ persists through adulthood. In this communication, we provide evidence that breastfeeding and an enriched environment result in accelerated developmental potentials in the first 1000 days last a life time. The first 1000 days

**The Influence of Breastfeeding and the Infant's** 

**Social Environment on Neuroplasticity and Brain** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73209

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Keywords:** breastfeeding, oxytocin, neuroplasticity, myelination, brain development,

**Environment on Neuroplasticity and Brain**

Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Sandra Compsos and

**Development: The First 1000 Days**

**Development: The First 1000 Days**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Sandra Compsos and Lida Niake

Lida Niake

**Abstract**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73209

last the rest of our lives.

enriched environment


**Provisional chapter**

#### **The Influence of Breastfeeding and the Infant's Social Environment on Neuroplasticity and Brain Development: The First 1000 Days Social Environment on Neuroplasticity and Brain Development: The First 1000 Days**

**The Influence of Breastfeeding and the Infant's** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73209

Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Sandra Compsos and Lida Niake Lida Niake Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Sandra Compsos and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73209

#### **Abstract**

[64] Gil A, Uauy R. Nucleótides and related compounds in human and bovine milks. 1995. In: Jensen RG, editor. Handbook in Milk Composition. New York: Academic Press; 1995.

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**48**:347-352

There is substantial evidence that breastfeeding and an enriched environment provide significant contributions to the infant's brain development. In the past 2 decades, there have been overwhelming data on the benefits of breastfeeding for 1 year and longer and its association with higher intelligence in later life. There is clear and convincing evidence from a number of disciplines, neuroscience, genetics, animal experiments and magnetic imaging techniques that indicate breastfeeding results in optimal brain development and higher IQ in later life. Magnetic imaging studies of infants, children and adolescents have provided significant evidence that the higher IQ in later life in breastfed infants is associated with larger brain size and higher degree of myelination of the white matter. Furthermore, observational studies of infants have provided clear evidence that breastfeeding and mother-baby sensory interaction result in significant cognitive and behavioral development of breastfed as compared to formula fed infants. Large-scale longitudinal studies of infants' development have shown clear and convincing evidence of higher intelligence in children who were breastfed during infancy, and that the higher IQ persists through adulthood. In this communication, we provide evidence that breastfeeding and an enriched environment result in accelerated developmental potentials in the first 1000 days last a life time. The first 1000 days last the rest of our lives.

**Keywords:** breastfeeding, oxytocin, neuroplasticity, myelination, brain development, enriched environment

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

#### **1. Introduction**

The newborn's brain grows at an accelerated rate during the first 1000 days and this is associated with myelination of the white matter. Furthermore the brain growth and myelination correlates with the stages of brain development, including motor, speech, vision, acquisition of social skills, attachment, learning math and logic. All aspects of infant's growth and development are contingent on his genetic code "nature". However gene expression is influenced by epigenetic factors "nurture". The positive environmental factors result in neurobiological changes and improved neuroplasticity. The neurobiological effects of environmental enrichment was first reported by landmark work of Volkmar and Greenough which clearly demonstrated the superior problem solving abilities of rats raised as pets compared with rats raised without such human interactions [1]. Anatomically the environmental enrichment resulted in greater cerebral volumes, larger number of synapses and increased complexity of dendritic branches [1]. Extensive animal research demonstrate that maternal grooming and nurturing can lead to changes in DNA methylation, resulting in gene suppression or histone acetylation, up-regulation of the gene expression, which increase grooming in the offspring when it matures and the cycle repeats itself [2].

Newborn infant's brain is quite immature, however it has great potentials to grow and most of the growth occurs in the first 1000 days of his life. Normal brain function requires rapid messaging which is mediated by the myelinated nerve fibers. However myelination depends on a number of factors including the genetic makeup of the infant "nature" and the infant's social environment "nurture". The trajectory of infant's brain growth and myelination is more robust in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Therefore developmental milestone, speech, social skills, emotional and motor development are achieved at an earlier age in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Furthermore we postulate that the infants who were fed breast-milk via a bottle, without sensory interactions with the mother may not reach their fullest potentials. Therefore we make a distinction between breastfeeding as the infant being on the mother's breast and not receiving breast-milk via a bottle, a cup or any other gadgets. Many maternal hormones including estrogens are present in the mother's milk and estrogens are transcriptional promoters for oxytocin and its receptor's genes [4, 5]. Oxytocin is released from supra-optic (SON) and peri-ventricular nuclei (PVN), only upon infant's sensory stimulations, auditory, tactile, visual and vestibular. The rise of oxytocin level in the infant's brain is associated with improved neuroplasticity. The magnitude of environmental influence on the infant's brain development may be ascertained by comparing the white matter growth using magnetic imaging of breastfed infants and infants given breast-milk via a bottle. Alternatively salivary cortisol level measurements may be an index of blood oxytocin because of their inverse relationship [3].

The Influence of Breastfeeding and the Infant's Social Environment on Neuroplasticity and Brain…

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29

Mother's breast milk is an extension of her placenta which provides nutrients, hormones and epigenetic factors that carry messages to the infant to regulate his metabolic pathways.

World Health Organization (WHO) recommends breastfeeding for 2 years. Extended breastfeeding up to 3 and 4 years of age is highly recommended for additional calories, proteins, lipids, vitamins and factors that regulate the child's metabolic processes. The myelination of

The global breastfeeding rate in the past 10 years has improved only marginally from 33% in 1995 to 37% in 2014 [4]. Suboptimal breastfeeding results in higher health care expenditure for pediatrics and maternal care, and global productivity-related economic losses of \$302 billion

Maternity and pediatric care providers in many parts of the world do not follow the recommendations of WHO on breastfeeding for 2 years or longer. The policies of several governments do not support breastfeeding including the Chinese government which subsidizes domestically manufactured formulas and US government that provides free formulas to low income families on WIC, Women, Infants and Children's program. WIC program was originally only intended for low income mothers who were breastfeeding their infants, however

International efforts to promote and protect breastfeeding on a global scale began in 1981 by WHO and World Alliance of Breastfeeding, WABA, in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference resulted in a significant document, International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes. This was followed in 1990 by Innocenti Declaration and the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative

the nerve fibers continues, although at a slower pace until early adolescence.

the program was extended to formula feeding mothers 2 years later [5].

**4. Breastfeeding in the twenty-first century**

or 0.49% of world gross income annually [4].

#### **2. The role of oxytocin on brain development**

Neuropeptide hormones and their receptors have properties that identify them as candidates for the induction of early life experiences into both short and long-term behavioral changes [3].

Animal research has provided a vast knowledge on the significance of the role of mother-baby interaction in child development. The elegant experiments on prairie voles, small monogamous mammals, point to the significant role of oxytocin on our behavior. Injection of oxytocin receptor blockers resulted in changes in pair-bonding behavior in these mammals [3]. Additionally oxytocin is implicated in all aspects of romantic and maternal love, including courtship, mating, pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding [3].

Anthropological studies demonstrate significant differences between the breast milk of large primates such as humans, monkeys and apes, referred to as "carrying mammals" vs. "nested mammals". Carrying mammals' breast milk contains lower amount of fat and sugar, while the nested mammals' breast milk contains much higher sugar and fat. Therefore carrying mammals require to breastfeed their infants more frequently than nested mammals.

The human infant's central nervous system depends on a micro-environment that is similar to the maternal uterine environment which is full of sensory exchanges involving heat, sound, movements, transportation, feelings, touch, smell and access to nutrients in the mother's breast milk. For species such as primates, the mother is the environment (Sarah Blaffer Hrdy).

#### **3. The first 1000 days last a life time**

The first 1000 days is the most significant period of an infant's life. During the first 3 years there is great potential for the infant and toddler to acquire immense cognitive, visual, speech, motor and emotional development.

Newborn infant's brain is quite immature, however it has great potentials to grow and most of the growth occurs in the first 1000 days of his life. Normal brain function requires rapid messaging which is mediated by the myelinated nerve fibers. However myelination depends on a number of factors including the genetic makeup of the infant "nature" and the infant's social environment "nurture". The trajectory of infant's brain growth and myelination is more robust in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Therefore developmental milestone, speech, social skills, emotional and motor development are achieved at an earlier age in breastfed than in formula-fed infants. Furthermore we postulate that the infants who were fed breast-milk via a bottle, without sensory interactions with the mother may not reach their fullest potentials. Therefore we make a distinction between breastfeeding as the infant being on the mother's breast and not receiving breast-milk via a bottle, a cup or any other gadgets. Many maternal hormones including estrogens are present in the mother's milk and estrogens are transcriptional promoters for oxytocin and its receptor's genes [4, 5]. Oxytocin is released from supra-optic (SON) and peri-ventricular nuclei (PVN), only upon infant's sensory stimulations, auditory, tactile, visual and vestibular. The rise of oxytocin level in the infant's brain is associated with improved neuroplasticity. The magnitude of environmental influence on the infant's brain development may be ascertained by comparing the white matter growth using magnetic imaging of breastfed infants and infants given breast-milk via a bottle. Alternatively salivary cortisol level measurements may be an index of blood oxytocin because of their inverse relationship [3].
