Preface

**Section 2 E-Learning and New Methods of Teaching and Learning 101**

Chapter 7 **Exploring the Pedagogy of Online Feedback in Supporting**

Chapter 8 **Practical Usage of OER Material in the EFL Classroom 123** Maria Haas, Martin Ebner and Sandra Schön

Chapter 10 **Pedagogical Techniques Employed by the Science Television**

Chapter 11 **How the Science Entertainment Television Show MythBusters**

**Section 3 Some Experiences of Success in Physical Education 193**

Chapter 12 **Scientific and Theoretical Prerequisites for Improvement of Modern Pedagogical Technologies 195** Alexander Bolotin and Vladislav Bakayev

Chapter 15 **Clumsiness and Motor Competence in Physical Education and**

Luis M. Ruiz-Pérez and Miriam Palomo-Nieto

Fernando Maureira Cid, Elizabeth Flores Ferro, Hernán Díaz Muñoz

**Teaches the Scientific Method 173**

Chapter 9 **Making as Pedagogy: Engaging Technology in Design**

**Distance Learners 103** Christine Savvidou

**Show MythBusters 157**

Chapter 13 **Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model 223**

Chapter 14 **Learning Styles in Physical Education 243**

and Luis Valenzuela Contreras

**Sport Pedagogy 257**

Sanmuga Nathan

**Teaching 137** Paul Loh

**VI** Contents

Erik A. Zavrel

Erik A. Zavrel

In a global world, the society has suffered many changes in all orders, and the school is not alien to these changes and paradoxes. Technology has burst into the working world, and we are unable to predict what new professions will be in the nearest future. Teachers are forced to train the citizens of the future in the current context. Their students should be equipped with the skills, abilities, and knowledge necessary to successfully face an uncertain future and live in a diverse and changing society. Teachers should also support their students in the construction of flexible and complex identities.

In a way, we could talk about the technological revolution that schools have experienced in recent years. Information and communication technology (ICT), information technology (IT), and new information and communication technology (NICT) are common words in the educational language. It might be useful to remember that ICT refers to the theories, tools, and techniques used in the treatment, processing, and transmission of information: informa‐ tion technology, Internet, and telecommunications.

On the other hand, learning and knowledge technologies (LKT) refer to the educational use of ICT in schools, that is, technologies are used to improve and innovate in educational processes, to facilitate the collective construction of knowledge, the creation of active learn‐ ing and personalized teaching.

The educational landscape of schools has been changed by the emergence of ICT in the edu‐ cational world. New digital resources and methodological strategies have emerged in teach‐ ing and learning processes, at compulsory and postcompulsory educational stages and also in higher education.

For this, permanent formation is necessary and education throughout life takes on a full meaning. Teachers need to be trained in order to acquire new knowledge, but they also need to reflect on their own practice in the classroom and exchange experiences with other teachers.

Training courses are necessary to update the knowledge and acquire new strategies, but we must not forget that teachers also learn from their practice in the classroom, from the daily work with their students; they guarantee a response to the educational, personal, and socioemotional needs of their students.

However, the classroom is not an island or a fief of the teacher, and the twenty-first-century teachers should work collaboratively with their colleagues and share an inclusive center project. In the initial training, as shown by one of the works presented, it is important to do a training period in schools, but the completion of the practicum does not ensure by itself the achievement of the necessary skills to be a good teacher; the observation of educational situations and the reflection on their own practice could be very useful to acquire the re‐ quired competences and skills; and at this point, the use of digital resources could help stu‐ dents to achieve their objective.

The pages of this book summarize the passion and experiences of teachers and researchers from different disciplines and contexts in different countries. This fact allows us to build a rich and global vision on the state of the art and deepen in some aspects.

This book is made up of chapters written by different authors. In a synoptic way with a rig‐ orous process of expository and argumentative quality from various approaches, it goes through different formative perspectives in the stages of compulsory and postcompulsory education, with special emphasis on initial and continuous training of teachers; the new training demands, on the role of ICT in educational centers and on e-learning; and the use of new methodological resources based on ICT. But we would not like to neglect other meth‐ odologies no less innovative used in different disciplines such as physical education, which has its own section.

In these chapters, we emphasize the values of universality and the transversality of its con‐ tents. All of them provide suggestive nuances and interesting practices, which will undoubt‐ edly improve teacher training and practice. Also, we would like to express our gratitude to the authors of each chapter for sharing their experiences and the results of their research. All these texts, which are exposed below, are original and actual and have been rigorously se‐ lected. Most derive from research and apply the scientific method, but others take the form of essay and provide well-founded reflections.

The readers who come from the world of teaching will find some answers to their teaching needs and new ideas to implement in the classroom. But this book will also be useful, with‐ out any doubt, to readers who come from other fields of knowledge. For all these reasons, we appreciate the opportunity to present this book that, due to the quality of the contribu‐ tions and the prestige of the publisher that supports and publishes them, will undoubtedly constitute a work of reference for future research work on these topics.

> **Núria Llevot-Calvet and Olga Bernad Cavero** University of Lleida, Spain

**Section 1**

**Learning to Be a Good Teacher - Connectivity,**

**Digitization, Innovation**

**Learning to Be a Good Teacher - Connectivity, Digitization, Innovation**

quired competences and skills; and at this point, the use of digital resources could help stu‐

The pages of this book summarize the passion and experiences of teachers and researchers from different disciplines and contexts in different countries. This fact allows us to build a

This book is made up of chapters written by different authors. In a synoptic way with a rig‐ orous process of expository and argumentative quality from various approaches, it goes through different formative perspectives in the stages of compulsory and postcompulsory education, with special emphasis on initial and continuous training of teachers; the new training demands, on the role of ICT in educational centers and on e-learning; and the use of new methodological resources based on ICT. But we would not like to neglect other meth‐ odologies no less innovative used in different disciplines such as physical education, which

In these chapters, we emphasize the values of universality and the transversality of its con‐ tents. All of them provide suggestive nuances and interesting practices, which will undoubt‐ edly improve teacher training and practice. Also, we would like to express our gratitude to the authors of each chapter for sharing their experiences and the results of their research. All these texts, which are exposed below, are original and actual and have been rigorously se‐ lected. Most derive from research and apply the scientific method, but others take the form

The readers who come from the world of teaching will find some answers to their teaching needs and new ideas to implement in the classroom. But this book will also be useful, with‐ out any doubt, to readers who come from other fields of knowledge. For all these reasons, we appreciate the opportunity to present this book that, due to the quality of the contribu‐ tions and the prestige of the publisher that supports and publishes them, will undoubtedly

**Núria Llevot-Calvet and Olga Bernad Cavero**

University of Lleida, Spain

rich and global vision on the state of the art and deepen in some aspects.

constitute a work of reference for future research work on these topics.

dents to achieve their objective.

VIII Preface

has its own section.

of essay and provide well-founded reflections.

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality**

This chapter elaborates how the pedagogical and e-learning techniques are useful in enhancing the quality of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) education in developing countries. From the literature review and outcomes of other surveys, it was proven that the pedagogical techniques are one major missing component of an ICT education system in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. To raise the quality of ICT education, this study has developed a prototype model to increase the usage of pedagogical techniques and digital learning environment in the ICT education activities. The proposed model is designed with six activity levels. Each level in the model is aligned with the levels of Bloom's taxonomy and other pedagogical techniques, which is embedded in the levels of Bloom's taxonomy. The model was validated by a panel of teachers and was tested in the school environment too. The validity of performance was proved using six hypothesis tests and other methodologies. The analysis shows that the students' performance in problem solving has increased by 19.5% due to the different treatment levels used. It was also proved that the embedded techniques (mixture of traditional and modern pedagogical methods) are more effective in skill development of students com-

**Keywords:** pedagogies, Bloom's taxonomy, e-learning, quality, ICT education

**Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72203

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications, in particular with the education system, might change the future of the underdeveloped world, eliminating the digital divide from the education system both locally and in the international arena [1]. However, there are some challenges that the developing world faces in trying to adopt ICT to the education

**Improvement of ICT Education**

**Improvement of ICT Education**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72203

pared with the existing context.

Mgnas Fernando

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Mgnas Fernando

**Provisional chapter**

### **Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education Improvement of ICT Education**

**Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72203

Mgnas Fernando Mgnas Fernando Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72203

#### **Abstract**

This chapter elaborates how the pedagogical and e-learning techniques are useful in enhancing the quality of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) education in developing countries. From the literature review and outcomes of other surveys, it was proven that the pedagogical techniques are one major missing component of an ICT education system in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. To raise the quality of ICT education, this study has developed a prototype model to increase the usage of pedagogical techniques and digital learning environment in the ICT education activities. The proposed model is designed with six activity levels. Each level in the model is aligned with the levels of Bloom's taxonomy and other pedagogical techniques, which is embedded in the levels of Bloom's taxonomy. The model was validated by a panel of teachers and was tested in the school environment too. The validity of performance was proved using six hypothesis tests and other methodologies. The analysis shows that the students' performance in problem solving has increased by 19.5% due to the different treatment levels used. It was also proved that the embedded techniques (mixture of traditional and modern pedagogical methods) are more effective in skill development of students compared with the existing context.

**Keywords:** pedagogies, Bloom's taxonomy, e-learning, quality, ICT education

### **1. Introduction**

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications, in particular with the education system, might change the future of the underdeveloped world, eliminating the digital divide from the education system both locally and in the international arena [1]. However, there are some challenges that the developing world faces in trying to adopt ICT to the education

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

sector. These challenges relate to: limitation of funds, Internet access, lack of trained staff, hesitation to change to new technologies and policy inadequacy. Several researchers and educationists have suggested that ICT would be an important part of education for the next generation.

describing the relationships between teaching, learning and assessment in classrooms [4, 5]. There is also a belief that to talk of pedagogy is to talk of the appropriate ways teachers interact

Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72203

5

There is no accepted universal ultimate model for effective pedagogy or quality teaching, learning and evaluation (TLE). The ultimate outcome expected from a quality TLE process is to enrich students with an expected level of skills regarding cognitive, affective and psychomotor quantifiers against the expected skill levels of the course unit or educational program. Traditional definitions describe pedagogy as either science/theory or art/practice of the TLE process that makes a difference related to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor levels of students. New pedagogies can be defined concisely as new models of TLE partnerships between and among students and teachers. The aim is to achieve deep learning skills. The goals require making use

Studies on pedagogy reveals that pedagogical talents will provide much support toward actuation of TLE skills required to face the changes in TLE process in the twenty-first century. Educational experts also recognize that the majority of transmission or knowledge delivering processes is highly ineffective for the twenty-first century as against the expected competencies and skills of learners [4]. However, it is experimentally and practically provided that learners need skills such as critical thinking, innovation capabilities, ability to communicate efficiently and effectively, problem solving abilities through negotiation and collaboration, and so on. Therefore, pedagogical involvement of the TLE process is a vital component of a skills development process of learners. Accordingly, TLE process should be embedded in the new pedagogical techniques toward achieving student outcomes with expected skills. This can be done through digital accesses with new tools and technologies related to ICT [4].

Many countries in the world still remain economically poor. This affects their technological status. It can be argued that various reasons contribute toward poverty and economies. As such, there is an imbalance between the economic situation and technological aspects. This imbalance, in turn, will directly affect the quality of an education system leading to a digital included [5]. Among countries and within a country, there are disparities, province-wise, district-wise and rural and urban situations too. Whereas in some parts of the world, ICTs are contributing to revolutionary changes in the development process, in other parts of the world, the lives of people have hardly been touched by these innovations. Therefore, by providing such facilities at a reasonable level, the development process of developing countries or poor, can be enhanced and isolation from new inventions can be minimized up to some extent.

As discussed earlier, most ICT experts and educationists recommend that ICT technology can be used to minimize the digital divide in different situations. It is an undisputed fact that future economies and even potential for innovations with technology of any country would depend on the quality of education provided [6]. When one discusses quality education, one

of prevalent digital access through various technologically innovative digital tools.

with learners.

**2.1. Pedagogy**

**2.2. Importance of pedagogy**

Modern technology offers many means of improving the teaching and learning process in the classroom. In comparison to developed countries like UK, USA, Singapore, etc., ICT skills of students in developing and developed countries, including Sri Lanka, show no comparative improvement as evident in the school system. Based on experiences gained in developed counties as well as with instructions and guidelines of local and international experts, responsible implementers have carried out several activities to enhance ICT education. Yet, no combative significant improvement has been reported regarding ICT education.

ICT is a major ingredient for rapid development and should be implemented through the school platform. As such, researchers are keen to explore how this could be done. Considering the abovementioned facts, investigating the quality improvement and exploration of research possibilities of ICT education in the Sri Lankan educational system is considered appropriate because Sri Lanka is a rapidly developing country in Asia. This study elaborates on a researchable framework toward improvement of quality ICT education. It utilizes existing resources while improving the methodologies along with pedagogical techniques and e-learning approaches used in the secondary schools of Sri Lanka.

### **2. Importance of ICT for the teaching, learning and evaluation (TLE) process**

The strategic role played by Information and Communication Technology (ICT), nowadays, is undisputed as ICT has merged with almost all of our day-to-day activities. ICT has paved the way to be informed, keep abreast and contribute toward evolving technology as well. ICT has made inroads to almost every sphere resulting in a heavier burden on education as both the current and future workforce need to be well-equipped to meet the demands of the communication age. It is education that has to play a major role toward the supply of high quality and skillful professionals capable of handling both present and future needs. Current trends make it imperative for higher education in the country to seriously think about and if necessary, completely overhaul, if the country aspires to make revolutionary changes in development. The message seems to have gained ground and ICT education has received prominence with the education process.

The quality of higher education or improvements of a school depends on dimensions such as quality learners, quality learning environments, quality content, quality processes and quality outcomes [2]. The effectiveness of the teaching and learning (TL) process consists of five subprocesses such as curriculum design, pedagogical design, implementation quality, outcomes assessment and resource provision [3]. Pedagogical design is an important component in these subprocesses, and it is an independent factor regardless of the standard design of higher education or school education where pedagogical techniques are easily adopted by the educational communities [3]. Contemporary definitions describe pedagogy as the art, profession or science of teaching. Accordingly, pedagogy can be defined as an effective way of describing the relationships between teaching, learning and assessment in classrooms [4, 5]. There is also a belief that to talk of pedagogy is to talk of the appropriate ways teachers interact with learners.

#### **2.1. Pedagogy**

sector. These challenges relate to: limitation of funds, Internet access, lack of trained staff, hesitation to change to new technologies and policy inadequacy. Several researchers and educationists have suggested that ICT would be an important part of education for the next generation. Modern technology offers many means of improving the teaching and learning process in the classroom. In comparison to developed countries like UK, USA, Singapore, etc., ICT skills of students in developing and developed countries, including Sri Lanka, show no comparative improvement as evident in the school system. Based on experiences gained in developed counties as well as with instructions and guidelines of local and international experts, responsible implementers have carried out several activities to enhance ICT education. Yet, no com-

ICT is a major ingredient for rapid development and should be implemented through the school platform. As such, researchers are keen to explore how this could be done. Considering the abovementioned facts, investigating the quality improvement and exploration of research possibilities of ICT education in the Sri Lankan educational system is considered appropriate because Sri Lanka is a rapidly developing country in Asia. This study elaborates on a researchable framework toward improvement of quality ICT education. It utilizes existing resources while improving the methodologies along with pedagogical techniques and

**2. Importance of ICT for the teaching, learning and evaluation (TLE)** 

The strategic role played by Information and Communication Technology (ICT), nowadays, is undisputed as ICT has merged with almost all of our day-to-day activities. ICT has paved the way to be informed, keep abreast and contribute toward evolving technology as well. ICT has made inroads to almost every sphere resulting in a heavier burden on education as both the current and future workforce need to be well-equipped to meet the demands of the communication age. It is education that has to play a major role toward the supply of high quality and skillful professionals capable of handling both present and future needs. Current trends make it imperative for higher education in the country to seriously think about and if necessary, completely overhaul, if the country aspires to make revolutionary changes in development. The message seems to have gained ground and ICT education has received prominence with the education process. The quality of higher education or improvements of a school depends on dimensions such as quality learners, quality learning environments, quality content, quality processes and quality outcomes [2]. The effectiveness of the teaching and learning (TL) process consists of five subprocesses such as curriculum design, pedagogical design, implementation quality, outcomes assessment and resource provision [3]. Pedagogical design is an important component in these subprocesses, and it is an independent factor regardless of the standard design of higher education or school education where pedagogical techniques are easily adopted by the educational communities [3]. Contemporary definitions describe pedagogy as the art, profession or science of teaching. Accordingly, pedagogy can be defined as an effective way of

bative significant improvement has been reported regarding ICT education.

4 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

e-learning approaches used in the secondary schools of Sri Lanka.

**process**

There is no accepted universal ultimate model for effective pedagogy or quality teaching, learning and evaluation (TLE). The ultimate outcome expected from a quality TLE process is to enrich students with an expected level of skills regarding cognitive, affective and psychomotor quantifiers against the expected skill levels of the course unit or educational program. Traditional definitions describe pedagogy as either science/theory or art/practice of the TLE process that makes a difference related to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor levels of students. New pedagogies can be defined concisely as new models of TLE partnerships between and among students and teachers. The aim is to achieve deep learning skills. The goals require making use of prevalent digital access through various technologically innovative digital tools.

Studies on pedagogy reveals that pedagogical talents will provide much support toward actuation of TLE skills required to face the changes in TLE process in the twenty-first century. Educational experts also recognize that the majority of transmission or knowledge delivering processes is highly ineffective for the twenty-first century as against the expected competencies and skills of learners [4]. However, it is experimentally and practically provided that learners need skills such as critical thinking, innovation capabilities, ability to communicate efficiently and effectively, problem solving abilities through negotiation and collaboration, and so on. Therefore, pedagogical involvement of the TLE process is a vital component of a skills development process of learners. Accordingly, TLE process should be embedded in the new pedagogical techniques toward achieving student outcomes with expected skills. This can be done through digital accesses with new tools and technologies related to ICT [4].

#### **2.2. Importance of pedagogy**

Many countries in the world still remain economically poor. This affects their technological status. It can be argued that various reasons contribute toward poverty and economies. As such, there is an imbalance between the economic situation and technological aspects. This imbalance, in turn, will directly affect the quality of an education system leading to a digital included [5]. Among countries and within a country, there are disparities, province-wise, district-wise and rural and urban situations too. Whereas in some parts of the world, ICTs are contributing to revolutionary changes in the development process, in other parts of the world, the lives of people have hardly been touched by these innovations. Therefore, by providing such facilities at a reasonable level, the development process of developing countries or poor, can be enhanced and isolation from new inventions can be minimized up to some extent.

As discussed earlier, most ICT experts and educationists recommend that ICT technology can be used to minimize the digital divide in different situations. It is an undisputed fact that future economies and even potential for innovations with technology of any country would depend on the quality of education provided [6]. When one discusses quality education, one of the key ingredients toward quality education is pedagogy. To achieve quality education, pedagogical techniques need to be incorporated with the TLE process, in addition to other factors such as human resources (teachers and other resource persons, etc.) and physical resources (classroom facilities, labs, computers and multimedia devices, etc.).

training are essential to achieve the learning outcomes maintained in international quality standards. One of the internationally accepted quality educational methodologies of teaching and learning is Bloom's taxonomy. However, other pedagogical techniques can also be used for the

Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72203

7

Bloom's taxonomy is considered an internationally accepted quality educational pedagogy for teaching and learning. An exploration of the theoretical foundation of the revised Bloom's taxonomy reveals that the levels of learning and similar useful and appropriate verbs (as shown in **Figure 1**) of the revised Bloom's taxonomy can be used to implement quality teaching and

Developed countries use pedagogical methodologies [4] like Bloom's taxonomy to enhance

The digital learning environment is a successful technique to acquire required skills and knowledge with teacher training programs [11] as well as in the students' learning paradigm [12, 13] in the modern world. In this era, ICT education and general education are equipped with a digital learning environment [13, 14]. An examination of the literature on ICT for education reveals that the quality of one's education tends to improve particularly through continuing existing face-to-face learning and distance education which is also called blended learning [2, 15]. Blended learning refers to the design and delivery of right content in the right format using the right mix of media. It combines online digital media with traditional classroom methods requiring the physical presence of both teacher and student, with some

In the last three decades, there have been great changes in the education landscape of economically advanced countries. For example, increasing access to education has resulted in the diversification of student populations that have a wide range of learning styles and learning needs which are quite different from the traditional and elitist student populations. At the same time, education institutions are asked to respond to the demands of globalization and the knowledge economy, to prepare students with twenty-first century skills and competencies for the labor markets, which require changes in the curriculum and teaching practices. There are demands for increased efficiency, more transparent accountability and better performance in both research and teaching. Some policy makers see digital technology as a tool to help manage some of these changes, and in particular, to use it as a transformative tool in teaching and learning [16]. Further, developed economies use the blended approach, whereas in developing countries, its usage is minimal [1]. Therefore, by introducing blended learning approaches to the teaching and learning paradigm, quality education and ICT education can be achieved [16]. Accordingly, blended learning techniques [e-Books, Learning Management Systems (LMS) activities, e-discussion

forum, etc.] are highly useful techniques for the achievement of quality with education.

development of quality ICT education.

learning processes.

**2.4. Quality enhancement with Bloom's taxonomy**

the quality of their teaching and learning processes.

**3. Digital learning environment (e-learning)**

element of student control over time, place, path or pace.

Toward providing deep learning skills to the student community, first, the teachers should have skills with deep learning activities [7]. To equip teachers for this purpose, this chapter provides an experimental model for teachers to accrue deep learning skills and means to transmit the gained knowledge to the student community. This is to be done through an activitybased learning environment incorporated with ICTs. The process for the proposed model is based on a pedagogical innovation platform. It is arranged in the following ways: (1) through classroom training and practices with innovative pedagogical techniques using interactive ICT techniques and e-facilities (both teacher-directed and self-regulated learning), (2) participating in and practicing with pedagogical innovation techniques through professional learning communities and (3) implementing stages (1) and (2) with students in the school environment.

#### **2.3. ICT education and pedagogy**

Subject matter and pedagogical training are important concepts in the design of teacher training programs [8]. It is apparent that most ICT teacher training programs in developing countries lack a robust theoretical framework [9]. It is imperative for ICT teaching and learning methods and methods of teacher training to blend meaningfully toward maintaining quality with ICT education. Therefore, pedagogical techniques have to be embedded in ICT training programs to obtain expected outcomes [10]. Quality methods related to teaching and teacher

**Figure 1.** Revised Bloom's taxonomy (source: http://pcs2ndgrade.pbworks.com/w/page/46897760/Revised%20Bloom's%20 Taxonomy (last accessed on 02/03/2017)).

training are essential to achieve the learning outcomes maintained in international quality standards. One of the internationally accepted quality educational methodologies of teaching and learning is Bloom's taxonomy. However, other pedagogical techniques can also be used for the development of quality ICT education.

#### **2.4. Quality enhancement with Bloom's taxonomy**

of the key ingredients toward quality education is pedagogy. To achieve quality education, pedagogical techniques need to be incorporated with the TLE process, in addition to other factors such as human resources (teachers and other resource persons, etc.) and physical

Toward providing deep learning skills to the student community, first, the teachers should have skills with deep learning activities [7]. To equip teachers for this purpose, this chapter provides an experimental model for teachers to accrue deep learning skills and means to transmit the gained knowledge to the student community. This is to be done through an activitybased learning environment incorporated with ICTs. The process for the proposed model is based on a pedagogical innovation platform. It is arranged in the following ways: (1) through classroom training and practices with innovative pedagogical techniques using interactive ICT techniques and e-facilities (both teacher-directed and self-regulated learning), (2) participating in and practicing with pedagogical innovation techniques through professional learning communities and (3) implementing stages (1) and (2) with students in the school environment.

Subject matter and pedagogical training are important concepts in the design of teacher training programs [8]. It is apparent that most ICT teacher training programs in developing countries lack a robust theoretical framework [9]. It is imperative for ICT teaching and learning methods and methods of teacher training to blend meaningfully toward maintaining quality with ICT education. Therefore, pedagogical techniques have to be embedded in ICT training programs to obtain expected outcomes [10]. Quality methods related to teaching and teacher

**Figure 1.** Revised Bloom's taxonomy (source: http://pcs2ndgrade.pbworks.com/w/page/46897760/Revised%20Bloom's%20

resources (classroom facilities, labs, computers and multimedia devices, etc.).

6 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

**2.3. ICT education and pedagogy**

Taxonomy (last accessed on 02/03/2017)).

Bloom's taxonomy is considered an internationally accepted quality educational pedagogy for teaching and learning. An exploration of the theoretical foundation of the revised Bloom's taxonomy reveals that the levels of learning and similar useful and appropriate verbs (as shown in **Figure 1**) of the revised Bloom's taxonomy can be used to implement quality teaching and learning processes.

Developed countries use pedagogical methodologies [4] like Bloom's taxonomy to enhance the quality of their teaching and learning processes.

### **3. Digital learning environment (e-learning)**

The digital learning environment is a successful technique to acquire required skills and knowledge with teacher training programs [11] as well as in the students' learning paradigm [12, 13] in the modern world. In this era, ICT education and general education are equipped with a digital learning environment [13, 14]. An examination of the literature on ICT for education reveals that the quality of one's education tends to improve particularly through continuing existing face-to-face learning and distance education which is also called blended learning [2, 15]. Blended learning refers to the design and delivery of right content in the right format using the right mix of media. It combines online digital media with traditional classroom methods requiring the physical presence of both teacher and student, with some element of student control over time, place, path or pace.

In the last three decades, there have been great changes in the education landscape of economically advanced countries. For example, increasing access to education has resulted in the diversification of student populations that have a wide range of learning styles and learning needs which are quite different from the traditional and elitist student populations. At the same time, education institutions are asked to respond to the demands of globalization and the knowledge economy, to prepare students with twenty-first century skills and competencies for the labor markets, which require changes in the curriculum and teaching practices. There are demands for increased efficiency, more transparent accountability and better performance in both research and teaching. Some policy makers see digital technology as a tool to help manage some of these changes, and in particular, to use it as a transformative tool in teaching and learning [16]. Further, developed economies use the blended approach, whereas in developing countries, its usage is minimal [1]. Therefore, by introducing blended learning approaches to the teaching and learning paradigm, quality education and ICT education can be achieved [16]. Accordingly, blended learning techniques [e-Books, Learning Management Systems (LMS) activities, e-discussion forum, etc.] are highly useful techniques for the achievement of quality with education.

### **4. Important learning methodologies and other pedagogies**

Literature reviews reveal that activity-based learning and problem-solving activities are greatly contributing toward the enhancement of ICT education in schools [10, 17]. Further, other pedagogical techniques like Kolb's excremental reflective learning model [18, 19], facial expression and emotional models also contribute highly toward the quality of education in the teaching, learning and evaluation process [18].

**Stage Description**

**Table 1.** Kolb's experiential learning circle [11].

Abstract conceptualization

Concrete experience (CE)—DO Where the leaner is actively experiencing an activity (e.g., a

Reflective observation (RO)—OBSERVE Where the learner is consciously reflecting back on that experience Abstract conceptualization (AC)—THINK Where the leaner is being presented with/or tries to conceptualize a

Active experience (AE)—PLAN Where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or

**Stage Description Activities to help**

words, it begins with doing something in which the individual, team or organization is assigned a task. The key to learning, therefore, is active involvement. In Kolb's model, one cannot learn by simply watching or reading about it, to learn effectively, the individual,

observation. This means taking time-out from "doing" and stepping back from the task and reviewing what has been done and experienced. At this stage, lots of questions come out from "doing" and stepping back from the task and reviewing what has been done and experienced. At this stage, lots of questions are asked and communication channels are opened to other members of

Concrete experience Kolb's cycle starts with a concrete experience. In other

Effective observation The second stage in the cycle is that of reflective

developed.

Active experimentation The final stage of the learning cycle is when the learner

forgotten very quickly.

**Table 2.** Learning theory of Kolb's experiential learning cycle.

team or organization must actually do.

the team. Vocabulary is very important

and is needed to verbalize and discuss with others.

Abstract Conceptualization is the process of making sense of what has happened and involves interpreting the events and understanding the relationships between them. At this stage, the learner makes comparisons between what they have done, by reflecting and what they already know. They may draw upon theory from textbooks for framing and explaining events, models they are familiar with, ideas from colleagues, previous observations or any other knowledge that they have

considers how they are going to put what they have learnt into practice. Planning enables taking the new understanding and translates it into predictions as to what will happen next or what actions should be taken to refine or revise the way a task is to be handled. For learning to be useful most people need to place it in a context that is relevant to them. If one cannot see how the learning is useful to one's life then it is likely to be

laboratory session, field class)

plan a forthcoming experience

theory or model of what is (to be) observed

Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education

Laboratory experience, reading, team games, problem solving, discussion, practical exercises,

Ask for observation, write a short report on what took place, give feedback to other participants, brainstorming sessions, rhetorical and thought questions, completing learning

Lecture, papers and present models give theories, facts, project and analogies.

Give learners time to plan, use case studies, use role play, ask learners to use real problems.

field work.

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logs or diaries.

#### **4.1. Activity-based and problem-based learning**

Activity-based learning is a comprehensive approach for classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of authentic problems [8]. Activity-based learning provides goals mastery versus ability, learning versus performance and task versus ego involvement [8]. Further, activity-based learning has a higher probability of producing greater achievement than the non-manipulating lesson [18]. Problem-based learning through activities highly increases the enthusiasm of the students due to the following reasons: involvement of students in problem-solving authentic problem and in working with others and building real solutions with the use of new technological innovation. Problem-based learning through activities have a high potential to enhance deep understanding because the student needs to acquire and apply information, concepts, principles and they have the potential of improving competence in thinking (learning and metacognition) because students need to formulate plans, track progress, and evaluate solutions [8].

### **4.2. Kolb's experiential learning circle**

Kolb's experiential learning circle could provide much support toward the educational development process in several situations [19]. **Figure 2** shows the four-stage process of Kolb's experiential learning circle.

Further, Kolb's experiential learning theory [17] described as follows:

**Figure 2.** Kolb's experiential learning circle (based on [17]).


**Table 1.** Kolb's experiential learning circle [11].

**4. Important learning methodologies and other pedagogies**

8 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

the teaching, learning and evaluation process [18].

**4.1. Activity-based and problem-based learning**

to formulate plans, track progress, and evaluate solutions [8].

Further, Kolb's experiential learning theory [17] described as follows:

**4.2. Kolb's experiential learning circle**

**Figure 2.** Kolb's experiential learning circle (based on [17]).

experiential learning circle.

Literature reviews reveal that activity-based learning and problem-solving activities are greatly contributing toward the enhancement of ICT education in schools [10, 17]. Further, other pedagogical techniques like Kolb's excremental reflective learning model [18, 19], facial expression and emotional models also contribute highly toward the quality of education in

Activity-based learning is a comprehensive approach for classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of authentic problems [8]. Activity-based learning provides goals mastery versus ability, learning versus performance and task versus ego involvement [8]. Further, activity-based learning has a higher probability of producing greater achievement than the non-manipulating lesson [18]. Problem-based learning through activities highly increases the enthusiasm of the students due to the following reasons: involvement of students in problem-solving authentic problem and in working with others and building real solutions with the use of new technological innovation. Problem-based learning through activities have a high potential to enhance deep understanding because the student needs to acquire and apply information, concepts, principles and they have the potential of improving competence in thinking (learning and metacognition) because students need

Kolb's experiential learning circle could provide much support toward the educational development process in several situations [19]. **Figure 2** shows the four-stage process of Kolb's


**Table 2.** Learning theory of Kolb's experiential learning cycle.


Institute of Education (NIE), Universities and ICT experts in industry, etc.) in ICT education and different methodologies (classroom observation and workshops) were used in the survey. As fact gathering instruments, questionnaires, unstructured interview schedules, classroom observation sheets and workshop monitoring sheets were designed and used to gather information related to the pedagogical usage of ICT education in Sri Lankan Schools. It took more than 6 months for the data collection process in the sample survey that included both privileged and underprivileged districts. Random judgment sampling technique was used to select the sample. The Kruskal-Wallis test on total ranks for usage of pedagogical techniques under the curriculum implementation facilities/technique on ICT teachers and principals' point of view is used to prove the attitudes toward the usage of pedagogical techniques for the implementation of ICT education. Used in the Sri Lankan ICT context, the results revealed to be very poor and lacking in many respects. The confidence interval for the mean and median also support the same. Based on the outcomes of the literature review and sample survey, it was concluded that there is a lack of pedagogical involvement in ICT education in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. Considering the abovementioned issues, the experimental application model was designed and implemented under a test environment to minimize the lack of pedagogical usage and incorporate the blended learning technologies into ICT education.

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**6. Experimental application model for enhancement of quality ICT** 

programs and subsequently classroom teaching activities with students [23].

mentary techniques of the application model.

The abovementioned exploration shows that there is a lack of pedagogical techniques and blended learning activities in the ICT educational development process in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. Further, it was highlighted that the quality of ICT education can be increased incorporating pedagogical and blended learning approaches to the teacher training

Toward enhancing the quality of ICT education, the following experimental model was designed and implemented on an experimental platform in selected schools in Sri Lanka. This model was tested in two stages. In stage 1, the implementation of the proposed experimental application model was with selected teachers (as training of trainers). With their feedback and other reflective aspects, the model was smartened. In stage II, the enhanced model was implemented in the school environment with the support of the trained teachers referred to above, and with their students. Based on their feedback and practical complications, the model was further smartened as appropriate. In designing the application model, the revised Bloom's taxonomy was used as the key methodology of the study and e-learning concepts, principles in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle, activity-based learning, peer learning, and other theoretical and practical activities were used as supple-

The experimental application model consists of six activity levels including the traditional face-to-face learning as activity level one besides other five activity levels. The other five activity levels cover one or two levels of the revised Bloom's taxonomy incorporating the other

**education**

**Table 3.** Different learning aspects of Kolb's experimental learning circle [11].

Kolb's experiential learning cycle is the most widely used learning theory in experiential research due to its implementation feasibility with educational activities (**Table 1**). The abstract—basic principle of Kolb's reflective process for education development [20, 21] is shown in **Table 2**.

**Table 3** summarizes the activities that support the different aspects [17] of Kolb's experiential learning circle.

#### **4.3. The universal facial expression of emotion model**

The universal facial expression of emotion model and stakeholders' feedback play a major role in quality evaluation in the teaching and learning paradigm [18]. Developed countries use evaluation of quality through facial behavior of teachers in teacher training programs as well as in implementing such programs in their schools. The universal facial expression model shows different stages of the facial expression of emotion model. The changes come in seven stages. The seven stages are: happy, surprise, contempt, sadness, fear, disgust and anger [18].

### **5. Importance of pedagogical techniques in ICT education and general education**

It is believed that quality ICT education is dependent on nine factors [22, 23]. In this regard, national goals, country expectations, budget allocation, international benchmarks and standards related to quality ICT education such as (1) infrastructure facilities, (2) human resource facilities, (3) maintenance and sustainability plans, (4) software, (5) curriculum implementation facilities,(6) policy matters, (7i) support from the administration and supportive initiative, (8) research and development and (9) budget allocation and country expectations are considered essential factors toward quality with ICT education.

Further, the investigation reveals that pedagogical techniques greatly contribute to the maintenance of quality with ICT education [23] together with the nine quality factors mentioned. Therefore, to determine its application to the Sri Lankan context, a sample survey was conducted with the following sample.

In the sample survey, the following sources were used to collect the required information in connection with ICT education in Sri Lankan schools using three structured questionnaires. Thirty-five principals, 1295 students and 48 ICT teachers from 35 schools in five districts participated. In addition to this, a variety of stakeholders (e.g., Ministry of Education (MOE), National Institute of Education (NIE), Universities and ICT experts in industry, etc.) in ICT education and different methodologies (classroom observation and workshops) were used in the survey. As fact gathering instruments, questionnaires, unstructured interview schedules, classroom observation sheets and workshop monitoring sheets were designed and used to gather information related to the pedagogical usage of ICT education in Sri Lankan Schools. It took more than 6 months for the data collection process in the sample survey that included both privileged and underprivileged districts. Random judgment sampling technique was used to select the sample.

**Concrete experience Reflective observation Abstract** 

10 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

questions.

**Table 3.** Different learning aspects of Kolb's experimental learning circle [11].

**4.3. The universal facial expression of emotion model**

Logs, journals, discussion, brainstorming, thought questions, rhetorical

Kolb's experiential learning cycle is the most widely used learning theory in experiential research due to its implementation feasibility with educational activities (**Table 1**). The abstract—basic principle of Kolb's reflective process for education development [20, 21] is shown in **Table 2**.

**Table 3** summarizes the activities that support the different aspects [17] of Kolb's experiential

The universal facial expression of emotion model and stakeholders' feedback play a major role in quality evaluation in the teaching and learning paradigm [18]. Developed countries use evaluation of quality through facial behavior of teachers in teacher training programs as well as in implementing such programs in their schools. The universal facial expression model shows different stages of the facial expression of emotion model. The changes come in seven stages. The seven stages are: happy, surprise, contempt, sadness, fear, disgust and anger [18].

It is believed that quality ICT education is dependent on nine factors [22, 23]. In this regard, national goals, country expectations, budget allocation, international benchmarks and standards related to quality ICT education such as (1) infrastructure facilities, (2) human resource facilities, (3) maintenance and sustainability plans, (4) software, (5) curriculum implementation facilities,(6) policy matters, (7i) support from the administration and supportive initiative, (8) research and development and (9) budget allocation and country expectations are

Further, the investigation reveals that pedagogical techniques greatly contribute to the maintenance of quality with ICT education [23] together with the nine quality factors mentioned. Therefore, to determine its application to the Sri Lankan context, a sample survey was con-

In the sample survey, the following sources were used to collect the required information in connection with ICT education in Sri Lankan schools using three structured questionnaires. Thirty-five principals, 1295 students and 48 ICT teachers from 35 schools in five districts participated. In addition to this, a variety of stakeholders (e.g., Ministry of Education (MOE), National

**5. Importance of pedagogical techniques in ICT education and** 

considered essential factors toward quality with ICT education.

Reading, examples, fieldwork, laboratories, problem sets, trigger films, observations, simulations/

games text reading.

learning circle.

**general education**

ducted with the following sample.

**conceptualization**

Lecture, papers, projects, analogies model building.

**Active experimentation**

Projects, fieldwork, homework, laboratory, case study and simulations.

> The Kruskal-Wallis test on total ranks for usage of pedagogical techniques under the curriculum implementation facilities/technique on ICT teachers and principals' point of view is used to prove the attitudes toward the usage of pedagogical techniques for the implementation of ICT education. Used in the Sri Lankan ICT context, the results revealed to be very poor and lacking in many respects. The confidence interval for the mean and median also support the same. Based on the outcomes of the literature review and sample survey, it was concluded that there is a lack of pedagogical involvement in ICT education in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. Considering the abovementioned issues, the experimental application model was designed and implemented under a test environment to minimize the lack of pedagogical usage and incorporate the blended learning technologies into ICT education.

## **6. Experimental application model for enhancement of quality ICT education**

The abovementioned exploration shows that there is a lack of pedagogical techniques and blended learning activities in the ICT educational development process in developing countries, including Sri Lanka. Further, it was highlighted that the quality of ICT education can be increased incorporating pedagogical and blended learning approaches to the teacher training programs and subsequently classroom teaching activities with students [23].

Toward enhancing the quality of ICT education, the following experimental model was designed and implemented on an experimental platform in selected schools in Sri Lanka. This model was tested in two stages. In stage 1, the implementation of the proposed experimental application model was with selected teachers (as training of trainers). With their feedback and other reflective aspects, the model was smartened. In stage II, the enhanced model was implemented in the school environment with the support of the trained teachers referred to above, and with their students. Based on their feedback and practical complications, the model was further smartened as appropriate. In designing the application model, the revised Bloom's taxonomy was used as the key methodology of the study and e-learning concepts, principles in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle, activity-based learning, peer learning, and other theoretical and practical activities were used as supplementary techniques of the application model.

The experimental application model consists of six activity levels including the traditional face-to-face learning as activity level one besides other five activity levels. The other five activity levels cover one or two levels of the revised Bloom's taxonomy incorporating the other techniques especially in blended learning activities with reflective practice where necessary. All the activities are designed to achieve the best possible outcome in the learning domains such as knowledge, attitude and skills.

**7.1. Activity Model 2**

**Tables 1**–**3**.

Circle

Circle

This sample Activity Model 2 covers the first level of Bloom's taxonomy (keywords are used according to similar verbs given in **Figure 1**) and it was implemented according to the guidance given in Kolb's Customized Reflective Learning Circle guidelines given in **Figure 2** and

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This sample question is based on the first level of Bloom's taxonomy and it covers all four

**Exercise 1.1.** Define the basic data types used in Python programming language. List how different data types can be used to solve application with problem-solving activities. You may

The abovementioned exercises were introduced in four stages so as to provide comprehensive

Stage 1: Activities in connection with concrete experience in Kolb's Experimental Learning

Stage 2: Activities in connection with reflective observation in Kolb's Experimental Learning

**i.** Conducted brainstorming session in connection with the different data types in Python, their applications and how to apply these data types with activities related to problem

**ii.** Provided environment to judge own solutions in connection with different data types

**iii.** Provided facilities to maintain a reflective log in connection to the outcomes to the ques-

Stage 3: Activities in connection with abstract conceptualization in Kolb's Experimental

**i.** Conducted a series of lectures in connection with the following methodologies: Bloom's taxonomy and its application, blended learning approaches (e.g., to use e-materials, educational websites, familiarizations with LMS and online courses) in connection with the

**ii.** Provided facilities to use stage 1 of Bloom's taxonomy in connection with data types and

data types and application in Python provided in the sample course materials.

**7.2. Implementation of the second activity model of the proposed approach**

stages of Kolb's Experiential learning Circle in addition to other techniques.

**i.** Provided lecture notes, e-materials, sample solved related questions.

**ii.** Granted access to online help facilities with the Python programming language. **iii.** Provided facilities for peer discussion to further strengthen individual answers.

use simple examples to illustrate the answer.

learning experiences to the stakeholders.

solving with real life applications.

and applications.

their application.

Learning Circle

tion in activity model 1.

The application model was developed by incorporating all the abovementioned theoretical aspects and validated with the practical implementation platform. Stage I was tested by an expert panel comprising an ICT domain expert, an ICT instructor and nine leading ICT experienced teachers through a series of face-to-face and e-learning activities inclusive of all the abovementioned activities and pedagogies.

In addition to the stakeholders' feedback and suggestions, the success of the model was evaluated using the implementation of the seven-stage facial expression model. Outcomes of the seven-stage facial expression model were used to smarten and fine-tune the experimental application model. Stage I also made use of two submodules that are as follows: (1) Sub Module 1: Master Teacher and Teacher Trainers' Model—initially master trainer implemented the abovementioned experimental pedagogical model with his/her trainers [hereafter referred to as: training of trainers (i.e., with the selected nine teachers)]. In implementing Sub Module I of Stage I of the Model, the master trainer provided facilities to use Sub Module II of stage I. (2) Sub Module II: Peer-to-Peer Learning Model: the main task of this submodule is to share or transmit knowledge among the different stakeholders using the application model to mitigate the knowledge gap. This model used peer learning activities through digital learning approaches like e-learning approaches, usage of learning management systems (LMS), discussion forum and reflection guidelines.

The second stage of this model was experimentally implemented by the nine trained teachers with 61 students from three different schools. The second stage too consists of two submodules: (1) Sub Module (III)—Trained Teacher-Student Model and Sub Module (4)—Peer-to-Peer student model. The implementation of Sub Module (3) and Sub Module (4) are similar to the implementation of Sub Module I and Sub Module II, respectively. However, the implementation of stage I is handled by a master trainer with teacher trainers (training of trainers), while stage II is implemented by the trained teachers with their students. This is the only difference. The implementation and final evaluation were based on the outcomes of students' activities carried out by the nine trained teachers referred to, abovementioned text, in three different schools with the help of the researcher. Finally, the proposed application model was further fine-tuned using the fundamental theory embedded in Kolb's Experiential Learning Circle when practiced in the school environment.

### **7. Sample presentation of the activity models**

The proposed experiential application model consists of six activity models. The first activity model (Activity Level 1) includes the existing face-to-face traditional approach while the other activity model covers one or two levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Each activity model included other pedagogical techniques already discussed in addition to the e-learning approaches. As a sample approach, Activity Model 2 is represented as follows:

### **7.1. Activity Model 2**

techniques especially in blended learning activities with reflective practice where necessary. All the activities are designed to achieve the best possible outcome in the learning domains

The application model was developed by incorporating all the abovementioned theoretical aspects and validated with the practical implementation platform. Stage I was tested by an expert panel comprising an ICT domain expert, an ICT instructor and nine leading ICT experienced teachers through a series of face-to-face and e-learning activities inclusive of all the

In addition to the stakeholders' feedback and suggestions, the success of the model was evaluated using the implementation of the seven-stage facial expression model. Outcomes of the seven-stage facial expression model were used to smarten and fine-tune the experimental application model. Stage I also made use of two submodules that are as follows: (1) Sub Module 1: Master Teacher and Teacher Trainers' Model—initially master trainer implemented the abovementioned experimental pedagogical model with his/her trainers [hereafter referred to as: training of trainers (i.e., with the selected nine teachers)]. In implementing Sub Module I of Stage I of the Model, the master trainer provided facilities to use Sub Module II of stage I. (2) Sub Module II: Peer-to-Peer Learning Model: the main task of this submodule is to share or transmit knowledge among the different stakeholders using the application model to mitigate the knowledge gap. This model used peer learning activities through digital learning approaches like e-learning approaches, usage of learning

The second stage of this model was experimentally implemented by the nine trained teachers with 61 students from three different schools. The second stage too consists of two submodules: (1) Sub Module (III)—Trained Teacher-Student Model and Sub Module (4)—Peer-to-Peer student model. The implementation of Sub Module (3) and Sub Module (4) are similar to the implementation of Sub Module I and Sub Module II, respectively. However, the implementation of stage I is handled by a master trainer with teacher trainers (training of trainers), while stage II is implemented by the trained teachers with their students. This is the only difference. The implementation and final evaluation were based on the outcomes of students' activities carried out by the nine trained teachers referred to, abovementioned text, in three different schools with the help of the researcher. Finally, the proposed application model was further fine-tuned using the fundamental theory embedded in Kolb's Experiential Learning

The proposed experiential application model consists of six activity models. The first activity model (Activity Level 1) includes the existing face-to-face traditional approach while the other activity model covers one or two levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Each activity model included other pedagogical techniques already discussed in addition to the e-learning approaches. As

management systems (LMS), discussion forum and reflection guidelines.

such as knowledge, attitude and skills.

12 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

abovementioned activities and pedagogies.

Circle when practiced in the school environment.

**7. Sample presentation of the activity models**

a sample approach, Activity Model 2 is represented as follows:

This sample Activity Model 2 covers the first level of Bloom's taxonomy (keywords are used according to similar verbs given in **Figure 1**) and it was implemented according to the guidance given in Kolb's Customized Reflective Learning Circle guidelines given in **Figure 2** and **Tables 1**–**3**.

#### **7.2. Implementation of the second activity model of the proposed approach**

This sample question is based on the first level of Bloom's taxonomy and it covers all four stages of Kolb's Experiential learning Circle in addition to other techniques.

**Exercise 1.1.** Define the basic data types used in Python programming language. List how different data types can be used to solve application with problem-solving activities. You may use simple examples to illustrate the answer.

The abovementioned exercises were introduced in four stages so as to provide comprehensive learning experiences to the stakeholders.

Stage 1: Activities in connection with concrete experience in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle


Stage 2: Activities in connection with reflective observation in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle


Stage 3: Activities in connection with abstract conceptualization in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle


**iii.** Provided guidance to design learning activities using the first level of Bloom's taxonomy to achieve the learning outcomes. Guidance was given for the preparation of examination questions using the first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

of activity, paired t-test was used to determine the improvement among the levels of each activity (hereafter called treatments). In all, five hypotheses were used and each hypothesis was used to determine improvement between two consecutive activity (treatment) levels.

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Let μ1, μ2, μ3, μ4, μ5 and μ6 were population mean marks at face-to-face traditional approach

Similarly, other four hypotheses were used for pair's treatment as follows: μ2 versus μ3, μ3 versus μ4, μ4 versus μ5 and finally, μ5 versus μ6, and hypothesis were labeled as hypothesis 2,

The outcome of the paired t-test of each hypothesis was obtained. It was decided that the acceptance of hypotheses or rejected, based on the 5% significant level P value (p < 0.05, then

Further, to investigate any variations in the outcomes of the experimental model school wise (analyze the difference between the groups), the analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical

To test the difference between the schools' performance in connection with the outcome of the

H0: students' performance in School A, School B and School C is the same (i.e., H0: μ School

H1: students' performances are different in at least one school from others (H1: At least one

Based on the P value of ANOVA table, one can decide whether H0 can be rejected. If 95% con-

According to the methodology described earlier, the implementation of the proposed model

fidence interval level p value is greater than α (0.05), therefore, H0 cannot be rejected.

**9. Implementation of the experiential application model under the** 

was carried out and few samples of the implementation are represented in **Figure 3**.

The following five hypotheses were tested and labeled as hypothesis 1–5:

H0: μ1 = μ2 (mean values of marks are same in both treatments).

H1: μ1 < μ2 (mean marks of treatment 1 < treatment 2).

hypothesis 3, hypothesis 4 and hypothesis 5, respectively.

**8.1. ANOVA test for comparison of performance school wise**

implemented application model, the hypothesis 6 was used.

the null-hypothesis can be accepted).

model was used.

Hypothesis 6:

**test platform**

A = μ School B = μ School C).

mean mark is different from the others).

(Activity Level 1) to Activity Level 6 (proposed different levels), respectively.

As the first hypothesis, Activity Level 1 and Activity Level 2 were used as follows:


Stage 4: Activities in connection with the active experimentation in Kolb's Experimental Learning Circle


Other activity models cover the remaining stages of Bloom's taxonomy and within each level of Bloom's taxonomy executed at all the stages of Kolb's Excremental Learning in addition to the other blended learning technologies. This proposed model is expected to achieve both surface and the deep learning outcomes based on the mixture of traditional pedagogical techniques with modern e-learning techniques in a collaborative and active learning platform.

### **8. Methodology for the validation of the model through statistical investigation**

Students' knowledge about programming and problem solving were tested at six activity levels, which is the application model previously discussed. They were activity levels 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 against the initial level (activity level 1: face-to-face traditional approach). The evaluation of the activity levels with a common series of evaluation papers were used in three different schools and their feedback collected. For the outcome of the evaluation test at each level of activity, paired t-test was used to determine the improvement among the levels of each activity (hereafter called treatments). In all, five hypotheses were used and each hypothesis was used to determine improvement between two consecutive activity (treatment) levels.

The following five hypotheses were tested and labeled as hypothesis 1–5:

Let μ1, μ2, μ3, μ4, μ5 and μ6 were population mean marks at face-to-face traditional approach (Activity Level 1) to Activity Level 6 (proposed different levels), respectively.

As the first hypothesis, Activity Level 1 and Activity Level 2 were used as follows:

H0: μ1 = μ2 (mean values of marks are same in both treatments).

H1: μ1 < μ2 (mean marks of treatment 1 < treatment 2).

Similarly, other four hypotheses were used for pair's treatment as follows: μ2 versus μ3, μ3 versus μ4, μ4 versus μ5 and finally, μ5 versus μ6, and hypothesis were labeled as hypothesis 2, hypothesis 3, hypothesis 4 and hypothesis 5, respectively.

The outcome of the paired t-test of each hypothesis was obtained. It was decided that the acceptance of hypotheses or rejected, based on the 5% significant level P value (p < 0.05, then the null-hypothesis can be accepted).

Further, to investigate any variations in the outcomes of the experimental model school wise (analyze the difference between the groups), the analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical model was used.

#### **8.1. ANOVA test for comparison of performance school wise**

To test the difference between the schools' performance in connection with the outcome of the implemented application model, the hypothesis 6 was used.

Hypothesis 6:

**iii.** Provided guidance to design learning activities using the first level of Bloom's taxonomy to achieve the learning outcomes. Guidance was given for the preparation of examination

**iv.** Provided facilities to discuss/create a forum on some important contents of programming and problem-solving activities through an online discussion forum making use of individual answers and explored possibilities to enhance the definition using e-materials

**v.** Provided facilities to conduct a rhetorical and thought question session related to cover-

**vi.** Provided facilities to use LMS activities in connection with activities and evaluation related to the different data types and problem-solving activities in Photon programming

**vii.** Provided facilities to discuss within peer-peer student groups and master teacher-stu-

Stage 4: Activities in connection with the active experimentation in Kolb's Experimental

**i.** Provided a brainstorming session to encourage the use of Bloom's taxonomy, blended learning approaches, LMS, Kolb's experiential reflective learning session and stakeholder

**ii.** Provided facilities to prepare own learning materials using peer-discussion, blended learning approaches (e-learning materials, LMS), brainstorming sessions according to the

**iii.** Provided facilities to design own evaluation materials using the abovementioned methodologies for practice with their students according to the first step of Bloom's taxonomy.

Other activity models cover the remaining stages of Bloom's taxonomy and within each level of Bloom's taxonomy executed at all the stages of Kolb's Excremental Learning in addition to the other blended learning technologies. This proposed model is expected to achieve both surface and the deep learning outcomes based on the mixture of traditional pedagogical techniques with modern e-learning techniques in a collaborative and active learning platform.

Students' knowledge about programming and problem solving were tested at six activity levels, which is the application model previously discussed. They were activity levels 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 against the initial level (activity level 1: face-to-face traditional approach). The evaluation of the activity levels with a common series of evaluation papers were used in three different schools and their feedback collected. For the outcome of the evaluation test at each level

**8. Methodology for the validation of the model through statistical** 

ing the learning outcomes coming under the first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

questions using the first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

14 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

languages using the first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

feedback for further enhancement.

first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

dent approach related to the first level of Bloom's taxonomy.

in educational websites.

Learning Circle

**investigation**

H0: students' performance in School A, School B and School C is the same (i.e., H0: μ School A = μ School B = μ School C).

H1: students' performances are different in at least one school from others (H1: At least one mean mark is different from the others).

Based on the P value of ANOVA table, one can decide whether H0 can be rejected. If 95% confidence interval level p value is greater than α (0.05), therefore, H0 cannot be rejected.

### **9. Implementation of the experiential application model under the test platform**

According to the methodology described earlier, the implementation of the proposed model was carried out and few samples of the implementation are represented in **Figure 3**.

**Figure 3.** (Left) Implementation of application model to the introductory session. (Right) Introduction to Bloom's taxonomy and how to apply Bloom's taxonomy to the teaching and learning.

The session output shows that the teachers were motivated to learn Bloom's taxonomy and motivated teachers used Bloom's taxonomy in their teaching and learning paradigm of ICT, which was embedded in the proposed application model. During and after the series of Stage 1 of the study, the success of the session was observed and analyzed using the facial behavior of teachers using the Seven Universal Facial Expressions of Emotional Methodology.

According to the analysis outcome of the seven universal facial expressions of emotional methodology, on average, 74% of teachers happily did the activities included in the application model. This result shows a 24% of increase with respect to the initial situation (before implementing the application model).

researcher. At the beginning, students also used face-to-face activities toward their learning process. After a series of lessons, they were motivated to use blended approaches to enhance the learning process. Based on the feedback of students, teachers and the ICT instructor, the researcher was able to judge the success of the application model through the facial behavior of

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The following section shows the results in implementing the proposed experimental application model in selected schools. Based on the statistical analysis techniques, as shown in the following sections, it proved the validity of the experimental model and its suitability for a

The final evaluation of the proposed application model is based on the outcome of students' activities carried out by the trained teachers in three different schools with the help

A sample of 26 students from School A, 16 students from School B and 19 students from School C were selected based on availability. Students' knowledge about programming and problem solving were tested at six levels. They were face-to-face, Activity Level 1, Activity Level 2, Activity Level 3, Activity Level 4, Activity Level 5 and Activity Level 6. The mean

mark of each block at each treatment level was calculated and is given in **Table 4**.

the students and outcome of the inferential statistics analysis.

**Figure 4.** Sample event at the implementation of the proposed model in respective schools.

**10. Outcomes of the study**

developing country like Sri Lanka.

of the researcher.

**10.1. Evaluation of the proposed application model**

#### **9.1. Implementation of the proposed model in respective schools**

Activities, implementation procedure and results of the trained teacher-student and peer-topeer student model (the Sub Module 3 and the Sub Module 4) are as follows:

The activities used in Sub Module 1 and Sub Module 2 were applied to the implementation of Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 using the role model approach. Initially, teachers conducted the face-to-face session using course materials provided at the training of trainers' implementation sessions as in the role model approach. Some trainers (teachers) had also prepared daily course materials and activity sessions based on the experience obtained from the series of workshop sessions in Sub Module 1 and 2. Further, trainers provided facilities to conduct peer student group discussions as they learned from the series of workshops. Samples related to the implementation of the proposed model in schools using the role model are shown in **Figure 4**.

In implementing Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 in the respective schools, trainers used blended learning approaches learned from Sub Modules 1 and 2. Teachers applied the application model activities learnt from Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 in a reflective and enhanced manner. On some occasions, the researcher gave feedback through classroom observation sessions. The evidence can be seen in **Figure 4**.

The application models were implemented and tested fulfilling the specified requirements in selected schools using the role model approach and using the design approach shown in model. Teachers were able to fine-tune the application model with their students with the help of the Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72203 17

**Figure 4.** Sample event at the implementation of the proposed model in respective schools.

researcher. At the beginning, students also used face-to-face activities toward their learning process. After a series of lessons, they were motivated to use blended approaches to enhance the learning process. Based on the feedback of students, teachers and the ICT instructor, the researcher was able to judge the success of the application model through the facial behavior of the students and outcome of the inferential statistics analysis.

### **10. Outcomes of the study**

The session output shows that the teachers were motivated to learn Bloom's taxonomy and motivated teachers used Bloom's taxonomy in their teaching and learning paradigm of ICT, which was embedded in the proposed application model. During and after the series of Stage 1 of the study, the success of the session was observed and analyzed using the facial behavior

**Figure 3.** (Left) Implementation of application model to the introductory session. (Right) Introduction to Bloom's

According to the analysis outcome of the seven universal facial expressions of emotional methodology, on average, 74% of teachers happily did the activities included in the application model. This result shows a 24% of increase with respect to the initial situation (before

Activities, implementation procedure and results of the trained teacher-student and peer-to-

The activities used in Sub Module 1 and Sub Module 2 were applied to the implementation of Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 using the role model approach. Initially, teachers conducted the face-to-face session using course materials provided at the training of trainers' implementation sessions as in the role model approach. Some trainers (teachers) had also prepared daily course materials and activity sessions based on the experience obtained from the series of workshop sessions in Sub Module 1 and 2. Further, trainers provided facilities to conduct peer student group discussions as they learned from the series of workshops. Samples related to the implementation of the proposed model in schools using the role model are shown in **Figure 4**. In implementing Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 in the respective schools, trainers used blended learning approaches learned from Sub Modules 1 and 2. Teachers applied the application model activities learnt from Sub Module 3 and Sub Module 4 in a reflective and enhanced manner. On some occasions, the researcher gave feedback through classroom observation

The application models were implemented and tested fulfilling the specified requirements in selected schools using the role model approach and using the design approach shown in model. Teachers were able to fine-tune the application model with their students with the help of the

of teachers using the Seven Universal Facial Expressions of Emotional Methodology.

**9.1. Implementation of the proposed model in respective schools**

taxonomy and how to apply Bloom's taxonomy to the teaching and learning.

16 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

peer student model (the Sub Module 3 and the Sub Module 4) are as follows:

implementing the application model).

sessions. The evidence can be seen in **Figure 4**.

The following section shows the results in implementing the proposed experimental application model in selected schools. Based on the statistical analysis techniques, as shown in the following sections, it proved the validity of the experimental model and its suitability for a developing country like Sri Lanka.

#### **10.1. Evaluation of the proposed application model**

The final evaluation of the proposed application model is based on the outcome of students' activities carried out by the trained teachers in three different schools with the help of the researcher.

A sample of 26 students from School A, 16 students from School B and 19 students from School C were selected based on availability. Students' knowledge about programming and problem solving were tested at six levels. They were face-to-face, Activity Level 1, Activity Level 2, Activity Level 3, Activity Level 4, Activity Level 5 and Activity Level 6. The mean mark of each block at each treatment level was calculated and is given in **Table 4**.


To investigate school wise variations (analyze the difference between the groups) in the above

Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education

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19

To test the difference between school wise performance in connection with the outcome of the

H0: students' performance in School A, School B and School C are the same (or HO: μ School

H1: Students' performances are different at least in one school from among others (or H1: At

P value of ANOVA is 0.416. So that 95% confidence interval level p value is greater than α (0.05). Therefore, H0 cannot be rejected. It is not evident that performances are different by school wise. Ninety-five percent confidence interval for mean marks also confirms the same (confidence intervals are overlap). According to the outcome of the abovementioned statistical model, it was concluded that students' performance increase remains the same in all

The application model confirmed its validity through the explored statistical models. It is interesting to note that the general view of the teachers who participated in the testing of the application model in schools was that the model looks feasible toward enhancing the quality of ICT education in Sri Lanka and, with proper investigation it can also be extended to other

Level N Mean StDev − + − − + − − + − − + − ---

conclusion, the following analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical model was used.

**10.2. ANOVA test for comparison of performance school-wise**

Hypothesis:

A = μ school B = μ School are same).

three schools (**Table 5**).

developing countries.

Pooled StDev = 7.832

least one mean is different from the others).

implemented application model, the following hypothesis was used.

**Source DF SS MS F P** School 2 114.2 57.1 0.93 0.416

AnulaVidyalaya 6 49.077 7.583 (−-----------\*-------------) Samudra Devi Bal 6 51.587 8.435 (−-----------\*-------------) Thursten College 6 55.212 7.442 (−-----------\*-------------)

Error 15 920.2 61.3

− + − − + − − + − − + − 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0

Total 17 1034.3

Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev

**Table 5.** One-way ANOVA: marks versus school.

S = 7.832 R-Sq = 11.04% R-Sq(adj) = 0.00%

**Table 4.** Mean marks of each block at each treatment.

Further, during the implementation, test cases were performed. In all test cases, common evaluation activities were given. These activities were prepared at the implementation of the application model stage with teachers. **Table 4** shows the students' mean marks for different treatments.

According to the abovementioned results, it was concluded that there is a gradual increase in students' performance when proper implementation of the application model is carried out. For each treatment, paired t-test was used and the following outcomes were obtained. As input to the paired t-test, mean data given in **Table 4** was used. Further, paired t-test was used to test the improvement between the levels of each treatment.

Similarly, **Table 4** shows that μ2 < μ3, μ3 < μ4, μ4 < μ5 and μ5 < μ6. In other words, students' performance has increased in an incremental manner.

In addition to the outcome of the hypothesis testing, **Figure 5** shows the performance of students with different activities.

**Figure 5** shows students' performance increasing at each activity level. Further, all the schools show a pattern of increase in performance behavior.

The inferential outcomes and the graphical representation from implementing the proposed application model helped to conclude that the activities contained in the activity series contributed toward increased student performances.

**Figure 5.** Stack chart to represents students' performance in different activities in three schools.

To investigate school wise variations (analyze the difference between the groups) in the above conclusion, the following analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical model was used.

#### **10.2. ANOVA test for comparison of performance school-wise**

To test the difference between school wise performance in connection with the outcome of the implemented application model, the following hypothesis was used.

Hypothesis:

H0: students' performance in School A, School B and School C are the same (or HO: μ School A = μ school B = μ School are same).

H1: Students' performances are different at least in one school from among others (or H1: At least one mean is different from the others).

P value of ANOVA is 0.416. So that 95% confidence interval level p value is greater than α (0.05). Therefore, H0 cannot be rejected. It is not evident that performances are different by school wise. Ninety-five percent confidence interval for mean marks also confirms the same (confidence intervals are overlap). According to the outcome of the abovementioned statistical model, it was concluded that students' performance increase remains the same in all three schools (**Table 5**).

The application model confirmed its validity through the explored statistical models. It is interesting to note that the general view of the teachers who participated in the testing of the application model in schools was that the model looks feasible toward enhancing the quality of ICT education in Sri Lanka and, with proper investigation it can also be extended to other developing countries.


**Table 5.** One-way ANOVA: marks versus school.

**Figure 5.** Stack chart to represents students' performance in different activities in three schools.

Further, during the implementation, test cases were performed. In all test cases, common evaluation activities were given. These activities were prepared at the implementation of the application model stage with teachers. **Table 4** shows the students' mean marks for different treatments. According to the abovementioned results, it was concluded that there is a gradual increase in students' performance when proper implementation of the application model is carried out. For each treatment, paired t-test was used and the following outcomes were obtained. As input to the paired t-test, mean data given in **Table 4** was used. Further, paired t-test was used

(1) Activity Level 1 (face-to-face) 40.50 47.25 42.00 (2) Activity Level 2 42.20 49.25 43.67 (3) Activity Level 3 46.21 51.80 47.74 (4) Activity Level 4 50.35 56.06 54.72 (5) Activity Level 5 55.20 59.60 58.39 (6) Activity Level 6 60.00 67.31 63.00

**School A School B School B**

N1 = 26 N2 = 16 N3 = 19

Similarly, **Table 4** shows that μ2 < μ3, μ3 < μ4, μ4 < μ5 and μ5 < μ6. In other words, students'

In addition to the outcome of the hypothesis testing, **Figure 5** shows the performance of stu-

**Figure 5** shows students' performance increasing at each activity level. Further, all the schools

The inferential outcomes and the graphical representation from implementing the proposed application model helped to conclude that the activities contained in the activity series con-

to test the improvement between the levels of each treatment.

performance has increased in an incremental manner.

**Treatment Block**

18 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

**Table 4.** Mean marks of each block at each treatment.

show a pattern of increase in performance behavior.

tributed toward increased student performances.

dents with different activities.

### **11. Conclusion**

The proposed experimental application model contains a mixture of traditional educational pedagogies and modern blended learning technologies to address the issue regarding enhancement of quality ICT education in Sri Lanka. The model has proved that Bloom's taxonomy levels provide more skills enhancement to teachers as well as to students in an effective manner if it is blended with e-learning technologies. Further, the model reduces the complexity of the TLA process and helps in achieving learning outcomes. Incorporating features like Kolb's Reflective Learning Circle and other techniques such as activity-based learning and problem-based learning in different levels of Bloom's taxonomy has proved that more skills development of teachers and students can be achieved effectively compared to the existing methodologies. When the model was implemented, differences in performance levels of students in different schools were not noticed and this fact has been proved through the statistical analysis. It has also been proved that the proposed application model is suitable to enhance the quality of ICT education in Sri Lankan schools. Therefore, it can be concluded that the application model using a researchable framework could help improve the quality of ICT education and enhance the teaching, learning and assessment (TLA) process in Sri Lankan schools effectively. Hence, it is recommended that the proposed experimental model can be used first to train the teacher-trainers island-wide. However, once trained, teacher-trainers need to actively practice and sustain with their students what was newly learned. To conclude, the usage of the proposed framework would, undoubtedly, help to improve the existing methodologies along with pedagogical techniques and e-learning approaches in ICT education of Sri Lankan schools as well as in other developing countries. Adhering to the process, probably, would help to overcome global ICT challenges in the schools' environment.

[3] Boitshwarelo B. Exploring blended learning for science teacher professional development in an African context. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed

Pedagogical and E-Learning Techniques for Quality Improvement of ICT Education

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[4] Chai CS, Koh JHL, Tsai CC. A review of technological pedagogical content knowledge.

[5] Commete UG. Teaching and Learning Quality. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of

[6] Reinhardt MM. The use of deep learning strategies in online business courses to impact

[7] Bagarukayo E, Weide T, Meijden H.An approach to learning by construction. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology.

[8] Healey M, Jenkins A. Kolb's experiential learning theory and its application in geogra-

[9] Hennessy S, Onguko B, Harrison D, Ang'ondi EK, Namalefe S, Naseem A, etal. Developing the use of information and communication technology to enhance teaching and learning in East African schools: Review of the literature. In: Research Report. Centre for Commonwealth Education & Aga Khan University Institute for Educational Development–

[10] Hinett K. Improving learning through reflection. The Higher Education Academy Retrie-

[12] Lai KW. Digital technology and the culture of teaching and learning in higher education.

[13] Mandal MK, Pandey R, Prasad AB. Facial expressions of emotions and schizophrenia: A

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[15] A comparative analysis of ICT integration and e-readiness. http://www.uis.unesco.org/

[16] Ololube NP, Ubogu AE, Egbezor DE. ICT and distance education programs in a sub-Saharan African country: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Information Technology Impact.

[17] Osman ME. Virtual tutoring: An online environment for scaffolding students' metacognitive problem solving expertise. Journal of Turkish Science Education. 2010;**7**(4):3 [18] Hennessy S, Harrison D, Wamakote L. Teacher factors influencing classroom use of ICT in sub-Saharan Africa. Itupale online. Journal of African Studies. 2010;**2**(1):39-54

student retention. American Journal of Business Education. 2010;**3**(12):49

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[11] Kolb DA. Experiential Learning. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs; 1984

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Hong Kong; 1996

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2007;**7**(3):181-194

### **Author details**

Mgnas Fernando

Address all correspondence to: nas@ucsc.cmb.ac.lk

University of Colombo School of Computing, Sri Lanka

### **References**


[3] Boitshwarelo B. Exploring blended learning for science teacher professional development in an African context. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning. 2009;**10**(4):1-19

**11. Conclusion**

in the schools' environment.

Address all correspondence to: nas@ucsc.cmb.ac.lk

University of Colombo School of Computing, Sri Lanka

[1] Riddell A. Factors influencing educational quality and effectiveness in developing countries: A review of research eschborn: Deutsche gesellschaft für technische zusammenar-

[2] Kolb AY, Kolb DA. Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2005;**4**(2):193-212

**Author details**

Mgnas Fernando

**References**

beit. GTZ; 2008

The proposed experimental application model contains a mixture of traditional educational pedagogies and modern blended learning technologies to address the issue regarding enhancement of quality ICT education in Sri Lanka. The model has proved that Bloom's taxonomy levels provide more skills enhancement to teachers as well as to students in an effective manner if it is blended with e-learning technologies. Further, the model reduces the complexity of the TLA process and helps in achieving learning outcomes. Incorporating features like Kolb's Reflective Learning Circle and other techniques such as activity-based learning and problem-based learning in different levels of Bloom's taxonomy has proved that more skills development of teachers and students can be achieved effectively compared to the existing methodologies. When the model was implemented, differences in performance levels of students in different schools were not noticed and this fact has been proved through the statistical analysis. It has also been proved that the proposed application model is suitable to enhance the quality of ICT education in Sri Lankan schools. Therefore, it can be concluded that the application model using a researchable framework could help improve the quality of ICT education and enhance the teaching, learning and assessment (TLA) process in Sri Lankan schools effectively. Hence, it is recommended that the proposed experimental model can be used first to train the teacher-trainers island-wide. However, once trained, teacher-trainers need to actively practice and sustain with their students what was newly learned. To conclude, the usage of the proposed framework would, undoubtedly, help to improve the existing methodologies along with pedagogical techniques and e-learning approaches in ICT education of Sri Lankan schools as well as in other developing countries. Adhering to the process, probably, would help to overcome global ICT challenges

20 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods


[19] What kind of pedagogies for the 21st century. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024 /002431/243126e.pdf

**Chapter 2**

**Provisional chapter**

**The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology**

**The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology** 

**Members and Pre-Service Teachers**

**Members and Pre-Service Teachers**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72886

Sani Alhaji Garba

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Sani Alhaji Garba

**Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty**

**Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72886

This chapter presents an instructional model that promotes and facilitates the changing role of both the learner and the teacher in a twenty-first century teaching-learning environment that is technology driven. The model provides a pedagogical approach that is student centred with the teacher assuming the role of a facilitator in the student learning process. Qualitative methods of data collection were used in collecting the data that were used in the development of the model. Document analysis and focus group interview were used for data collection at the preliminary stage of the study while developing the model. The model was tested for a period of 3 years. Interview and observation were used for data collection during and after the testing period. Document analysis was used in analysing the data collected from documents while content and thematic analysis were used in analysing the data collected from interviews and observations. Findings from the study indicated that the use of the model facilitates the development of inquiry skills, critical thinking and problem-solving skills among the pre-service teachers who participated in the study.

**Keywords:** technology integration, twenty-first century pedagogy, twenty-first century

Information technology (IT) has over the years made remarkable impact in the education industry at all level and in the world over as applicable to other sectors of the global economy [1]. Advancement in the IT sector has made the web a source of unlimited content for all subject disciplines that can be accessed anytime anywhere in the world over. This development has necessitated a shift in the role of teachers from that of being knowledge providers to that

teaching-learning environment, social sciences, changing role

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**Provisional chapter**

### **The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty Members and Pre-Service Teachers Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty Members and Pre-Service Teachers**

**The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72886

Sani Alhaji Garba Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Sani Alhaji Garba

[19] What kind of pedagogies for the 21st century. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024

[20] Digital Divide: The Technology Gap between the Rich and Poor; http://www.digitalresponsibility.org/digital-divide-the-technology-gap-between-rich-and-poor/

[21] Svinicki MD, Dixon NM. The Kolb model modified for classroom activities. College

[22] Westbrook J. Pedagogy, curriculum, teaching practices and teacher education in developing countries. Final report. Education rigorous literature review; 2013. http://eppi. ioe.ac.uk/cms/Portals/0/PDF%20reviews%20and%20summaries/Pedagogy%202013%20

[23] Fernando M, Ekanayake MB. Quality improvement of ICT education through pedagogical transformation–In the Sri Lankan Context. International Conference on Advance Education and Management[ICAEM2014]. Beijing, China: DESTech Publications Ins.;

/002431/243126e.pdf

Jan 2014;(1):14-21

Teaching. 1987;**35**(4):141-146

Westbrook%20report.pdf?ver=2014-04-24-121331-867

22 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72886

#### **Abstract**

This chapter presents an instructional model that promotes and facilitates the changing role of both the learner and the teacher in a twenty-first century teaching-learning environment that is technology driven. The model provides a pedagogical approach that is student centred with the teacher assuming the role of a facilitator in the student learning process. Qualitative methods of data collection were used in collecting the data that were used in the development of the model. Document analysis and focus group interview were used for data collection at the preliminary stage of the study while developing the model. The model was tested for a period of 3 years. Interview and observation were used for data collection during and after the testing period. Document analysis was used in analysing the data collected from documents while content and thematic analysis were used in analysing the data collected from interviews and observations. Findings from the study indicated that the use of the model facilitates the development of inquiry skills, critical thinking and problem-solving skills among the pre-service teachers who participated in the study.

**Keywords:** technology integration, twenty-first century pedagogy, twenty-first century teaching-learning environment, social sciences, changing role

### **1. Introduction**

Information technology (IT) has over the years made remarkable impact in the education industry at all level and in the world over as applicable to other sectors of the global economy [1]. Advancement in the IT sector has made the web a source of unlimited content for all subject disciplines that can be accessed anytime anywhere in the world over. This development has necessitated a shift in the role of teachers from that of being knowledge providers to that

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

of facilitating the process of accessing information to develop and construe knowledge by learners. Thus, teaching and learning is gradually becoming more students centred, activityoriented and inquiry-based. Teachers are now faced with the challenge of designing instructions that promote the use of student-centred pedagogy, encouraging students' inquiry as a base for knowledge construction. It has help to improve the process and quality of instructional delivery, learning and research, as well as facilitating access to educational products (knowledge, values and skills) and services to global community of learners, educational practitioners and the industry [2, 3]. Generally, educational practices and it products at all levels revolve round the use and dissemination of information relating to knowledge, values and skills development for the overall improvement of the human race as responsible citizens of a global society [4]. Innovative use of IT facilities in the education industry has made this process easier, faster and convenient. Educational practitioners can now collaborate globally with their peers in conducting researches and in instructional delivery as distance across the globe is no longer a barrier to communication of any nature.

can be formal (in a school setting with a well-structured curriculum) or informal (outside the school with no structured curriculum). In whatever form they exist, the two concepts are dynamic (changing over time and space in history). In the context of this work, we are particularly concern with the formal situation (that is instructional delivery in a school setting). Traditionally, instructional delivery in a school setting has to do with a face-to-face interaction between the teacher and the learner. In the process of such interaction, the teachers provide learners with information and explain relevant concepts, theories and processes that can help the learner acquire education in a given subject area. There are different ways, techniques and approaches to instructional delivery (pedagogy) that the teacher can use. Instructional delivery is a very complex process that requires careful planning and implementation; this has to do with the choice of pedagogical design and how it can be used to achieve instructional objectives. The choice of a pedagogical design for instructional delivery is largely influenced by the nature of the learning environment where the instructions would hold; nature of the subject content to be delivered and characteristics of the learners [17]. Thus, the teacher is expected to have a good knowledge of pedagogy, subject content and knowledge of educational psychology to be able to design and deliver a face-to-face classroom instruction. As a result of these, curriculum studies and educational psychology (theories of learning) in addition to knowledge of specific subject disciplines becomes the major knowledge domains of pre-service teacher education and training [18]. Knowledge of the interplay between subject content knowledge and knowledge of pedagogy in instructional design and delivery becomes additional knowledge domain known as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in teacher education [19, 20]. However, changes in the nature of the teaching-learning environment as influenced by the presence of information and communication technology (ICT) have made

The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty…

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25

the choice of pedagogy for instructional delivery a more complex process.

With computers and internet as new features that have come to stay in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment [21], knowledge of curriculum, educational psychology and pedagogical content knowledge are no longer enough in designing and delivering instructions using ICT [22, 23]. Knowledge of technology (use of ICT) is critically needed in pre-service teacher training and education in preparing teachers to teach in the computer and internet age [24]. This situation has made the TPACK (Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge) theory relevant for twenty-first century teacher education and training [25]. In addition to the knowledge of curriculum, educational psychology and pedagogical subject content [19] as core knowledge domains of teacher education, 'technology' is now added [22]. Adding technology to the core domains of teacher education has ushered in additional sub-domains of equal importance in teacher education; that is, technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and knowledge of the interplay of all the domains combined known as technological, pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK). The TPACK theory provides a framework that build on the Shulman theory by integrating the knowledge of technology into pedagogical practices and teacher education. The theory emerged as a result of the concern over the persistent criticism on the lack of theoretical framework and underpinnings for technology integration in educational practices. Driven by this concern, the theory attempts to capture the essential qualities of teacher knowledge required for technology integration in teaching. The framework provides a complex and

From nineteenth century to date, stakeholders of the education industry are continuing to provide educational institutions with information technology (IT) equipment of different nature to improve educational practices [5, 6]. Schools and institutions of higher learning are now equipped with computers and internet while students goes around using different kind of internet enabled devices (laptops and Smart Phones) as their learning tools [7, 8]. This development has revolutionised the process of teaching and learning in educational institutions making ICT an integral part of the teaching-learning process [9], thus ushering the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment that is technology driven [10]. The emerging twenty-first century teaching-learning environment has transformed the role of parties involved in teaching and learning [11, 12]. Learners are now actively involved in the process of building knowledge, whereas teachers mentor and facilitate the process of construing knowledge by learners [13]. Instructional objectives are now directed toward the development of skills for life-long learning and knowledge construction for problem solving and decision-making in a global economy [14]. New pedagogical designs to meet the demand of the twenty-first century learner and the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment are now fast emerging, and the process of instructional delivery is taking a new dimension [15, 16]. This chapter considered some theoretical underpinnings explaining the emergence of twenty-first century pedagogical designs and also present an instructional model for the attainment of twenty-first century instructional objectives in the arts and social sciences.

### **2. Theoretical considerations in the development of twenty-first century pedagogical designs**

The 'teaching-learning environment' (as referred in the context of this study) is a platform where learners acquire knowledge, values and skills (education) through instructional delivery. Instructional delivery on the other hand is the process of providing relevant information that can help the learner acquire knowledge, values and skills needed in problem-solving and decision-making. The two concepts ('teaching-learning environment' and 'instructional delivery') can be formal (in a school setting with a well-structured curriculum) or informal (outside the school with no structured curriculum). In whatever form they exist, the two concepts are dynamic (changing over time and space in history). In the context of this work, we are particularly concern with the formal situation (that is instructional delivery in a school setting). Traditionally, instructional delivery in a school setting has to do with a face-to-face interaction between the teacher and the learner. In the process of such interaction, the teachers provide learners with information and explain relevant concepts, theories and processes that can help the learner acquire education in a given subject area. There are different ways, techniques and approaches to instructional delivery (pedagogy) that the teacher can use. Instructional delivery is a very complex process that requires careful planning and implementation; this has to do with the choice of pedagogical design and how it can be used to achieve instructional objectives.

of facilitating the process of accessing information to develop and construe knowledge by learners. Thus, teaching and learning is gradually becoming more students centred, activityoriented and inquiry-based. Teachers are now faced with the challenge of designing instructions that promote the use of student-centred pedagogy, encouraging students' inquiry as a base for knowledge construction. It has help to improve the process and quality of instructional delivery, learning and research, as well as facilitating access to educational products (knowledge, values and skills) and services to global community of learners, educational practitioners and the industry [2, 3]. Generally, educational practices and it products at all levels revolve round the use and dissemination of information relating to knowledge, values and skills development for the overall improvement of the human race as responsible citizens of a global society [4]. Innovative use of IT facilities in the education industry has made this process easier, faster and convenient. Educational practitioners can now collaborate globally with their peers in conducting researches and in instructional delivery as distance across the

From nineteenth century to date, stakeholders of the education industry are continuing to provide educational institutions with information technology (IT) equipment of different nature to improve educational practices [5, 6]. Schools and institutions of higher learning are now equipped with computers and internet while students goes around using different kind of internet enabled devices (laptops and Smart Phones) as their learning tools [7, 8]. This development has revolutionised the process of teaching and learning in educational institutions making ICT an integral part of the teaching-learning process [9], thus ushering the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment that is technology driven [10]. The emerging twenty-first century teaching-learning environment has transformed the role of parties involved in teaching and learning [11, 12]. Learners are now actively involved in the process of building knowledge, whereas teachers mentor and facilitate the process of construing knowledge by learners [13]. Instructional objectives are now directed toward the development of skills for life-long learning and knowledge construction for problem solving and decision-making in a global economy [14]. New pedagogical designs to meet the demand of the twenty-first century learner and the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment are now fast emerging, and the process of instructional delivery is taking a new dimension [15, 16]. This chapter considered some theoretical underpinnings explaining the emergence of twenty-first century pedagogical designs and also present an instructional model for the attainment of twenty-first century instructional objectives in the arts and social sciences.

**2. Theoretical considerations in the development of twenty-first** 

The 'teaching-learning environment' (as referred in the context of this study) is a platform where learners acquire knowledge, values and skills (education) through instructional delivery. Instructional delivery on the other hand is the process of providing relevant information that can help the learner acquire knowledge, values and skills needed in problem-solving and decision-making. The two concepts ('teaching-learning environment' and 'instructional delivery')

**century pedagogical designs**

globe is no longer a barrier to communication of any nature.

24 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

The choice of a pedagogical design for instructional delivery is largely influenced by the nature of the learning environment where the instructions would hold; nature of the subject content to be delivered and characteristics of the learners [17]. Thus, the teacher is expected to have a good knowledge of pedagogy, subject content and knowledge of educational psychology to be able to design and deliver a face-to-face classroom instruction. As a result of these, curriculum studies and educational psychology (theories of learning) in addition to knowledge of specific subject disciplines becomes the major knowledge domains of pre-service teacher education and training [18]. Knowledge of the interplay between subject content knowledge and knowledge of pedagogy in instructional design and delivery becomes additional knowledge domain known as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in teacher education [19, 20]. However, changes in the nature of the teaching-learning environment as influenced by the presence of information and communication technology (ICT) have made the choice of pedagogy for instructional delivery a more complex process.

With computers and internet as new features that have come to stay in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment [21], knowledge of curriculum, educational psychology and pedagogical content knowledge are no longer enough in designing and delivering instructions using ICT [22, 23]. Knowledge of technology (use of ICT) is critically needed in pre-service teacher training and education in preparing teachers to teach in the computer and internet age [24]. This situation has made the TPACK (Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge) theory relevant for twenty-first century teacher education and training [25]. In addition to the knowledge of curriculum, educational psychology and pedagogical subject content [19] as core knowledge domains of teacher education, 'technology' is now added [22]. Adding technology to the core domains of teacher education has ushered in additional sub-domains of equal importance in teacher education; that is, technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and knowledge of the interplay of all the domains combined known as technological, pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK). The TPACK theory provides a framework that build on the Shulman theory by integrating the knowledge of technology into pedagogical practices and teacher education. The theory emerged as a result of the concern over the persistent criticism on the lack of theoretical framework and underpinnings for technology integration in educational practices. Driven by this concern, the theory attempts to capture the essential qualities of teacher knowledge required for technology integration in teaching. The framework provides a complex and new approach that is all embracing in pedagogical practices, teacher education and teacher training in line with societal reality of the present information age. The focus of the theory is on the complex role and interplay of 'content', 'pedagogy' and 'technology' in teacher education and general pedagogical practices. The framework for teacher education and training that emerges from the TPACK theory provides seven knowledge domains that are critically needed in training the teachers who can bear relevance to the emerging twenty-first century teaching-learning environment and the need of the twenty-first century learner. The seven knowledge domains are briefly explained below:

**a.** Knowledge of what the learner brings to the learning environment may be either facili-

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**b.** Knowledge of students learning strategies, prior conceptions (naïve and instructional).

**d.** Knowledge of possible misapplication of previous knowledge and learning experiences.

**b.** Knowledge and skills of using the internet; the ability and competence to use the tools

In teacher education programme, this implies the need for teacher educators to make provisions in their pedagogical practices that would help the pre-service teacher in acquiring this knowledge. However, because of the rapid changes of the advanced technologies, the structural framework for the provision of this knowledge to teachers and pre-service

**5.** *Technological Content Knowledge:* is a knowledge domain that entails the need for teachers understanding of how 'technology' relates to 'subject content' in pedagogical practices and how knowledge of the two can be integrated and utilised to advantage in pedagogical practices. It involves knowledge of how subject content can be changed or represented by

**6.** *Technological Pedagogical Knowledge:* is the knowledge of how particular technology can be effectively utilised in facilitating specific teaching-learning process and how instructional processes and pedagogical practices are likely to change as a result of using such technology. Thus, teachers and pre-service teachers need to know and understand that lots of digital tools exist that can be used in facilitating instructional delivery. Teachers should therefore have the skills and knowledge of selecting appropriate technological tools that can fit into particular pedagogical designs and can facilitate the attainment of instructional

**4.** *Technological Knowledge:* is the knowledge that teachers and pre-service teachers need to have about 'standard technology' and 'advanced' technology; particularly, those considered to have potential usability in educational practices. 'Standard Technology' as conceived in the TPACK framework refers to the conventional instructional materials such as the chalk board, books, pictures, manual projectors, posters and maps as used by teachers in traditional classroom settings. The 'Advanced Technologies' on the other hand is referred to the computer, internet, software and digital video (digital technology or modern

**c.** Knowledge of possible misconception that students may have on specific areas.

tative or dysfunctional to the learning activities at hand.

ICT). For the later, it implies the need for teachers to have:

and facilities in computer software/applications.

teachers need to be dynamic [22, 24].

goals and objectives. This would require: **a.** Knowledge of pedagogical strategies.

**c.** Knowledge and skills of software instillation and removal.

**d.** The ability to attach and remove computer peripheral devices.

the use and application of technology in classroom instructions.

**b.** Knowledge of technology and its application in educational practices.

**a.** Knowledge and skills of operating systems and computer hardware.

	- **a.** Knowledge and skills of operating systems and computer hardware.
	- **b.** Knowledge and skills of using the internet; the ability and competence to use the tools and facilities in computer software/applications.
	- **c.** Knowledge and skills of software instillation and removal.

new approach that is all embracing in pedagogical practices, teacher education and teacher training in line with societal reality of the present information age. The focus of the theory is on the complex role and interplay of 'content', 'pedagogy' and 'technology' in teacher education and general pedagogical practices. The framework for teacher education and training that emerges from the TPACK theory provides seven knowledge domains that are critically needed in training the teachers who can bear relevance to the emerging twenty-first century teaching-learning environment and the need of the twenty-first century learner. The seven

**1.** *Content Knowledge:* as conceived in the theory refers to the knowledge of the actual learning content, skills and values of specific subject discipline that is to be learned or taught. That is knowledge of the teaching subject in the case of pre-service teacher training. It implies the need for teachers (in the case of pedagogical practices) and pre-service teachers (in the case of teacher education and training) to have a proper and in-depth understanding of the subject (they teach or are to teach) as the case may be. This would include concepts, values, skills, theories and procedures within a specific subject discipline (teaching subject) [22]; knowledge of explanatory frameworks that organise and connect ideas and knowledge of the rules of evidence and proof [24]. It also entails the need to know and understand nature of inquiry and knowledge in other subject disciplines to be able to understand why and how a proof in maths, for example, would have to differ from that of historical explanations [24].

**2.** *Pedagogical Knowledge:* has to do with the need for teachers to have a proper understanding of teaching methods for instructional delivery as relate to the overall goal and values of education in society. This knowledge for the teacher is generic involving all issues relating to classroom learning; classroom management; development and implementation of lesson plan and the evaluation of students learning [22]. As applicable to this study, it entails the need for teacher educators to equip pre-service teachers with the necessary knowledge that would help them in understanding the: techniques and methods of classroom instruction; nature of the students in view (to teach) and the strategies of evaluating students' achievements in the learning process. As noted in literature, a teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge will have a good understanding of how students understand and construct knowledge; acquire skills and develop habits of mind and positive disposition toward learning [22]. As such, it requires an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental

**3.** *Pedagogical Content Knowledge:* as consistent to what Shulman in his theory conceived as 'knowledge of pedagogy' applicable to a particular subject discipline, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) entails knowing the appropriate teaching methods for specific (topics of the) learning contents and an understanding of how learning contents of subject disciplines can be arranged and rearranged to facilitate the process of classroom teaching and learning. It therefore involves: the development and representation of concepts, values and skills; pedagogical techniques; knowledge of what makes concepts, values and skills easy or difficult to understand and learn; knowledge of students background in the subject area and epistemological theories of the subject discipline. It requires teachers to have knowledge of teaching strategies that incorporates appropriate conceptual representations

theories of learning and how they are utilised in classroom situation.

to address learners' difficulties and misconceptions [22]. It involves:

knowledge domains are briefly explained below:

26 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

**d.** The ability to attach and remove computer peripheral devices.

In teacher education programme, this implies the need for teacher educators to make provisions in their pedagogical practices that would help the pre-service teacher in acquiring this knowledge. However, because of the rapid changes of the advanced technologies, the structural framework for the provision of this knowledge to teachers and pre-service teachers need to be dynamic [22, 24].

	- **a.** Knowledge of pedagogical strategies.
	- **b.** Knowledge of technology and its application in educational practices.

would have to consider the overall philosophy, goals and objectives of education of the nation as may be defined in the national policy on education [33]. This complex process of decision making as influenced by quite a number of interdependent considerations in the design of instructional delivery has necessitated the emergence of innovative pedagogical designs. Consequently, a number of instructional models guiding the application of the TPACK theory in different subject areas have emerged of recent. In this chapter, an instructional model guiding the use of TPACK in instructional designs for arts and social science education is presented

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The use of computer and internet in educational practices over the years has encouraged the changing role of teachers in the teaching-learning process. During the pre-computer and internet age, the teacher in a face-to-face classroom instruction is considered a source of knowledge for learners. The teacher who is expected to have a good mastery of the subject content of his discipline is expected to provide learners with information and explain concepts, theories and demonstrate procedures where applicable. The learner on the other hand is expected to sit, listen and watch the teacher to understand the information being provided by the teacher. The teacher in this process is the provider of knowledge. Teaching and learning is therefore teacher centred. The students rely on the teacher as the source of subject content for learning. The classroom in this system is a place for giving and receiving lectures. This approach to instructional delivery only appeals to the cognitive development of the learner and rely heavily on paper-pencil examination technique in evaluating learners achievement in the instructional process; thus, undermining the process of developing learners critical thinking skills and innovation. The traditional teacher-centred pedagogy as largely practiced lay emphasises on acquisition and retention of knowledge rather than on it application. With advanced information technologies deployed in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment, the

With computer, internet and the World Wide Web, learners no longer need to rely on the teacher for information on subject content. Learners can on their own access wide range of information for their learning anytime and anywhere on the web [34]. Learners now have unlimited access to learning content in word/pdf, video and audio formats. Students can chat, discuss and share learning resources through different online communication channels. With technology, learners have the information they need for their learning at their fingertips. With this development, the role of the teacher has to change from that of a knowledge provider and a source of information to that of a facilitator in the students learning process. The passive role of students listening to the teacher for learning content would also have to change. Learners would now have to be actively involved in the process of building and construing knowledge for themselves through the process of scientific inquiry: data collection, interpretation, analysis and interactive discussions. Interaction between teachers and learners would have to take a new direction. The classroom should no longer be a venue for lecture but a place where learners and teachers meet for reflection, critical discuss, problem solving, decision making

under the 'model of instruction for twenty-first century pedagogical design'.

**century teaching-learning environment**

situation is no longer the same.

**3. The changing role of teachers and learners in the twenty-first** 

	- **a.** the ability to integrate the six types of knowledge into a single knowledge base and framework that can be used for instructional delivery;
	- **b.** the ability to utilise the integrated knowledge base effectively in teaching-learning situation to facilitate the attainment of educational goals and objectives and
	- **c.** an understanding that the framework of teacher education training and general pedagogical practices in schools and colleges is likely to change as a result of this knowledge and its application in education.

This knowledge should form the foundation needed for technology-based instructional delivery in a twenty-first century teaching-learning environment [22]. The technical application of this knowledge in teaching-learning situations would require:


Instructional design and delivery in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment requires knowledge of TPACK [26]. The teacher would have to consider the instructional objectives to be achieved in the instruction as stated in the curriculum in relation to the peculiar nature of the learners to be taught [27]. This consideration should guide the teacher in his selection of the learning content to be delivered [28]. The teacher would have to make a decision on what teaching method (pedagogy) to be used in delivering the selected learning content [29]. This decision should be influenced by the learning objectives to be achieved, nature of the learning content and characteristics of the learners [30]. Then, select suitable technologies that can on one hand facilitate the delivery of the instruction and, on the other hand, facilitate learning [31]. The choice of technology to be used has to be influenced as well by the nature of instructional objectives to be achieved, characteristics of the learners to be taught, nature of the subject content to be delivered and the pedagogy to be deployed [32]. Above all, the teacher would have to consider the overall philosophy, goals and objectives of education of the nation as may be defined in the national policy on education [33]. This complex process of decision making as influenced by quite a number of interdependent considerations in the design of instructional delivery has necessitated the emergence of innovative pedagogical designs. Consequently, a number of instructional models guiding the application of the TPACK theory in different subject areas have emerged of recent. In this chapter, an instructional model guiding the use of TPACK in instructional designs for arts and social science education is presented under the 'model of instruction for twenty-first century pedagogical design'.

### **3. The changing role of teachers and learners in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment**

**c.** Knowledge and skills of integrating the two in instructional practices.

28 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

framework that can be used for instructional delivery;

this knowledge in teaching-learning situations would require:

**d.** The knowledge of epistemological theories.

technology for content delivery in classroom instruction.

and its application in education.

room situations.

room learning.

**d.** Application of the integrated knowledge for specific instructional delivery in class-

**7.** *Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge:* is all embracing of the six knowledge domains identified above. It is an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond all the three major components of teacher education. It differs from knowledge of a subject discipline, knowledge of technology and also from general pedagogical knowledge shared by teachers across disciplines [22]. It requires the need of not only understanding the six types of knowledge identified above as being necessary in teacher education and pedagogical practices, but also:

**a.** the ability to integrate the six types of knowledge into a single knowledge base and

**b.** the ability to utilise the integrated knowledge base effectively in teaching-learning situ-

**c.** an understanding that the framework of teacher education training and general pedagogical practices in schools and colleges is likely to change as a result of this knowledge

This knowledge should form the foundation needed for technology-based instructional delivery in a twenty-first century teaching-learning environment [22]. The technical application of

**b.** The knowledge of pedagogical strategies that accommodates the innovative use of

**c.** The knowledge of students learning process, what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can be used in addressing such learning difficulties in class-

**e.** Knowledge and application of technology in developing epistemological theories. Instructional design and delivery in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment requires knowledge of TPACK [26]. The teacher would have to consider the instructional objectives to be achieved in the instruction as stated in the curriculum in relation to the peculiar nature of the learners to be taught [27]. This consideration should guide the teacher in his selection of the learning content to be delivered [28]. The teacher would have to make a decision on what teaching method (pedagogy) to be used in delivering the selected learning content [29]. This decision should be influenced by the learning objectives to be achieved, nature of the learning content and characteristics of the learners [30]. Then, select suitable technologies that can on one hand facilitate the delivery of the instruction and, on the other hand, facilitate learning [31]. The choice of technology to be used has to be influenced as well by the nature of instructional objectives to be achieved, characteristics of the learners to be taught, nature of the subject content to be delivered and the pedagogy to be deployed [32]. Above all, the teacher

ation to facilitate the attainment of educational goals and objectives and

**a.** The knowledge and skills of concept representations using technology.

The use of computer and internet in educational practices over the years has encouraged the changing role of teachers in the teaching-learning process. During the pre-computer and internet age, the teacher in a face-to-face classroom instruction is considered a source of knowledge for learners. The teacher who is expected to have a good mastery of the subject content of his discipline is expected to provide learners with information and explain concepts, theories and demonstrate procedures where applicable. The learner on the other hand is expected to sit, listen and watch the teacher to understand the information being provided by the teacher. The teacher in this process is the provider of knowledge. Teaching and learning is therefore teacher centred. The students rely on the teacher as the source of subject content for learning. The classroom in this system is a place for giving and receiving lectures. This approach to instructional delivery only appeals to the cognitive development of the learner and rely heavily on paper-pencil examination technique in evaluating learners achievement in the instructional process; thus, undermining the process of developing learners critical thinking skills and innovation. The traditional teacher-centred pedagogy as largely practiced lay emphasises on acquisition and retention of knowledge rather than on it application. With advanced information technologies deployed in the twenty-first century teaching-learning environment, the situation is no longer the same.

With computer, internet and the World Wide Web, learners no longer need to rely on the teacher for information on subject content. Learners can on their own access wide range of information for their learning anytime and anywhere on the web [34]. Learners now have unlimited access to learning content in word/pdf, video and audio formats. Students can chat, discuss and share learning resources through different online communication channels. With technology, learners have the information they need for their learning at their fingertips. With this development, the role of the teacher has to change from that of a knowledge provider and a source of information to that of a facilitator in the students learning process. The passive role of students listening to the teacher for learning content would also have to change. Learners would now have to be actively involved in the process of building and construing knowledge for themselves through the process of scientific inquiry: data collection, interpretation, analysis and interactive discussions. Interaction between teachers and learners would have to take a new direction. The classroom should no longer be a venue for lecture but a place where learners and teachers meet for reflection, critical discuss, problem solving, decision making and to work on learning projects. The instructional model presented in the next section after the methodology should help teachers to assume their proper role as facilitators of students learning process in instructional delivery that is students centred, inquiry-based, project and problem-solving oriented.

did not provide the model of application for instructional delivery at the pre-service teacher training level or for subject disciplines at the school level. The researcher's interpretation of document content of published research findings relating to technology integration reveals that not much of the technologies provided in schools and institutions of higher learning are being effectively used in instructional delivery. It also reveals that technology integration in educational practices at all levels of learning is faced with varying challenges that differ over time and space. Interpretations of the content of the second category of documents analysed in this study reveal that teachers at all level are encouraged by the curriculum documents to shift away from the use of teacher-centred pedagogy to learner-centred pedagogy. The documents encourage teachers to develop skills of critical thinking, inquiry and problem solving among learners. But on the contrary, analysis of documents in category three shows that the use of teacher-centred pedagogical approach is still a dominant practice in schools and among faculty members. Teachers and faculty members still prefer the use of traditional lecture and demonstration approach at most using power point slides. Based on these interpretations, the researcher find justification to uphold the basic assumptions earlier developed to guide this study. Meaning that, there are justifications based on the document analysis conducted to develop technology integration instructional model for specific subject disciplines. Instructional models that can help teachers to assume the role of facilitators and learners to be actively involved in the process of building knowledge by themselves through inquiry and

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Focus group interviews were conducted at the second phase of the study. Focus group interview is a method of data collection in qualitative research. The method allows the researcher to interact with all the selected participants as a group to discuss over issues of interest to the researcher. Such an interaction of the researcher and members of the focus group can be faceto-face or online as may be preferred. Members of the group can listen and make comments on each other's response to the questions raised. This approach encourages free flow of ideas, and each idea presented is shaped by the critique of others in the group. In this study, eight (8) participants were selected for the focus group interview using purposive sampling technique. All the selected participants are faculty members from two different universities. Two of the participants are faculty members in the Department of Arts Education; two from the Department of Social Sciences Education; two from the Department of Multimedia Education and two others from the Department of Educational Technology and Instructional Design. Four focus group interview sessions were conducted at weekly intervals. The four interview sessions were moderated by the researcher and lasted for about two to two and half hours each. The objective of the first focus group interview session was to generate data that can help the researcher to develop an instructional framework for Arts and Social Science subject disciplines where the teacher would only be a facilitator in the teaching-learning process. During the interview session, a research assistant was employed to write down the ideas presented. The transcribed ideas generated during this interview was later reviewed, interpreted and coded into themes. The second interview session was scheduled a week later. During the second interview session, the researcher presented an instructional framework that was developed from the ideas presented by the group during the first interview session. The group examines the framework presented and made further observations on how it can

project-based learning in the instructional process.

### **4. Methodology**

Qualitative research approach using documentation, interviews and observations were used as sources of data collection for this study sequentially. Documentation in a qualitative research design has to do with document analysis where the researcher identify, review, analyse and interpret or make meaning out of relevant documents for specific reasons. Such reasons may be for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding of issues or situations under investigations; to clarify issues of interest; verify an assumption or to provide evidence that can help in answering research questions as may be applicable. In the case of this study, document analysis was used to verify the basic assumptions that provided the justification needed for this study. At the preliminary stage of the study, existing documents on theories of educational technology, theories of instructional designs and research findings relating to technology integration in educational practices were reviewed and analysed using 'content and thematic analysis'. Content and thematic analysis of documents has to do with critical review of documents and coding the content of the documents into themes and subsequent interpretation of the themes based on the understanding of the researcher. Three types of documents were analysed at the preliminary stage of this study. The first category of documents analysed was published articles in learned journals relating to technology integration in educational practices, theories of educational technology and instructional design. The second category of documents analysed is public documents available in schools, colleges of education and universities. Such documents provide information on curriculum content, the approved scheme of work for instructional delivery for the curriculum content; instructional objectives to be achieved and the recommended instructional strategy and resources to be employed in the instructional delivery process. Personal documents of school teachers and faculty members are the third category of documents analysed. The documents in this category provide the researcher with information about the kind of instructional strategy and resources that teachers and faculty members used in their instructional approach. Content of the three types of documents mentioned above was critically reviewed, interpreted and coded into emerging themes by the researcher.

Interpretations made by the researcher on the first category of documents analysed reveal that there are in existence quite a lot of varying theories of educational technology and instructional designs. However, detailed explanation and procedure of how such theories can be applied in instructional delivery for specific subject disciplines (particularly in the Arts and Social Sciences) in relation to specific curriculum content are needed. For example, the TPACK theory as discussed in item 2 in Section 2 provided a general justification for the inclusion of educational technology as a core component of teacher education domain to facilitate preservice teachers' preparation for the use of technology in educational practices. But the theory did not provide the model of application for instructional delivery at the pre-service teacher training level or for subject disciplines at the school level. The researcher's interpretation of document content of published research findings relating to technology integration reveals that not much of the technologies provided in schools and institutions of higher learning are being effectively used in instructional delivery. It also reveals that technology integration in educational practices at all levels of learning is faced with varying challenges that differ over time and space. Interpretations of the content of the second category of documents analysed in this study reveal that teachers at all level are encouraged by the curriculum documents to shift away from the use of teacher-centred pedagogy to learner-centred pedagogy. The documents encourage teachers to develop skills of critical thinking, inquiry and problem solving among learners. But on the contrary, analysis of documents in category three shows that the use of teacher-centred pedagogical approach is still a dominant practice in schools and among faculty members. Teachers and faculty members still prefer the use of traditional lecture and demonstration approach at most using power point slides. Based on these interpretations, the researcher find justification to uphold the basic assumptions earlier developed to guide this study. Meaning that, there are justifications based on the document analysis conducted to develop technology integration instructional model for specific subject disciplines. Instructional models that can help teachers to assume the role of facilitators and learners to be actively involved in the process of building knowledge by themselves through inquiry and project-based learning in the instructional process.

and to work on learning projects. The instructional model presented in the next section after the methodology should help teachers to assume their proper role as facilitators of students learning process in instructional delivery that is students centred, inquiry-based, project and

30 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Qualitative research approach using documentation, interviews and observations were used as sources of data collection for this study sequentially. Documentation in a qualitative research design has to do with document analysis where the researcher identify, review, analyse and interpret or make meaning out of relevant documents for specific reasons. Such reasons may be for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding of issues or situations under investigations; to clarify issues of interest; verify an assumption or to provide evidence that can help in answering research questions as may be applicable. In the case of this study, document analysis was used to verify the basic assumptions that provided the justification needed for this study. At the preliminary stage of the study, existing documents on theories of educational technology, theories of instructional designs and research findings relating to technology integration in educational practices were reviewed and analysed using 'content and thematic analysis'. Content and thematic analysis of documents has to do with critical review of documents and coding the content of the documents into themes and subsequent interpretation of the themes based on the understanding of the researcher. Three types of documents were analysed at the preliminary stage of this study. The first category of documents analysed was published articles in learned journals relating to technology integration in educational practices, theories of educational technology and instructional design. The second category of documents analysed is public documents available in schools, colleges of education and universities. Such documents provide information on curriculum content, the approved scheme of work for instructional delivery for the curriculum content; instructional objectives to be achieved and the recommended instructional strategy and resources to be employed in the instructional delivery process. Personal documents of school teachers and faculty members are the third category of documents analysed. The documents in this category provide the researcher with information about the kind of instructional strategy and resources that teachers and faculty members used in their instructional approach. Content of the three types of documents mentioned above was critically reviewed, interpreted and coded

Interpretations made by the researcher on the first category of documents analysed reveal that there are in existence quite a lot of varying theories of educational technology and instructional designs. However, detailed explanation and procedure of how such theories can be applied in instructional delivery for specific subject disciplines (particularly in the Arts and Social Sciences) in relation to specific curriculum content are needed. For example, the TPACK theory as discussed in item 2 in Section 2 provided a general justification for the inclusion of educational technology as a core component of teacher education domain to facilitate preservice teachers' preparation for the use of technology in educational practices. But the theory

problem-solving oriented.

into emerging themes by the researcher.

**4. Methodology**

Focus group interviews were conducted at the second phase of the study. Focus group interview is a method of data collection in qualitative research. The method allows the researcher to interact with all the selected participants as a group to discuss over issues of interest to the researcher. Such an interaction of the researcher and members of the focus group can be faceto-face or online as may be preferred. Members of the group can listen and make comments on each other's response to the questions raised. This approach encourages free flow of ideas, and each idea presented is shaped by the critique of others in the group. In this study, eight (8) participants were selected for the focus group interview using purposive sampling technique. All the selected participants are faculty members from two different universities. Two of the participants are faculty members in the Department of Arts Education; two from the Department of Social Sciences Education; two from the Department of Multimedia Education and two others from the Department of Educational Technology and Instructional Design. Four focus group interview sessions were conducted at weekly intervals. The four interview sessions were moderated by the researcher and lasted for about two to two and half hours each. The objective of the first focus group interview session was to generate data that can help the researcher to develop an instructional framework for Arts and Social Science subject disciplines where the teacher would only be a facilitator in the teaching-learning process. During the interview session, a research assistant was employed to write down the ideas presented. The transcribed ideas generated during this interview was later reviewed, interpreted and coded into themes. The second interview session was scheduled a week later. During the second interview session, the researcher presented an instructional framework that was developed from the ideas presented by the group during the first interview session. The group examines the framework presented and made further observations on how it can be improved. The group suggested that each instructional activity in the framework should have a clear objective. Members of the group provided ideas on what should be the objective for each instructional activity in the framework. The research assistant was writing down the ideas presented. The session lasted for two and half hours. The transcribed data generated were sorted out, interpreted and coded into themes by the researcher after the session. The third interview session focuses on generating ideas on what kind of technology to be used for each instructional activity in the framework and how the framework can be tested. The session lasted for 2 hours. The fourth focus group interview session also scheduled a week thereafter lasted for 2 hours. The objectives of the last focus group interview was to generate ideas that can help the researcher in designing and developing an observation checklist and an interview protocol to be used for data collection during and after the testing period. The data collected during the third and fourth focus group interview sessions were also transcribed, sorted, interpreted and coded into themes. Thus, the ASSIM Model presented in the next section was developed from the ideas generated during the focus group interview sessions.

**5. Model of instruction for twenty-first century pedagogical design**

technology in the teaching-learning process.

The presence of information technology in our institutions of learning has transformed educational practices in its totality. Education in general is now geared toward preparing the learner for global citizenship [35]. To achieve this, the education industry is now directing its effort toward the development of life-long learning skills [36], critical thinking skills and reasoning [37, 38], skills of informed decision-making and problem-solving skills [39]. The Arts and Social Sciences Instructional Model (ASSIM) presented in **Figure 1** is designed to facilitate the design and development of twenty-first century pedagogy that caters for the changing role of the teacher, the learner, the learning environment and the use of information

The Use of the ASSIM Model for Technology Integration in Instructional Delivery by Faculty…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72886

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The ASSIM model of instruction presented in **Figure 1** is suitable for twenty-first century teaching-learning environment that is technology-driven as influenced by the philosophy

**Figure 1.** Arts and Social Science Instructional Model (ASSIM) for twenty-first century teaching-learning environment.

The ASSIM Model was tested for a period of 3 years—2014, 2015 and 2016—by faculty members. It was used in teacher education instructional delivery in the Arts and Social Sciences in four Colleges of Education. One week workshop on how to use the model was organised for the faculty members (in the department of Arts and Social Sciences Education) that tested the model in pre-service teacher training. Thirty-four faculty members attended the training workshop; 8 of the 34 faculty members who attended the training workshop adopt the use of the model for instructional delivery in their teaching. The pre-service teachers who participated in the testing of the model were randomly selected. Observation checklist and interview protocol earlier developed from the data generated during the focus group interview sessions explained above were used in collecting data during and after the testing period. The observation checklist was used during the testing period to observe how faculty members apply and use the ASSIM model in their instructional delivery. The observation checklist was also used after the testing period to observe how pre-service teachers apply and use the ASSIM model during their 1-year teaching practice assessment period. The interview protocol was used in collecting additional data from the participating pre-service teachers at the end of the testing period. Eight (8) pre-service teachers were randomly selected for the interview. Four of the pre-service teachers (two males and two females) were selected from the Department of Arts Education. The other four of the pre-service teachers (two males and two females) were selected from the Department of Social Science Education. The transcribed data collected from the observations checklist were sorted, interpreted and coded into themes. The orally recorded data collected from the interviews were transcribed, sorted, interpreted and coded into themes. Based on the interpretation of the researcher, findings from the data collected and analysed show that the use of the ASSIM instructional model in pre-service teacher training facilitates: 1. development of inquiry skills; 2. development of critical thinking skills; 3. development of problem-solving skills and 4. the use of information technology in teaching among the pre-service teachers who participated in this study during their teaching practice. The researcher considered the four items listed above as the emerging themes of the study to be presented and discussed in detail as findings of the study in Section 6 of this article.
