**11. References**


**Part 3** 

**Chemical Fungicidal Agents** 

*Plants*, *Systematics, Ecology and Evolution.* S.C. Redlin & L.M. Carris (Eds), pp 209– 216


**Part 3** 

**Chemical Fungicidal Agents** 

254 Fungicides for Plant and Animal Diseases

Enjalric, F.; Carron, M.P. & Lardet, L. (1998). Contamination of Primary cultures in tropical areas. The case of *Hevea brasiliensis*. *Acta Horticulturae*, Vol. 223, pp 57– 65 George, E.F. (1993). Plant Propagation by Tissue Culture, Part 1. The Technology, Second

Helander, M.L.; Neuvonen, S. & Ranta, H. (1996). Natural variation and effects of

Herman, E.B. (1990). Non-axenic plant tissue culture: possibility and opportunities. *Acta* 

Maliro, M. (1997). Propagation of *Uapaca kirkiana* using tissue culture techniques. MSc.

Leifert, C. (1990). Contaminants of plant tissue cultures, Ph. D. Thesis, Nottingham

Mng'omba, S.A.; du Toit, E.S. & Akinnifesi, F.K. (2007). Effective preconditioning methods

Mwamba, C.K. (1995). Effect of root - inhabiting fungi on root growth potential of *Uapaca kirkiana* Muell Arg. seedlings. Applied Soil Ecology, Vol. 2, pp 217 – 226 Obuekwe, C.O. & Osagie, I.J. (1989). Morphological changes in infected wilt resistant and

PhytoTechnology Laboratories. Antibiotic preparation and storage. www.phytotechlab.com.

Sarasan, V., Kite, G.C., Sileshi, G.W., Stevenson, P.C. (2011) Applications of phytochemical

Singh, A.K. & Chand, S, (2003). Somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration from

Pierik, R.L.M. (1987). *In Vitro* Culture of Higher Plants. Dordecht, Netherlands, p 344

for *in vitro* propagation of *Uapaca kirkiana* Müell Arg. tree species. *African Journal of* 

wilt-susceptible oil palm progenies and hydrolytic enzyme activities associated with *Fursarium oxysporum* f sp elaeidis pathogens, *Oeagureux*,Vol. 44, No. 11, pp 8 -

and *in vitro* techniques for reducing over-harvesting of medicinal and pesticidal plants and generating income for the rural poor. *Plant Cell Reports* Vol. 30, pp 1163 -

cotyledon explants of a timber-yielding leguminous tree *Dalbergia sissoo* Roxb. J.

Thesis, Bunda College of Agriculture, Lilongwe, Malawi, 98 pp.

Edition. Exergetics Ltd. Edington, Wilts, England.

*Ecology and Evolution* pp 197- 207

*Horticulturae* Vol. 280 pp 233 – 248

University, School of Agriculture.

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anthropogenic environmental changes on endophytic fungi in trees. In: S.C. Redlin & L.M Carris (Eds) *Endophytic Fungi in Grasses and Woody Plants*. *Systematics,* 

**13** 

Denis Rusjan

*Slovenia* 

**Copper in Horticulture** 

*Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana* 

Cu as a solid, conductive chemical (Cu) material has the ability to deform under tensile stress (ductile metal); its freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange colour, it is easily recyclable and with an annual production of more than 5 million tons of copper nowadays, due to the increasingly vital part of the metal's use in many branches of modern technology, especially in architectural structures and electronic devices (Table 1), the material is gaining importance. Copper is an essential material of the future regarding solar heating, desalination of water, environmentally-sound cultivation practices in agriculture and its contribution to the production of linear motors. Its unique chemical characteristics provide for more than 200 year's use of Cu in phytochemistry especially in the role of fungicides.

Cu2+ and Cu+ ions are soluble in water and provide antifungal and antibacterial effects (biostatic elements) at low concentration levels, wherefore their contribution to the production of fungicides is, up to the present day, irreplaceable. On the other hand high concentrations of copper salts affect physiological and biochemical processes in higher organisms. Copper takes part in numerous physiological processes and is an essential cofactor for many metalloproteins. However, copper excess leads to problems in cell function and metabolism, as copper surplus inhibits plant growth and impairs important

Copper compounds are commonly encountered as salts of Cu2+, which often impart blue or green colors, in the past widely used as pigments, therefore. As a native metal it is one of the few metals to occur naturally as an un-compounded mineral and it seems to be the first metal used by man dating back at least 10,000 years in history. A wider usage of copper started in the Copper Age (5th millennium BC) and throughout the Antiquity and Middle

Copper plays an important function in human diet, because of shared similarities with iron it is crucial for the reddish coloration of hemoglobin in blood. It is essential and indispensable at all higher organisms (plants, animals) especially at cycles and functions of growth and reproduction. The average daily recommended uptake of Cu should be 0.9 mg, falling short of which frequently leads to an increase of cholesterol level and coronary diseases. Copper toxicity in terms of human health can be observed at concentrations higher than 11.0 mg kg-1, affecting functions of main vital organs. A protracted exposition to toxic concentration of Cu leads to irreparable damages of stomach, kidneys, liver and brain,

cellular processes (*i.e.,* photosynthetic electron transport).

Age to Nowadays being considered as one of the most important metals.

therefore the daily food should be under permanent sanitary (chemical) control.

**1. Introduction** 
