**2. Background**

Africa is considered to be the second driest continent in the world after Australia [27, 28]. It is predicted that 25 countries in Africa may experience water stress condition by the year 2025 [29, 30]. Nevertheless, world's longest rivers flow within Africa, the Nile River followed by other main rivers in SSA regions such as the Congo, Zambezi and Niger Rivers. In addition to that, SSA has Lake Victoria, which is the second largest lake in the world [29, 31, 32]. Approximately 53% of Africa is believed to be water abundant and about 61% of the total population live in this region which also holds about 95% of the total renewable water resources of the continent [31]. Nonetheless, it is predicted that by 2025 Africa's water abundance area may shrink to 35 and 24% of the population that will inhabit in water abundance areas that holds 78% of available renewable water resources. In contrast, the combined water scarcity and deficit areas is expected to increase from 47% of (2000) to 65% in 2025, holding only 22% of the total renewable water resources; so 76% of Africa's population will live in water scarcity and deficit areas in 2025 as shown in **Table 1**.

Sub-Saharan Africa has 24.24 million km<sup>2</sup> [26, 32] that is equal to 18% of the world's land [33] and the average annual rainfall of SSA is estimated to around 815 mm/yr. However, there have been considerable variations of rainfall amounts in SSA's sub regions; that may be due to climatic differences [34]. Compounding rainfall fluctuation will be the anticipated effects of climate change that will cause more challenges that are yet to be seen. For instance, this may include sudden and large increase in rainfall fluctuations and distribution in the SSA region, creating natural disasters such as floods and droughts have been noted [2, 6, 35, 36]. For instance, annual rainfalls in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Seychelles and Mauritius may reach 2000 mm/yr [34]. In contrast, parts of South Africa and eastern Namibia the annual rainfall is less than 100 mm/yr. Further rainfall in northern Niger may be as low as 10 mm/yr [34]. Hell et al. [37] reported that rainfall in the African is unevenly distributed and added that fewer people live regions that often receive higher rainfall compared to overpopulated regions that receive lower rainfall. According to Temesgen [38], in 2009 around 260 million people in SSA (41% of SSA's population) lived in dry areas that are vulnerable to drought.

low rainfall means a period of scarcity of both feed and water, and an increase in distances to suitable grazing areas [24]; this study also notes that among small-scale farmers, rainfall is the most important climatic factor that is critical to their survival, particularly for crop growth and livestock herds. Geographically, SSA falls below the Sahara Desert and consists of the vast majority of African countries. The countries that fall in the Northern Africa region that are Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco are not in SSA [25]. SSA has an estimated land

In this chapter, authors critically review the water security and migration situation in SSA region by using a country by country analysis of three selected countries from SSA region. The main aim of this study is to examine water resources availability and accessibility and how rainfall and temperature variations and distributions have impacted water security and people urban migration in the region. The study attempts to identify pull and push factors that appear to affect the people movement from rural to urban areas in SSA. The selected SSA countries are Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya and Niger. This study uses VAR and Granger causality methods to analyse rainfall and temperature and their impact on rural/urban migration.

Africa is considered to be the second driest continent in the world after Australia [27, 28]. It is predicted that 25 countries in Africa may experience water stress condition by the year 2025 [29, 30]. Nevertheless, world's longest rivers flow within Africa, the Nile River followed

area of 24.24 million km<sup>2</sup>

**2. Background**

[26].

**Figure 2.** Water availability for some African countries in 1999 and 2025 [19].

6 Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling

Faurès and Santini [34] reported that production factors such as land and water resources may be abundant in SSA but the region continues to experience a falling GDP of 0.6% since 2004 [38]. Agriculture remains to be the main source of food to SSA's low socioeconomic communities; rainfed agriculture is anticipated to be the dominating food production system in SSA in foreseeable future. Number of people living under poverty level and undernourished worldwide has been falling in recent decades in general and in Asia in particular. In SSA, the number of people living under the poverty line has not decreased considerably compared to other world regions. Further, SSA has made limited progress in improving the lives of poor


**Table 1.** Water availability projections according to three different conditions in Africa 2000–2025.

people and reducing the number of people living under the poverty line. In fact, number of people living below the poverty line in SSA has risen considerably due to the implementation of the new definition for poverty, where the \$1.00/day has increased to \$1.25/day [39]. In 2014, SSA had 214 million undernourished people (26.6% of the population) [40]. In 1990, East Asia/the Pacific and SSA's contribution to the total number of people living under poverty line in the world were 52 and 15% respectively; after 23 years and in 2013, the percentage of the East Asia/the Pacific has dropped to 9%, while SSA's contribution has increased to 51% in the same period. **Table 2** shows percentage of people living on less than \$1.25/day by world region between 1981 and 2005.

renewable water resources in SSA has experienced a substantial decline from 16,500 m3

mainly due to the significant increase of SSA's population during this period. In some cases, countries like Niger, Ivory Coast and Uganda, the decline has been more dramatic, **Table 3** shows changes in available renewable internal freshwater resources per capita of six selected

**Table 4** presents changes in per capita water availability by region for five decades between 1950 and 2000. Africa's per capita renewable internal freshwater resources shows the most

this means that each person living in Africa lost about three quarters of their share of available water in just 50 years (**Table 4**). **Figure 3** illustrates that the fresh water per capita share around the world has been decreasing since and predicts a continuous fall until 2050; even though water resources per capita have declined significantly in many world regions such as the Caribbean, Latin America and Northern America since 1950s, the United Nations predicts that people living is Africa and Asia will get the least share of water resources (per capita

Despite the rainfall fluctuations, SSA experiences higher temperatures that impact on agricultural production in many parts of the region [44, 45]. Africa is a continent which is experiencing warmer seasons as part of the trend of global warming. It is predicted that temperatures will continue to rise and a growing threat to food production systems in SSA is imminent [44, 45]. In March 2013, the temperature in South Africa's Vioolsdrif village recorded its hottest day ever measured on the area at 47.3°C. Similarly, the temperature in Navrongo, Ghana, reached 43°C on March 6, 2013, the hottest ever recorded. According to Fabusoro et al. [46], the patterns of rainfall and temperatures in the studied area appear to be following a similar upward trend, with temperatures rising at about 0.4°C/month/decade in southwest Nigeria. World average temperatures have increased about 0.85°C between 1886 and 2012, and it is anticipated that average global temperature will continue to increase, reaching around 1.5°C by the middle of the twenty-first century [24]. In the face of such evidence, we must acknowledge that the effects of climate change are real. In the Sub-Saharan African region, where the average temperature is rising, it is claimed by many that climate change is already affecting agriculture and production levels [24, 47]. Between 1980 and 2000, the temperature records from the majority of weather stations in the SSA sub regions revealed progressive warming. Because of this rise in temperature, small farmers could grow crops which are tolerant to higher temperatures [24]. As shown in **Figure 4**, the annual average temperatures of three Sub-Saharan African countries considered in this study have shown a fluctuating trend between 1900 and 1960. More importantly, annual average temperatures of these countries have been rising significantly since 1960 until 2015. It is predicted that average temperatures in these countries will continue to increase.

Population is Sub-Saharan Africa has been growing rapidly since mid-twentieth century, it grew from 228 million in 1962 to reach 911 million in 2012 [14, 15]. In contrast, productive lands have been shrinking and the fast population growth led that SSA's renewable fresh

per capita in 2005; about 65% fall [34, 42], this falling trend is

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72226

The Effects of Climate Change on Rural-Urban Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)—The…

of water per person in 1950 to 5100 m3

inhabitant in 1960 to 5500 m3

basis) by 2050.

countries and SSA between 1962 and 2014.

significant decline, shrinking from 20,000 m<sup>3</sup>

**2.1. People movement and water security in SSA**

per

9

in 2000;

According to Faurès and Santini [34], SSA boasts more than 3880 km<sup>3</sup> /yr of internal renewable water resources. Central Africa Republic, Guinea, Madagascar and Democratic Republic of Congo are among water rich countries in SSA; in 2014 these countries had 28,776, 17,924, 13,906 and 11,648 m3 /yr of internal renewable water resources, respectively. The per capita internal renewable water resources of these countries have fallen from 90,559, 61,230, 56,106 and 62,955 m3 /yr in 1962, respectively. Central Africa Region receives about 40% of the annual rainfall in SSA around 7500 km<sup>3</sup> /yr and only 23% of the SSA population inhabit this region. Indraratna et al. [41] suggested that the uneven distribution of rainfall in SSA necessitates the implementation of suitable policies and water supply systems to enhance the sustainability of water usage in the region. Efficient water supply systems may enable local communities to get social stability, economic development and more importantly to achieve sustainable agricultural production [42]. According to Temesgen [38], there has been number rainwater harvesting initiatives and water management systems in SSA; practices such as in situ and micro catchment are more popular than rainwater irrigation methods. The per capita share of internal


**Table 2.** People living on less than \$1.25/day by world region 1990–2013 (million).

renewable water resources in SSA has experienced a substantial decline from 16,500 m3 per inhabitant in 1960 to 5500 m3 per capita in 2005; about 65% fall [34, 42], this falling trend is mainly due to the significant increase of SSA's population during this period. In some cases, countries like Niger, Ivory Coast and Uganda, the decline has been more dramatic, **Table 3** shows changes in available renewable internal freshwater resources per capita of six selected countries and SSA between 1962 and 2014.

people and reducing the number of people living under the poverty line. In fact, number of people living below the poverty line in SSA has risen considerably due to the implementation of the new definition for poverty, where the \$1.00/day has increased to \$1.25/day [39]. In 2014, SSA had 214 million undernourished people (26.6% of the population) [40]. In 1990, East Asia/the Pacific and SSA's contribution to the total number of people living under poverty line in the world were 52 and 15% respectively; after 23 years and in 2013, the percentage of the East Asia/the Pacific has dropped to 9%, while SSA's contribution has increased to 51% in the same period. **Table 2** shows percentage of people living on less than \$1.25/day by world

able water resources. Central Africa Republic, Guinea, Madagascar and Democratic Republic of Congo are among water rich countries in SSA; in 2014 these countries had 28,776, 17,924,

internal renewable water resources of these countries have fallen from 90,559, 61,230, 56,106

Indraratna et al. [41] suggested that the uneven distribution of rainfall in SSA necessitates the implementation of suitable policies and water supply systems to enhance the sustainability of water usage in the region. Efficient water supply systems may enable local communities to get social stability, economic development and more importantly to achieve sustainable agricultural production [42]. According to Temesgen [38], there has been number rainwater harvesting initiatives and water management systems in SSA; practices such as in situ and micro catchment are more popular than rainwater irrigation methods. The per capita share of internal

**Region 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013**

South Asia 505 541 517 532 552 508 465 400 328 293 256

World 1840 1849 1664 1692 1588 1332 1205 1077 946 880 766

**Table 2.** People living on less than \$1.25/day by world region 1990–2013 (million).

/yr of internal renewable water resources, respectively. The per capita

/yr and only 23% of the SSA population inhabit this region.

/yr in 1962, respectively. Central Africa Region receives about 40% of the annual

966 877 684 669 535 349 288 218 167 142 71

9 25 34 37 29 23 15 14 13 12 10

71 68 71 72 71 61 42 39 36 34 34

14 14 12 10 10 9 7 7 7 6 6

276 323 346 371 391 382 389 399 396 393 389

15 17 21 22 25 29 32 37 42 45 51

/yr of internal renew-

According to Faurès and Santini [34], SSA boasts more than 3880 km<sup>3</sup>

region between 1981 and 2005.

8 Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling

rainfall in SSA around 7500 km<sup>3</sup>

13,906 and 11,648 m3

and 62,955 m3

East Asia and the

Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean

Middle East and Northern Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

SSA (percent to

Roser and Ortiz-Ospina [42].

total)

Pacific

**Table 4** presents changes in per capita water availability by region for five decades between 1950 and 2000. Africa's per capita renewable internal freshwater resources shows the most significant decline, shrinking from 20,000 m<sup>3</sup> of water per person in 1950 to 5100 m3 in 2000; this means that each person living in Africa lost about three quarters of their share of available water in just 50 years (**Table 4**). **Figure 3** illustrates that the fresh water per capita share around the world has been decreasing since and predicts a continuous fall until 2050; even though water resources per capita have declined significantly in many world regions such as the Caribbean, Latin America and Northern America since 1950s, the United Nations predicts that people living is Africa and Asia will get the least share of water resources (per capita basis) by 2050.

Despite the rainfall fluctuations, SSA experiences higher temperatures that impact on agricultural production in many parts of the region [44, 45]. Africa is a continent which is experiencing warmer seasons as part of the trend of global warming. It is predicted that temperatures will continue to rise and a growing threat to food production systems in SSA is imminent [44, 45]. In March 2013, the temperature in South Africa's Vioolsdrif village recorded its hottest day ever measured on the area at 47.3°C. Similarly, the temperature in Navrongo, Ghana, reached 43°C on March 6, 2013, the hottest ever recorded. According to Fabusoro et al. [46], the patterns of rainfall and temperatures in the studied area appear to be following a similar upward trend, with temperatures rising at about 0.4°C/month/decade in southwest Nigeria. World average temperatures have increased about 0.85°C between 1886 and 2012, and it is anticipated that average global temperature will continue to increase, reaching around 1.5°C by the middle of the twenty-first century [24]. In the face of such evidence, we must acknowledge that the effects of climate change are real. In the Sub-Saharan African region, where the average temperature is rising, it is claimed by many that climate change is already affecting agriculture and production levels [24, 47]. Between 1980 and 2000, the temperature records from the majority of weather stations in the SSA sub regions revealed progressive warming. Because of this rise in temperature, small farmers could grow crops which are tolerant to higher temperatures [24]. As shown in **Figure 4**, the annual average temperatures of three Sub-Saharan African countries considered in this study have shown a fluctuating trend between 1900 and 1960. More importantly, annual average temperatures of these countries have been rising significantly since 1960 until 2015. It is predicted that average temperatures in these countries will continue to increase.

#### **2.1. People movement and water security in SSA**

Population is Sub-Saharan Africa has been growing rapidly since mid-twentieth century, it grew from 228 million in 1962 to reach 911 million in 2012 [14, 15]. In contrast, productive lands have been shrinking and the fast population growth led that SSA's renewable fresh


**Table 3.** Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (cubic meters) in some SSA countries. water resources (m3

**Table 4.** Water availability per capita by region, 1950–2000 (1000 m<sup>3</sup>

**Figure 3.** Water availability per capita in major world areas 1950–2050 [44].

Rosegrant [43].

/capita/yr) to decline significantly. The interaction of these circumstances

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11

).

have resulted a large scale people movement in SSA, where people living is rural SSA has decreased from 85% in 1962 to 63% in 2012 [14, 15]. It is predicted that 50% of SSA population will live in urban areas by 2020 thus may lead to major problems for the cities in SSA [14, 15]. There is now evidence that suggests that SSA agriculture has been suffering from multiple difficulties including water shortages, shortage of farm workers and poor productive lands over recent times. In addition to this, there is now evidence that more SSA people are leaving from their rural areas to cities in significant numbers; a phenomenon which was predicted by

**Region 1950 1960 1970 1980 2000** Africa 20.0 16.5 12.7 9.4 5.1 Asia (excluding Oceania) 9.6 7.9 6.1 5.1 3.3 Europe (excluding the Soviet Union) 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.6 4.1 North America and Central America 37.2 30.0 25.2 21.3 17.5 South America 105.0 80.2 61.7 48.8 28.3

Tularam and Hassan [14, 15] stated that decreasing water security condition in SSA will represent a major factor that causes human migration in the region. At present, SSA cities appear to be incapable to meet expectations of people migrating from their rural villages to urban areas; this led people to consider other regional and international destination. Europe remains to be the number one destination for SSA migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, thus refugee crisis in Europe in recent times shows that the longer term impacts of water insecurity in SSA is yet unpredictable and if major underpinning factors of the water insecurity situation in SSA are not addressed properly, there is going to be undesirable consequences in the future. It is predicted

[1]. **Figure 5** shows the current and projected populations of the world by region.


**Table 4.** Water availability per capita by region, 1950–2000 (1000 m<sup>3</sup> ).

water resources (m3 /capita/yr) to decline significantly. The interaction of these circumstances have resulted a large scale people movement in SSA, where people living is rural SSA has decreased from 85% in 1962 to 63% in 2012 [14, 15]. It is predicted that 50% of SSA population will live in urban areas by 2020 thus may lead to major problems for the cities in SSA [14, 15]. There is now evidence that suggests that SSA agriculture has been suffering from multiple difficulties including water shortages, shortage of farm workers and poor productive lands over recent times. In addition to this, there is now evidence that more SSA people are leaving from their rural areas to cities in significant numbers; a phenomenon which was predicted by [1]. **Figure 5** shows the current and projected populations of the world by region.

Tularam and Hassan [14, 15] stated that decreasing water security condition in SSA will represent a major factor that causes human migration in the region. At present, SSA cities appear to be incapable to meet expectations of people migrating from their rural villages to urban areas; this led people to consider other regional and international destination. Europe remains to be the number one destination for SSA migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, thus refugee crisis in Europe in recent times shows that the longer term impacts of water insecurity in SSA is yet unpredictable and if major underpinning factors of the water insecurity situation in SSA are not addressed properly, there is going to be undesirable consequences in the future. It is predicted

**Figure 3.** Water availability per capita in major world areas 1950–2050 [44].

**Year** DRC KEN NER

NIG SOM

ZAF SSA **Table 3.**

18,301

16,200

14,259

12,409 Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (cubic meters) in some SSA countries.

10,729

9329

8133

6559

5752

5028

4210

3985

2445

2149

1887

1659

1464

1300

1159

1044

977

916

853

827

2088

1858

1727

1243

893

855

801

737

627

544

470

444

10 Applications in Water Systems Management and Modeling

975

845

734

637

552

478

409

344

287

239

197

183

973

845

736

639

556

484

415

348

290

241

198

183

2399

2039

1713

1425

1179

980

829

715

623

544

474

450

56,105

48,971

42,613

37,117

32,471

28,544

24,099

20,534

18,059

15,406

13,048

12,208

**1962**

**1967**

**1972**

**1977**

**1982**

**1987**

**1992**

**1997**

**2002**

**2007**

**2012**

**2014**

of the environmental refugee [57, 58]. Environmental refugees are those "*persons who no longer gain a secure livelihood in their traditional homelands because of environmental factors of unusual scope, notably drought, desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, water shortages and climate change, also natural disasters as cyclones, storm surges and floods*" [57, 58]. On the other hand, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has adapted a new term "*environmentally displaced persons*" aiming to minimize the use of the term "*refugee*" and refers environmentally displaced persons as those "*who are displaced from or who feel obliged to leave their usual place of residence, because their lives, livelihoods and welfare have been placed at serious risk as a result of adverse environmental, ecological or climatic processes and events*" [57]. About 50 million environmental refugees were recorded in 2010 and it is projected that the number of environmental refugees will increase to 200 million by the year 2050 [54, 58]. SSA appears to be a major contributor to the number of the environmental refugees in the world, and remains to hold a prime position [53]. It is crucial to adapt economic and social development strategies in SSA to

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13

improve the livelihood of SSA rural communities and to reduce poverty levels [59].

and discussion and finally conclusion of the chapter.

**2.3. Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)**

This chapter critically reviews water security and human migration issues of selected Sub-Sahara African countries. Changes in water security and human migration patterns are investigated with respect to the climate change variables of rainfall and temperature using time series framework. The authors analyse the water and population-related statistics of several SSA countries with respect to the rates of population growth, availability and accessibility of water resources, and assess possible effects of climate change factors (Rain and Temp); with regard to water resources availability and usage. Rural and urban migrations of these countries are also analysed to identify migration push and pull factors. A special consideration will be given to the migration patterns recently observed and the likelihood of water scarcity or stress in the future. In the following section, information about Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya (KEN) and Niger (NER) is presented followed by methodology, then results

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) also referred as Zaire, locates in the African Great Lakes region of Central Africa and borders with nine Sub-Saharan African countries namely Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, South Sudan, Central African Republic

and considered to have large deposits of many natural resources such as oil, diamonds, copper and cobalt. Moreover, DRC is also known to as Africa's water rich country, it holds 23 and 52% of Africa's internal renewable water resources and surface water reserves, respectively [60]. DRC is the third most populated country in SSA after Nigeria and Ethiopia. Similar to most of SSA countries, the DRC population is growing fast and increased from 16.2 million in 1962 to about 69.57 million in 2012 [61]. A significant composition change in the population was noted where in 2012 around 45% of the DRC population was below the age of 15 years and only about 3% of the population was 65 years and over. In contrast, poverty is widespread in DRC and about 60% of the population lives below the poverty line (\$1.25/day), and it is ranked as one of the world's poorest countries and positions number 186 out of 186 countries also co-held by Niger another in SSA country [62]. Two-thirds the country falls to the south of the Equator and one-third to the north [63]. The climate in DRC is cool and dry in the southern

of land

and Congo-Brazzaville. DRC is the largest country in SSA and has 2.34 million km<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 4.** Average annual temperatures of Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Niger 1901–2015.

that Europe may see further waves of SSA migrants coming to the advanced economies, and it is almost unquestionable that SSA migrants arriving Europe will have significant implications to the service delivery systems in place in Europe, particularly in Italy, that represents the major transit hub for SSA migrants. Likewise, other major destinations of SSA migrants include Indonesia, where in recent years migrants from several SSA countries including Sudan and Somalia as well as other migrants from other Asian countries such as Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are used as a major transit hub on their way to Australia.

#### **2.2. Environmental refugees**

Climate change factors such as changing rainfall and temperature have impacted rural communities of SSA and limited people's ability to establish a meaningful livelihood from their lands [52]. Norman [53] reported that the environmental refugee phenomenon emerged during twentieth century and environmental refugees are defined as *people who are forced to leave their original habitat because of some sort of environmental difficulty* [54]. As noted in [55], the term "environmental refugees" was first used by Essam El-Hinnawi in 1985 where he defined environmental refugees as *"those people who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily or permanently, because of a marked environmental disruption (natural and/or triggered by people) that jeopardized their existence and/or seriously affected the quality of their life*" [56]. Since 1985, researchers and experts in the people migration field have developed similar definitions

**Figure 5.** Current and projected populations of the world by region [49–51].

of the environmental refugee [57, 58]. Environmental refugees are those "*persons who no longer gain a secure livelihood in their traditional homelands because of environmental factors of unusual scope, notably drought, desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, water shortages and climate change, also natural disasters as cyclones, storm surges and floods*" [57, 58]. On the other hand, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has adapted a new term "*environmentally displaced persons*" aiming to minimize the use of the term "*refugee*" and refers environmentally displaced persons as those "*who are displaced from or who feel obliged to leave their usual place of residence, because their lives, livelihoods and welfare have been placed at serious risk as a result of adverse environmental, ecological or climatic processes and events*" [57]. About 50 million environmental refugees were recorded in 2010 and it is projected that the number of environmental refugees will increase to 200 million by the year 2050 [54, 58]. SSA appears to be a major contributor to the number of the environmental refugees in the world, and remains to hold a prime position [53]. It is crucial to adapt economic and social development strategies in SSA to improve the livelihood of SSA rural communities and to reduce poverty levels [59].

This chapter critically reviews water security and human migration issues of selected Sub-Sahara African countries. Changes in water security and human migration patterns are investigated with respect to the climate change variables of rainfall and temperature using time series framework. The authors analyse the water and population-related statistics of several SSA countries with respect to the rates of population growth, availability and accessibility of water resources, and assess possible effects of climate change factors (Rain and Temp); with regard to water resources availability and usage. Rural and urban migrations of these countries are also analysed to identify migration push and pull factors. A special consideration will be given to the migration patterns recently observed and the likelihood of water scarcity or stress in the future. In the following section, information about Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya (KEN) and Niger (NER) is presented followed by methodology, then results and discussion and finally conclusion of the chapter.
