**5. Copper and human health: Fruit and vegetable**

Copper is an essential element for the normal healthy growth and reproduction of all higher plants and animals, especially in the context of haemoglobin in the blood, formation of collagen and it is protective coverings for nerves. In combination with other metallic elements, along fatty and amino acids as well as vitamins, Cu is necessary for normal metabolic processes. The human body is unable to produce metals; therefore the human diet must supply regular amounts of bioavailable Cu.

Cu is present in different species and varieties of plants especially in fruits and vegetables, nuts, seeds, chickpeas, liver, oysters and in some water. Satisfactory amounts of copper that provide up to 50 % of the required whole intake in a balanced diet can be found also in other cereals, meat and fish. Copper deficiency can lead to coronary diseases, higher cholesterol levels, premature births, chronic diarrhoea, stomach diseases, nauseas and other adverse effects, that are observed in most developed countries as well. Copper is incorporated in certain proteins, which are involved in the production of energy required in biochemical reactions, while others take part in the transformation of melanin essential for the pigmentation of the skin. Many of these help maintaining and repairing connective tissues indispensable for the proper functions of heart and arteries. Copper has been used as a medicine for thousands of years including the treatment of chest wounds and treating drinking water. More recently, research has indicated that copper helps prevent inflammation in arthritis and similar diseases.

The quantity of copper at an adult person ranges from 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kilogramme of body weight. The average daily uptake of copper should be from 0.4 mg for children up to 1.2 mg

Copper in Horticulture 277

Copper is still an irreplaceable metal regarding disease control in horticulture, especially nowadays with the biological food production gaining in importance. Although we are well aware of the risks of its permanent use, concerning its accumulation and pollution of soils as well as its high residues in fruits and vegetables (fresh consumption), this however does not diminish. On the other hand copper plays an important role as an essential element in many physiological and biochemical processes in higher organisms. Consumers should though avoid excessive daily uptakes. Copper in all its different chemical forms will in near future remain the most important agens in pathogen control in horticulture; therefore its use should be controlled and adapted to environmentally-sound conditions and plant

Alloway, B.J.; Jewell, A.W. & Murray, B.G. (1985). *Pollen development in copper deficient cereals*.

Brun, L.A.; Maillet, J.; Richarte, J.; Herrmann, P. & Rémy, J.C. (1998). Relationships

Kühn, H. (1997). Verdigris in Copper Resinate, In: *Artists' Pigments: A Handbook of Their* 

Lepp, N.Y. (1981). Effect of heavy metal pollution on plants. In: *Effects of trace metals in plant* 

Provenzano, M.R.; El Bilali; H., Simeone; V., Baser, N.; Mondelli, D. & Cesari, G. (2010).

Reed, S.T. & Martens, D.C. (1996). Copper and zinc, In: *Methods of soil analysis*, D.L. Sparks

Rusjan, D.; Strlič, M.; Pucko, D. & Korošec-Koruza, Z. (2007). Copper accumulation

Ross, S. M. (1994). *Toxic Metals in Soil-Plant Systems*, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-471-94279-

Sandmann, G. & Böger, P. (1983). The enzymatological function of heavy metals and their

Šajn, R.; Bidovec, M.; Gosar, M. & Pirc, S. (1998). Geochemical soil survey at Jesenice area,

Slovenia. *Geologija*, Vol.41, No.1, pp. 319-338, ISSN 1392-110X

158, University Press, ISBN 0894682601, Oxford, England

*Chemistry*, Vol.122, No.4, ISNN 0308-8146, 1338-1343

*Geoderma,* Vol.141, No.1-2, pp. 111–8, ISSN 0016-7061

between extractable copper, soil properties and copper uptake by wild plants in vineyard soils. *Environmental Pollution, Vol.*102, No.2, pp. 151–61, ISSN 0269-

*History and Characteristics Interaction with Art and Antiquities*, R. Ashok, (Ed.), 131-

*function,* Lepp N.Y., pp. 1-26, Applied Science Publishers, ISBN 0-85334-923-1,

Copper contents in grapes and wines from a Mediterranean organic vineyard. *Food* 

et al. (Eds.), 703-722, American Society of Agronomy, ISBN 0-89118-825-8, Madison,

regarding the soil characteristics in sub-Mediterranean vineyards in Slovenia.

role in electron transfer processes of plants, In: *Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology*, A. Lauchli & R.L. Bieleski (Eds.), pp. 563-596, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-12130-X,

**6. Conclusions** 

necessities.

**7. References** 

7491

London, England

Wisconsin, USA

0, New York, USA

Berlin, Germany

University of London, New York.

for adults. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Administration (FAA) suggest that the daily mean intake of copper should not exceed 12 mg. These mean values are not to be generalized as in some cases already these intake amounts can cause undesirable effects, in rare cases also diseases like childhood cirrhosis, liver damage and hereditary diseases such as Wilson's Disease. Chronic copper poisoning is very rare, mostly reported at patients with liver disease. The capacity for healthy human livers to excrete copper is considerable and yet no cases of chronic copper poisoning have been reported. The sources of Cu contents in fruits and vegetables can be described as ecological (parental matter, participation, concentration of Cu in soil) and growing (spraying, fertilization) conditions and plant physiological and biochemical processes (state of health, phonological stage) (Table 5).


\* Sprayed grape (Provenzano et al., 2010)

Table 5. Fruits and vegetables with highest contents (mg 100g-1) of copper

for adults. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Administration (FAA) suggest that the daily mean intake of copper should not exceed 12 mg. These mean values are not to be generalized as in some cases already these intake amounts can cause undesirable effects, in rare cases also diseases like childhood cirrhosis, liver damage and hereditary diseases such as Wilson's Disease. Chronic copper poisoning is very rare, mostly reported at patients with liver disease. The capacity for healthy human livers to excrete copper is considerable and yet no cases of chronic copper poisoning have been reported. The sources of Cu contents in fruits and vegetables can be described as ecological (parental matter, participation, concentration of Cu in soil) and growing (spraying, fertilization) conditions and plant physiological and biochemical processes (state

**Fruits Content mg 100g-1**

Peach (dried) 0.6 Black Currants (dried) 0.5 Sultanas (dried) 0.4 Lemon (slice) 0.3 Apricot (dried) 0.3 Grape (fresh) 0.1 (1.4\*)

Brazil nuts 1.1 Coconut (desiccated) 0.6 Walnuts 0.3

Cabbage, Pumpkin 0.9-1.4 Pepper 1.1 Mushroom 0.6 Parsley 0.5 Chickpeas 0.3 Peas 0.3 Spinach 0.3

Table 5. Fruits and vegetables with highest contents (mg 100g-1) of copper

of health, phonological stage) (Table 5).

**Nuts** 

\* Sprayed grape (Provenzano et al., 2010)

**Vegetable/other** 

#### **6. Conclusions**

Copper is still an irreplaceable metal regarding disease control in horticulture, especially nowadays with the biological food production gaining in importance. Although we are well aware of the risks of its permanent use, concerning its accumulation and pollution of soils as well as its high residues in fruits and vegetables (fresh consumption), this however does not diminish. On the other hand copper plays an important role as an essential element in many physiological and biochemical processes in higher organisms. Consumers should though avoid excessive daily uptakes. Copper in all its different chemical forms will in near future remain the most important agens in pathogen control in horticulture; therefore its use should be controlled and adapted to environmentally-sound conditions and plant necessities.

#### **7. References**


**14** 

Elda Vitanovic

*Croatia* 

**Use of Cu Fungicides in** 

**Vineyards and Olive Groves** 

*Institute for Adriatic Crops and Karst Reclamation* 

Losses caused by pests, diseases and weeds on all agriculture crops in Europe are considerably heavy (28.8 %). They can be reduced in different ways: by law regulations, professional set up of orchards, breading less sensitive or resistant crops, different technical measures of production, mechanical, physical, biological and chemical measures. The use of pesticides to control microbial, fungal and insect plant pests has long been a feature of conventional agricultural practice and their use has made it possible to increase crop yields and food production. Many of these pesticides have toxic effects that are not confined to their target species. Their application may have negative impact on organisms that benefit a wider agro ecosystem and their use may result in an increased accumulation of heavy metals in the soil. Even if just in traces, heavy metals are the primary sign of soil and groundwater contamination. There are various causes that lead to the pollution of agricultural soils and the problem of soil contamination with heavy metals is a central and

Fungicide use is the most important component of pest and disease control programs in vine and olive production systems. This is because some fungal diseases have a potential to destroy horticultural crops and make them unsalable. The practical and economic problems for producers are more acute in organic production systems than in the conventional ones, because the use of fungicides in organic production is much more limited. Whilst several synthetic active ingredients are available in the conventional production, these are not allowed in organic agriculture, except for certain copper products, the use of which is considered to be traditional organic practice. In most countries copper fungicides can be

Copper fungicides have been used in pome and stone fruit orchards and vineyards for more than 100 years. The most common fungal diseases controlled by copper fungicides in vineyards are *Plasmopara viticola* (B. and C.) Berl. and De Toni and *Phomopsis viticola* Sacc. Copper fungicides such as Bordeaux mixture (a complex of copper sulphate and lime) has been used in viticulture as a plant protection product against the stated fungal diseases since the 18th century. This was the first fungicide to be used on a large scale worldwide. Even today, the only fungicides allowed under organic standards and effective against *Plasmopara viticola* are based on copper hydroxide and copper sulphate. Moreover, other copper compounds have been introduced, including copper carbonate, copper ammonium

**1. Introduction** 

current issue in modern ecology.

used in organic crop production.

Woolhouse, H.W. & Walker, S. (1981). The physiological basis of copper toxicity and tolerance in higher plants, In: *Copper in Soils and Plants,* J.F. Loneragan, A.D. Robson, R.D. Graham (Eds.), 265–285, Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-455520-9, Sydney, Australia
