Preface

Chapter 7 **[11C]Carbon Dioxide: Starting Point for Labeling PET**

Lingyun Yang, Peter J. H. Scott and Xia Shao

Fernando Vega, Mercedes Cano, Sara Camino, Luz M. Gallego

M.H. Wathsala N. Jinadasa, Klaus-J. Jens and Maths Halstensen

Vânia Maria Borges Cunha, Marcilene Paiva da Silva, Wanessa Almeida da Costa, Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira, Fernanda Wariss Figueiredo Bezerra, Anselmo Castro de Melo, Rafael Henrique Holanda Pinto, Nelio Teixeira Machado, Marilena Emmi Araujo and

Chapter 11 **Carbon Dioxide Use in High-Pressure Extraction Processes 211**

Chapter 12 **A Review on the Application of Enhanced Oil/Gas Recovery**

Fernández, Esmeralda Portillo and Benito Navarrete

**Section 4 Carbon Dioxide Capture and Oil Extraction 139**

Chapter 9 **Advances in Porous Adsorbents for CO2 Capture**

Chapter 10 **Process Analytical Technology for CO2 Capture 185**

Arindam Modak and Subhra Jana

Raul Nunes de Carvalho Junior

**through CO2 Sequestration 241** Abdelmalek Atia and Kamal Mohammedi

**Radiopharmaceuticals 123**

**VI** Contents

Chapter 8 **Solvents for Carbon Dioxide Capture 141**

**and Storage 165**

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an ancient molecule that is constantly inducing next generations of urgent yet innovative research. CO2 is a stable and relatively inert triatomic molecule that exists as a gas at ambient temperature and pressure. It is generated naturally from various sources such as forest fires, volcanic eruptions, and respiration of living organisms. The pho‐ tosynthesis of plants and other autotrophs play an indispensable role in balancing the car‐ bon/oxygen cycle and, consequently, in maintaining the life on earth. The global concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere was approximately 270 ppm by volume prior to the industrial revolution. Nowadays, the carbon dioxide level has reached up to 405 ppm, ap‐ proximately a 50% increase. This steady increase in CO2 emissions stems from the large con‐ sumption of fossil fuels and anthropogenic activity in addition to the wide deforestation for land usage.

Pollution is regarded as the issue of our era, since dominant industries deem its control as an expense that overwhelms the domains that are beneficial to the advances of science. Find‐ ing alternatives to indispensable fields such as providing energy, food, drugs, and dyes for medicinal probes, among others, seems to conflict with the innovative progress reported ev‐ ery day in academia and industry. The greenhouse effect is one of the utmost contemporary issues in this regard. Carbon dioxide is currently the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG). CO2 plays a detrimental role in preventing the heat loss and protecting the life on earth dur‐ ing nighttime. However, the increased concentrations of GHGs, particularly CO2, are be‐ lieved to cause drastic changes such as global warming and ocean acidification.

Several international conventions and governmental protocols have been formulated to re‐ duce the CO2 emissions, such as the *Kyoto Protocol*, the *UN Framework Convention on Climate Change*, and the *Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change*. To date, there is no universal agreement on these laws, and many countries and industries do not abide by these conven‐ tions. Therefore, immediate actions and solutions are demanded to circumvent the potential influence of the yet high CO2 emissions on the climate. In general, the total CO2 emissions can be controlled by reducing the energy intensity, limiting the carbon intensity, or by im‐ proving the CO2 sequestration. In the short term, carbon-based fossil fuels will persist to be the main source of energy. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop economically feasible and efficient processes for capturing, separating, storing, sequestering, and utilizing the con‐ tinuous CO2 emissions. The future trends, however, should be directed to reduce energy consumption and dependence on fossil fuels and to develop large-scale renewable and less carbon-intensive sources of energy, such as nuclear energy (e.g., H2), biofuels, geothermal, and tidal energy.

This book "Carbon Dioxide Chemistry, Capture, and Oil Recovery" combines peer-re‐ viewed scientific contributions that indicate the state of the art of different carbon dioxide processes and describe the novel work and theoretical studies in these domains. The intro‐ ductory chapter is meant to be a general review on the chemistry of carbon dioxide and its uses with an emphasis on CO2 technologies, particularly the carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) projects.

calculations of the CO2 processes using equations of state. Lastly, *Chapter 12* aims to give an extensive literature survey and examines research papers that focus on EOR-CO2 processes and projects that have been tested in the field. To recall, these processes are concerned with the injection of CO2 into oil field geological formations aiming to combine CO2 sequestration

We would like to express our appreciation to all the renowned authors who strongly contrib‐ uted to this project and to their cutting-edge research. We would also like to thank Ms. Kristi‐ na Kardum, the coordinator of this project. We hope that the readers find this book as enjoyable and illuminating as our previous projects *Hydrogenation*, *Recent Advances in Organo‐ catalysis*, and *Green Chemical Processing and Synthesis*, and any comments are warmly welcome.

**Iyad Karamé**

Preface IX

Beirut, Lebanon **Janah Shaya**

Strasbourg, France

Nabatieh, Lebanon

**Hassan Srour**

Faculty of Sciences I, Lebanese University

Faculty of Sciences V, Lebanese University

IPCMS, University of Strasbourg

and enhanced oil recovery.

The *first section* of the book discusses the catalytic transformations of CO2 (reduction and reforming) in four chapters. *Chapter 2* focuses on the electrochemical/photochemical reduc‐ tion of CO2 via transition metal complexes as the molecular catalysts with a particular em‐ phasis on *cis*-[Ru(bpy)2(CO)2] 2+ (bpy: 2,2′-bipyridine) and *trans*(Cl)-[Ru(bpy)(CO)2Cl2] as representative examples. *Chapter 3* reviews the novel technologies and current barriers for the conversion of CO2 into methanol through heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis and electrochemical, photochemical, and photoelectrochemical conversions. It elaborates the role of pyridinium and the rate‐determining step of pyridinium‐catalyzed CO2 reduction. *Chapter 4* reports a novel work related to overlapping Fe/TiO2 coated on netlike glass disc and Cu disc by sol-gel and dip-coating processes. The chapter studies the effect of the de‐ signed photocalysts on the CO2 reduction. Lastly, *Chapter 5* discusses the cutting-edge devel‐ opment in the application of catalytic, nonthermal plasma, and hybrid plasma catalysis for the dry reforming of methane with CO2, describing the fundamentals, reaction mechanisms, opportunities, and barriers, as well as the features of various reactors.

*Section II* describes some theoretical approaches and labeling of CO2 in two separate chap‐ ters. *Chapter 6* is dedicated to assess the interactions of CO2 with naked, substituted, and functionalized hydrocarbons at the molecular level using theoretical approaches and com‐ putational techniques. This detailed study serves to obtain insights into the design of CO2 philic materials, and hence, it is a cornerstone in the search and comprehension of new materials that adsorb CO2. *Chapter 7* is an interesting and important general overview on the rapidly growing field of carbon-11 radiochemistry and the introduction of carbon-11 by var‐ ious methods. Carbon-11 is one of the most important radioisotopes in nuclear medicine and is an important starting point for labeling the positron emission tomography (PET) radi‐ opharmaceuticals.

*Section III* targets the carbon dioxide capture and oil extraction in five distinct chapters. *Chapter 8* explores the classical and new generations of solvents for this purpose. Precisely, it elaborates the chemical and physical absorptions, their mechanisms and kinetics, as well as a critical analysis of their advantages and disadvantages. Within the same guidelines, *Chap‐ ter 9* describes the highly efficient adsorbents such as metal organic frameworks (MOFs), porous organic polymers (POPs), porous clays, N-doped carbon, and others as the next gen‐ eration of CO2 capture through nanospace chemistry. *Chapter 10* is concerned with process analytical technology (PAT), which can replace traditional chemical analyses and can be im‐ bedded in carbon capture technologies. This investigation elaborates an example of the im‐ plementation of a process analyzer to CO2 capture by the alkanolamine absorption process using chemometrics modeling and real-time Raman spectroscopy to quantify the CO2 con‐ centration. *Chapter 11* intends to show the recent application scenarios of carbon dioxide use at high pressures as the solvent in extraction processes of natural extracts enriched with bio‐ active compounds. The chapter comprises a case study of experimental strategy used for the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of bioactive compounds from açaí berry pulp and calculations of the CO2 processes using equations of state. Lastly, *Chapter 12* aims to give an extensive literature survey and examines research papers that focus on EOR-CO2 processes and projects that have been tested in the field. To recall, these processes are concerned with the injection of CO2 into oil field geological formations aiming to combine CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery.

This book "Carbon Dioxide Chemistry, Capture, and Oil Recovery" combines peer-re‐ viewed scientific contributions that indicate the state of the art of different carbon dioxide processes and describe the novel work and theoretical studies in these domains. The intro‐ ductory chapter is meant to be a general review on the chemistry of carbon dioxide and its uses with an emphasis on CO2 technologies, particularly the carbon capture and storage

The *first section* of the book discusses the catalytic transformations of CO2 (reduction and reforming) in four chapters. *Chapter 2* focuses on the electrochemical/photochemical reduc‐ tion of CO2 via transition metal complexes as the molecular catalysts with a particular em‐

representative examples. *Chapter 3* reviews the novel technologies and current barriers for the conversion of CO2 into methanol through heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis and electrochemical, photochemical, and photoelectrochemical conversions. It elaborates the role of pyridinium and the rate‐determining step of pyridinium‐catalyzed CO2 reduction. *Chapter 4* reports a novel work related to overlapping Fe/TiO2 coated on netlike glass disc and Cu disc by sol-gel and dip-coating processes. The chapter studies the effect of the de‐ signed photocalysts on the CO2 reduction. Lastly, *Chapter 5* discusses the cutting-edge devel‐ opment in the application of catalytic, nonthermal plasma, and hybrid plasma catalysis for the dry reforming of methane with CO2, describing the fundamentals, reaction mechanisms,

*Section II* describes some theoretical approaches and labeling of CO2 in two separate chap‐ ters. *Chapter 6* is dedicated to assess the interactions of CO2 with naked, substituted, and functionalized hydrocarbons at the molecular level using theoretical approaches and com‐ putational techniques. This detailed study serves to obtain insights into the design of CO2 philic materials, and hence, it is a cornerstone in the search and comprehension of new materials that adsorb CO2. *Chapter 7* is an interesting and important general overview on the rapidly growing field of carbon-11 radiochemistry and the introduction of carbon-11 by var‐ ious methods. Carbon-11 is one of the most important radioisotopes in nuclear medicine and is an important starting point for labeling the positron emission tomography (PET) radi‐

*Section III* targets the carbon dioxide capture and oil extraction in five distinct chapters. *Chapter 8* explores the classical and new generations of solvents for this purpose. Precisely, it elaborates the chemical and physical absorptions, their mechanisms and kinetics, as well as a critical analysis of their advantages and disadvantages. Within the same guidelines, *Chap‐ ter 9* describes the highly efficient adsorbents such as metal organic frameworks (MOFs), porous organic polymers (POPs), porous clays, N-doped carbon, and others as the next gen‐ eration of CO2 capture through nanospace chemistry. *Chapter 10* is concerned with process analytical technology (PAT), which can replace traditional chemical analyses and can be im‐ bedded in carbon capture technologies. This investigation elaborates an example of the im‐ plementation of a process analyzer to CO2 capture by the alkanolamine absorption process using chemometrics modeling and real-time Raman spectroscopy to quantify the CO2 con‐ centration. *Chapter 11* intends to show the recent application scenarios of carbon dioxide use at high pressures as the solvent in extraction processes of natural extracts enriched with bio‐ active compounds. The chapter comprises a case study of experimental strategy used for the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of bioactive compounds from açaí berry pulp and

2+ (bpy: 2,2′-bipyridine) and *trans*(Cl)-[Ru(bpy)(CO)2Cl2] as

(CCS) and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) projects.

opportunities, and barriers, as well as the features of various reactors.

phasis on *cis*-[Ru(bpy)2(CO)2]

VIII Preface

opharmaceuticals.

We would like to express our appreciation to all the renowned authors who strongly contrib‐ uted to this project and to their cutting-edge research. We would also like to thank Ms. Kristi‐ na Kardum, the coordinator of this project. We hope that the readers find this book as enjoyable and illuminating as our previous projects *Hydrogenation*, *Recent Advances in Organo‐ catalysis*, and *Green Chemical Processing and Synthesis*, and any comments are warmly welcome.

> **Iyad Karamé** Faculty of Sciences I, Lebanese University Beirut, Lebanon

> > **Janah Shaya** IPCMS, University of Strasbourg Strasbourg, France

**Hassan Srour** Faculty of Sciences V, Lebanese University Nabatieh, Lebanon

**Section 1**

**Introduction**

**Section 1**
