**7. Characteristics of pedagogical technologies**

Pedagogy is closely interrelated with many other branches of scientific knowledge, *ethics and* 

Speaking about the relationship of pedagogy with other sciences, it is impossible not to notice its responsive influence on them. For example, theoretical ideas about the role of educational collective in the formation of personality, fundamentally developed in pedagogy, have had and continue to have an impact on development of research on this problem in psychology,

One of the important problems needed to be solved when mastering pedagogical knowledge is understanding the correlation of pedagogical science and practice. This is especially important in connection with a *significant expansion in modern conditions of areas of manifestations of pedagogical practice* and a clear increase in the impact of pedagogy on various spheres of

Today, the scientific status of pedagogy is no longer questioned. The dispute turned into a plane of correlation with practice. Actual achievements of teachers become too ambiguous. In one case, they are conditioned by deep knowledge and skillful application of the theory; in another case, success is brought by the high personal skill of a teacher and the art of pedagogical influence and interaction, intuition, and instinct. There is not always a consistency between pedagogical theory and practice. It should also be taken into account that the development of pedagogy does not automatically ensure quality of upbringing and education. The

It should be noticed that *at present*, *pedagogy is rapidly progressing*. In recent decades, tangible progress has been made in a number of its areas, especially in development of new learning

There is another problem related to the scientific status of pedagogy. Many theorists, following the principles of classification of sciences proposed by the German philosophers Windelband (1848–1915) and Rickert (1863–1936), refer pedagogy to the so-called normative sciences. This is due to the content of knowledge in pedagogy. By now, many pedagogical laws have been expressing the most general tendencies in the development of pedagogical phenomena. For example, the law reflecting dependence of development of a personality on a social environment is multifactorial and, due to this, is ambiguously interpreted by various pedagogical schools. Thus, the sociogenic direction absolutizes the role of the social environ-

Representatives of the biogenic direction in pedagogy, on the contrary, give priority to devel-

In contrast to the above extreme positions, pedagogy should justify the dialectical unity of the social environment and the genetic, natural data of a personality in the process of its

opment of personality to heredity rather than to the social environment.

theory to be transformed into appropriate technologies is necessary.

*esthetics*, *rhetoric*, *ethnography*, *ethnology*, *management*, etc.

204 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

philosophy, ethics, sociology, management, etc.

**6. Connection of pedagogy with practice**

human activity and communication.

ment in development of a personality.

technologies.

development.

Technology (from the Greek *techne*—art, skill, ability) is a set of techniques and methods of obtaining, processing, and reprocessing of raw materials and finished materials.

Since the early 1960s, the concept of "pedagogical technology" has spread. The reason for its emergence was the attempts to bring education to a qualitatively new level in the conditions of scientific and technological progress. Initially, the technologization of education was associated mainly with application of new technical means of teaching. However, today pedagogical technology is not just a set of organizational forms and methods for application of various teaching means but also research aimed at identifying principles of development and finding ways to optimize the educational process, applying new methods and developing educational materials and technical means of teaching.

In 1986, the UNESCO's formulation was given.

Pedagogical technology is a systematic method of planning, applying, and evaluating the entire process of learning and mastering knowledge by taking into account human and technical resources, as well as interaction between them to achieve a more effective form of education.

• Learning goals should be specific and measurable.

• Operations form a complete process to achieve a goal.

out, creativity of a teacher cannot and should not be excluded.

*Training technologies can be classified according to the following parameters:*

Freedom of the teacher is possible in the range of actions that provides approximation to goals. Since implementation of technology is influenced by many variables related to characteristics of teachers and students, or conditions, in which the pedagogical process is carried

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It is supposed in any technology both at the stage of its creation and its implementation.

Progress constantly makes its own adjustments, including adjustments into educational activities as well. Newly created forms, methods, training means, and elements of an educationalmaterial base potentially have significant opportunities to improve efficiency and quality of training of specialists. Such innovations have determined a new type of learning technologies,

Innovation in pedagogy is considered development, creation, and introduction of various types of novelties and innovations that generate essential or significant changes in the quality

Qualitative parameters may differ, depending on the types of pedagogical innovation, which are modernizing and reforming. In the first case, this means improvement of the educational process due to improvement of the qualitative parameters of the existing elements of technology and, in the second case, application of innovations radically changing the system of

Innovative training technologies in comparison with traditional technologies allow improving quality and efficiency of the educational process. This is performed on the basis of changing learning objectives, role positions, and functions of a teacher and students, specifics of organization of educational and cognitive activities, and forms of educational interactions.

Developing or applying already-tested training technologies in the system of higher education, it is important to proceed from the fact that the educational process should be built so that future specialists learn to acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities on their own and form

the integral psychological structure of future professional activity [1, 4, 6, 8].

• Pedagogical operations are reproducible.

• Teacher's subjectivity is minimized.

• By the object of impact

• By the methodical task

the innovative ones.

conducting a lesson.

• By the subject environment • By the means being applied

• By the organization of training activities

parameters of the educational process.

In general, pedagogical technologies are classified as follows: technology of education, upbringing, and development.

Training technologies can be divided into learning and self-learning technologies.

The process of implementing the content of the technology, prescribed by curricula, which is a system of forms, methods, techniques, and means of teaching ensuring the most effective achievement of the goals set is understood under the *training technology*.

Preparation for each lesson requires a lot of hard work from its supervisor and presupposes creation of the very technology. In turn, *creation of technology for conducting a lesson is associated with a certain sequence of actions, which can be represented in the form of the following algorithm*:

	- Organization of selection and structuring of educational material
	- Selection of arguments, evidence, examples, and definition of tasks and goals on formation of skills and abilities
	- Selection of a form of conducting a lesson
	- Selection of the most rational methods of teaching that should be used during a lesson
	- Selection of training and educational equipment
	- Selection of methods for activating students' educational and cognitive activities

According to the mentioned classification, let us consider an example of formation of a technology for conducting an academic lesson.

The initial stage is characterized by the need to analyze the content of the training prescribed by the documents on organization of academic work. Based on the findings, the goals that need to be given priority in the educational process are determined. In accordance with the goals determined, the didactic processing of the content is carried out, ensuring their achievement in the aggregate or due to the priority implementation of one of them.

The listed data forms the basis of the technology being developed.

Thus, the *training technology* is a system of activities for organization and implementation of the learning process, prescribing a certain sequence of actions and achievement of certain goals. It is characterized by the following parameters:


Pedagogical technology is a systematic method of planning, applying, and evaluating the entire process of learning and mastering knowledge by taking into account human and technical resources, as well as interaction between them to achieve a more effective form of

In general, pedagogical technologies are classified as follows: technology of education,

The process of implementing the content of the technology, prescribed by curricula, which is a system of forms, methods, techniques, and means of teaching ensuring the most effective

Preparation for each lesson requires a lot of hard work from its supervisor and presupposes creation of the very technology. In turn, *creation of technology for conducting a lesson is associated with a certain sequence of actions, which can be represented in the form of the following algorithm*:

**1.** *Analysis and formulation of educational goals*. Whereupon, both the ultimate goals of the ped-

**2.** *Selection of a concept of learning*, which will serve as the basis for organizing training activi-

• Selection of arguments, evidence, examples, and definition of tasks and goals on for-

• Selection of the most rational methods of teaching that should be used during a lesson

• Selection of methods for activating students' educational and cognitive activities

According to the mentioned classification, let us consider an example of formation of a tech-

The initial stage is characterized by the need to analyze the content of the training prescribed by the documents on organization of academic work. Based on the findings, the goals that need to be given priority in the educational process are determined. In accordance with the goals determined, the didactic processing of the content is carried out, ensuring their achieve-

Thus, the *training technology* is a system of activities for organization and implementation of the learning process, prescribing a certain sequence of actions and achievement of certain

**3.** *Actual creation of a training technology*. This stage includes a certain sequence of actions:

Training technologies can be divided into learning and self-learning technologies.

achievement of the goals set is understood under the *training technology*.

206 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

agogical process and the goals of the specific lesson should be analyzed.

• Organization of selection and structuring of educational material

ment in the aggregate or due to the priority implementation of one of them.

The listed data forms the basis of the technology being developed.

goals. It is characterized by the following parameters:

education.

upbringing, and development.

ties in the course of a lesson.

mation of skills and abilities

nology for conducting an academic lesson.

• Selection of a form of conducting a lesson

• Selection of training and educational equipment

Freedom of the teacher is possible in the range of actions that provides approximation to goals. Since implementation of technology is influenced by many variables related to characteristics of teachers and students, or conditions, in which the pedagogical process is carried out, creativity of a teacher cannot and should not be excluded.

It is supposed in any technology both at the stage of its creation and its implementation.

*Training technologies can be classified according to the following parameters:*


Progress constantly makes its own adjustments, including adjustments into educational activities as well. Newly created forms, methods, training means, and elements of an educationalmaterial base potentially have significant opportunities to improve efficiency and quality of training of specialists. Such innovations have determined a new type of learning technologies, the innovative ones.

Innovation in pedagogy is considered development, creation, and introduction of various types of novelties and innovations that generate essential or significant changes in the quality parameters of the educational process.

Qualitative parameters may differ, depending on the types of pedagogical innovation, which are modernizing and reforming. In the first case, this means improvement of the educational process due to improvement of the qualitative parameters of the existing elements of technology and, in the second case, application of innovations radically changing the system of conducting a lesson.

Innovative training technologies in comparison with traditional technologies allow improving quality and efficiency of the educational process. This is performed on the basis of changing learning objectives, role positions, and functions of a teacher and students, specifics of organization of educational and cognitive activities, and forms of educational interactions.

Developing or applying already-tested training technologies in the system of higher education, it is important to proceed from the fact that the educational process should be built so that future specialists learn to acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities on their own and form the integral psychological structure of future professional activity [1, 4, 6, 8].

#### **7.1. Innovative training technologies**

Next, consider the basic innovative training technologies. They include design and creative technologies, technologies of the developmental learning, computer training technologies, and technologies of distant and modular training.

level of complexity on an actual fragment of knowledge, which creates conditions for realization of the model of complete assimilation. Actually, the structure of the material essentially differs from the traditional one, the formal one predetermined by logic of the corresponding science. In the project and creative models, communication in the teaching material is established according to principles of the hierarchy of the material world and logic of common sense. Deployment of the system of concepts is performed in the dynamics of project activity. In such technologies, the role of a teacher also changes. He ceases to be "the sole custodian of truth and knowledge," from a mentor turns into a project manager, a colleague, and a consultant. In this case, authoritarian pedagogy is replaced by the principles of cooperation and

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The theory of the developmental learning is equally important in practice. The theory of the developmental learning originates in the works of J.H. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterweg, and K.D. Ushinsky. Its scientific justification was given by L.S. Vygotsky. The theory was further developed in the works of L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, N.A. Menchinskaya, and others. In their concepts, education and development are represented as a system of dialectically interconnected aspects of a single process. Learning is recognized as a driving force behind a person's mental development and formation of totality of personal qualities in it.

Currently, a number of technologies have been developed that differ in their target orientations, content, and methodology peculiarities. Most of them are designed to teach school students, but they are also being actively introduced into institutional pedagogy. Thus, the

The key element of this technology is a comprehensive study of a personality, which is carried out by special methods and is intended not only to determine the initial level of intellectual development but also to determine the psychological characteristics of a personality, as well as leading strategies and styles of thinking. These data are further used to form optimized technological learning structures, as well as for the psychological support of the educational process, the main tasks of which are development of cognitive abilities of students, mastering of productive methods of educational activity by them, which best correspond to their per-

**1.** *Acquisition, recognition, and familiarity*. In educational practice, this level is designated by the categories "to be acquainted" and "to have a notion." A student should be able to identify an object (a phenomenon), give its qualitative description, formulate characteristic

**2.** *Copying and reproduction*. This level corresponds to the requirement "to know," implying the ability to reproduce the educational material with a specified degree of accuracy, to formulate and write down a law and definition, and to describe events and processes with

**3.** *Understanding* presupposes the ability to emphasize underlying cause-effect relationships

properties, and indicate its relation to objects (phenomena) of the same kind.

support that fit organically into this technological model.

concept of continuity and integrity of education is realized.

sonality types and development of reflexive abilities.

sufficient completeness.

The following levels of knowledge mastering are distinguished:

in a structure of information, to present it in various forms.

The basis of design and creative technologies is creative activity of students in the process of scientific research, solution of scientific and technical problems, and development of specific projects. The base of such technologies is a personality-activity approach, according to which education is not only assimilation of knowledge but also the ways of such assimilation, development of cognitive forces, and creative potential of students.

Within the project-constructive system, the activity of creating something new and the personality of a student come first, whereupon, its personal responsibility for the results of its developments and project implementation are focused.

Knowledge, skills, and abilities in such a system are considered not as a learning goal but as a means of developing a student and formation of a methodological style of thinking. As the main goal, the task of development of a personality, preparation for functioning, life activity in conditions of a technological society is put at the forefront. This goal is realized by development of abilities and acquisition of practical experience of self-education, creative professional activity, and improvement of personal responsibility for created and implemented actual projects into educational and life situations.

In this technological model, content of training is substantially changed. Unlike the formalized system of knowledge presented in the final form in traditional educational technologies, when implementing a design and constructive approach, instead of memorizing theories, laws, and formulas, special attention is paid to development of the ability to solve all kinds of theoretical and practical tasks and problems. The processes of design, modeling, research, and construction of various objects and processes are put on the first place. In this case, knowledge is systematized and structured in accordance with the hierarchy of cognizable objects and processes. A student should have open access to them through a database, reference book, or textbook and assimilate them in the context of the processes of design, modeling, construction, or research. The structure of presentation of educational information should be such that a student could trace the history of origin of this knowledge, not only in chronological order but also as a result of resolution of contradictions. Thus, in this model, knowledge becomes a means rather than an object of personal development.

Unlike traditional technologies with the dominance of memorization, whose effectiveness is affected by the content, form, difficulty, relevance, and volume of educational material, in the design and creative models, the basic mechanism is involuntary memorization, which, in combination with practical activity, can provide more solid, well-structured knowledge. In addition, the design and creative technology increases the degree of meaningfulness of the educational material due to the clarity, concreteness, and minimality of formulation of each project task.

Usually, the difficulty of the learning material is focused on an average student. The proposed educational environment provides an opportunity for each of them to establish their own level of complexity on an actual fragment of knowledge, which creates conditions for realization of the model of complete assimilation. Actually, the structure of the material essentially differs from the traditional one, the formal one predetermined by logic of the corresponding science. In the project and creative models, communication in the teaching material is established according to principles of the hierarchy of the material world and logic of common sense. Deployment of the system of concepts is performed in the dynamics of project activity.

**7.1. Innovative training technologies**

and technologies of distant and modular training.

opment of cognitive forces, and creative potential of students.

208 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

developments and project implementation are focused.

actual projects into educational and life situations.

means rather than an object of personal development.

each project task.

Next, consider the basic innovative training technologies. They include design and creative technologies, technologies of the developmental learning, computer training technologies,

The basis of design and creative technologies is creative activity of students in the process of scientific research, solution of scientific and technical problems, and development of specific projects. The base of such technologies is a personality-activity approach, according to which education is not only assimilation of knowledge but also the ways of such assimilation, devel-

Within the project-constructive system, the activity of creating something new and the personality of a student come first, whereupon, its personal responsibility for the results of its

Knowledge, skills, and abilities in such a system are considered not as a learning goal but as a means of developing a student and formation of a methodological style of thinking. As the main goal, the task of development of a personality, preparation for functioning, life activity in conditions of a technological society is put at the forefront. This goal is realized by development of abilities and acquisition of practical experience of self-education, creative professional activity, and improvement of personal responsibility for created and implemented

In this technological model, content of training is substantially changed. Unlike the formalized system of knowledge presented in the final form in traditional educational technologies, when implementing a design and constructive approach, instead of memorizing theories, laws, and formulas, special attention is paid to development of the ability to solve all kinds of theoretical and practical tasks and problems. The processes of design, modeling, research, and construction of various objects and processes are put on the first place. In this case, knowledge is systematized and structured in accordance with the hierarchy of cognizable objects and processes. A student should have open access to them through a database, reference book, or textbook and assimilate them in the context of the processes of design, modeling, construction, or research. The structure of presentation of educational information should be such that a student could trace the history of origin of this knowledge, not only in chronological order but also as a result of resolution of contradictions. Thus, in this model, knowledge becomes a

Unlike traditional technologies with the dominance of memorization, whose effectiveness is affected by the content, form, difficulty, relevance, and volume of educational material, in the design and creative models, the basic mechanism is involuntary memorization, which, in combination with practical activity, can provide more solid, well-structured knowledge. In addition, the design and creative technology increases the degree of meaningfulness of the educational material due to the clarity, concreteness, and minimality of formulation of

Usually, the difficulty of the learning material is focused on an average student. The proposed educational environment provides an opportunity for each of them to establish their own In such technologies, the role of a teacher also changes. He ceases to be "the sole custodian of truth and knowledge," from a mentor turns into a project manager, a colleague, and a consultant. In this case, authoritarian pedagogy is replaced by the principles of cooperation and support that fit organically into this technological model.

The theory of the developmental learning is equally important in practice. The theory of the developmental learning originates in the works of J.H. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterweg, and K.D. Ushinsky. Its scientific justification was given by L.S. Vygotsky. The theory was further developed in the works of L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, N.A. Menchinskaya, and others. In their concepts, education and development are represented as a system of dialectically interconnected aspects of a single process. Learning is recognized as a driving force behind a person's mental development and formation of totality of personal qualities in it.

Currently, a number of technologies have been developed that differ in their target orientations, content, and methodology peculiarities. Most of them are designed to teach school students, but they are also being actively introduced into institutional pedagogy. Thus, the concept of continuity and integrity of education is realized.

The key element of this technology is a comprehensive study of a personality, which is carried out by special methods and is intended not only to determine the initial level of intellectual development but also to determine the psychological characteristics of a personality, as well as leading strategies and styles of thinking. These data are further used to form optimized technological learning structures, as well as for the psychological support of the educational process, the main tasks of which are development of cognitive abilities of students, mastering of productive methods of educational activity by them, which best correspond to their personality types and development of reflexive abilities.

The following levels of knowledge mastering are distinguished:


**4.** *Skill* corresponding to the category "to be able to use," presupposing the ability to apply the knowledge gained to solve standard tasks of the relevant field of activity with possible usage of a reference material.

• The principle of visibility is implemented to a sufficient extent on the basis of multimedia

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• The principle of activity, working with a computer provides an increase in students' creative activity and improvement of mental processes (perception, association, intuition,

• The principle of systematicity and consistency is ensured through a programmed presentation of educational information, which determines the successful assimilation of not only the subject knowledge of the relevant science but also its structure, logic, and methods of

• The principle of individualization of learning is realized with the help of adaptive software that provides each student with its own level of complexity of the information provided.

Computerization of learning inevitably comes down to the processes of transfer of knowledge, on which the traditional system relies. However, just as printed materials and technical means of communication could lead to a huge expansion of possibilities of human cognition, fixation, and transfer of experience, a computer should increase the potential of human think-

In the learning environment created by a computer, the basic processes are organization and interpretation of information. This environment forms such characteristics of thinking as a propensity for experimentation, flexibility, coherence, and structurality. Learning conditions created by the "electronic environment" should contribute to development of creative thinking of students, to orient them to the search for nonobvious links and laws and to solve problems. Obviously, this system requires special organization of activities, interaction between

Standard forms of information representation on the screen of a personal computer (PC) are text and graphic forms. They make it possible to use the PC widely as a learning tool, but it remains only an auxiliary, more or less supplementary to the basic, traditional means and methods. With the usage of only two forms of information transfer outside the capabilities of a personal computer, information is presented in a natural and familiar form for a person:

No less significant lack of computer training is the lack of interactivity, that is, a student's ability to actively intervene in the process, ask questions, exercise self-control, and receive more detailed and accessible explanations for sections and fragments of educational material that

However, the computer boom that has embraced our planet in the past decade has spawned new computer technologies allowing us to come close to transforming PC into a powerful

New CTTs, which allows to expand qualitatively training capabilities of PC and to provide interactivity of the communication process with it, have become called multimedia (from the English *multi* (a lot, many) and *media* (means)), and their usage in teaching, *multimedia technologies*. It is believed that their emergence will make a breakthrough and an unprecedented

are not clear to him. After all, these are methods that form the basis of learning.

educational tool, which, naturally, does not exclude the presence of a human teacher.

technologies, image media, hypermedia, and hypertext.

ing and cause certain changes in the structure of mental activity.

teachers and students, and special learning environment.

audio, video, and animation.

leap in the field of education.

study.

etc.), which ultimately has a positive effect on the level of knowledge.


It should be noticed that the fifth and sixth levels are creative; they correspond to productive creative activity.

The system of methods for developing productive thinking based on the principles of creative pedagogy is equally important. It is filled with methods of developing imagination, fantasy, and abilities, not only to analysis but also to synthesis, ways, and means of overcoming stereotypes of thinking.

Currently, technologies of the developmental learning are increasingly applied in higher education (both in the traditional system of disciplines and in specialized courses of scientific and technical creativity, innovation, and training).

*Computer training technologies* (CTTs) are based on application of personal computers in their organic connection with learning goals, content of training, computer programs, and didactic methods of application as a means of training.

CTTs include the following components:


On this basis, a large number of *computer training means* has been implemented recently; they are automated training systems (ATS), automated training courses (ATC), computer simulators, training computer games, electronic textbooks, etc.

*Application of computers in the learning process contributes to implementation of didactic principles and fills them with new opportunities*:

• The principle of scientificity and usage of modern computer technology allow you to reflect in the educational process today's boundaries of science and bring students to the level of advanced knowledge.

• The principle of visibility is implemented to a sufficient extent on the basis of multimedia technologies, image media, hypermedia, and hypertext.

**4.** *Skill* corresponding to the category "to be able to use," presupposing the ability to apply the knowledge gained to solve standard tasks of the relevant field of activity with possible

**5.** *Possession, transfer, and transformation*. This level may be identified by the category "to possess." In addition, this level allows you to transfer your knowledge and skills to other

**6.** *Production of new knowledge*. This creative level corresponds to the categories "creative skill" and "creativity," presupposing the ability to create new socially significant objects. Traditional education did not set the goal to reach such a level; therefore, as a rule, it was

It should be noticed that the fifth and sixth levels are creative; they correspond to productive

The system of methods for developing productive thinking based on the principles of creative pedagogy is equally important. It is filled with methods of developing imagination, fantasy, and abilities, not only to analysis but also to synthesis, ways, and means of overcoming ste-

Currently, technologies of the developmental learning are increasingly applied in higher education (both in the traditional system of disciplines and in specialized courses of scientific and

*Computer training technologies* (CTTs) are based on application of personal computers in their organic connection with learning goals, content of training, computer programs, and didactic

• Software environment (a set of software means for implementation of a training technology) • Subject environment (content of a specific subject area of science, technology, and

• Methodological environment (instructions, methods of evaluation of effectiveness, etc.)

On this basis, a large number of *computer training means* has been implemented recently; they are automated training systems (ATS), automated training courses (ATC), computer simula-

*Application of computers in the learning process contributes to implementation of didactic principles* 

• The principle of scientificity and usage of modern computer technology allow you to reflect in the educational process today's boundaries of science and bring students to the level of

usage of a reference material.

not distinguished.

creative activity.

reotypes of thinking.

technical creativity, innovation, and training).

methods of application as a means of training.

tors, training computer games, electronic textbooks, etc.

CTTs include the following components:

*and fills them with new opportunities*:

advanced knowledge.

• Technical environment

knowledge)

border areas of activity, to solve nonstandard tasks.

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Computerization of learning inevitably comes down to the processes of transfer of knowledge, on which the traditional system relies. However, just as printed materials and technical means of communication could lead to a huge expansion of possibilities of human cognition, fixation, and transfer of experience, a computer should increase the potential of human thinking and cause certain changes in the structure of mental activity.

In the learning environment created by a computer, the basic processes are organization and interpretation of information. This environment forms such characteristics of thinking as a propensity for experimentation, flexibility, coherence, and structurality. Learning conditions created by the "electronic environment" should contribute to development of creative thinking of students, to orient them to the search for nonobvious links and laws and to solve problems. Obviously, this system requires special organization of activities, interaction between teachers and students, and special learning environment.

Standard forms of information representation on the screen of a personal computer (PC) are text and graphic forms. They make it possible to use the PC widely as a learning tool, but it remains only an auxiliary, more or less supplementary to the basic, traditional means and methods. With the usage of only two forms of information transfer outside the capabilities of a personal computer, information is presented in a natural and familiar form for a person: audio, video, and animation.

No less significant lack of computer training is the lack of interactivity, that is, a student's ability to actively intervene in the process, ask questions, exercise self-control, and receive more detailed and accessible explanations for sections and fragments of educational material that are not clear to him. After all, these are methods that form the basis of learning.

However, the computer boom that has embraced our planet in the past decade has spawned new computer technologies allowing us to come close to transforming PC into a powerful educational tool, which, naturally, does not exclude the presence of a human teacher.

New CTTs, which allows to expand qualitatively training capabilities of PC and to provide interactivity of the communication process with it, have become called multimedia (from the English *multi* (a lot, many) and *media* (means)), and their usage in teaching, *multimedia technologies*. It is believed that their emergence will make a breakthrough and an unprecedented leap in the field of education.

A set of hardware and software providing such a representation of information, in which a person perceives it simultaneously and in parallel with several senses, is understood by *multimedia technology*. After all, in real life, this happens exactly when we receive more than 90% of information from the joint activity of the organs of vision and hearing, and not successively, as it is saved in PC.

This is, first of all, a set of information technologies ensuring delivery of the major part of the learning material to students, interaction of students and teachers, provision of students with the opportunity to work independently to assimilate the learning material, and assessment of

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The means of implementing distant learning technology are divided into three main groups:

• Computer (computer training programs, electronic textbooks, models, interactive video,

• Telecommunication systems (teleconferences, videoconferences, e-mail, and video text

With the help of the telecommunication system, they give a student a wide range of opportu-

*The distant learning technology* is a combination of forms, methods, and means of interaction between a computer and a student within the process of independent but controlled mastering of a certain array of knowledge. It is built on the specific content accumulated in special courses and modules that are designed for distant learning and are located in data and knowl-

• Provision of an opportunity to train citizens in those regions of a country, where there are

• The use of sophisticated modern technologies (with a fairly simple user interface), which

**1.** *Flexibility*. Students of this system basically do not attend regular classes (lectures, seminars) but work at a convenient time and at a suitable pace and place. Moreover, everyone can study as much as needed to master a subject and obtain necessary credits for selected

**2.** *Adaptability*. The system of distant education provides each user with a choice, creation, and implementation of an individual trajectory of education or acquisition of skills.

**3.** *Modularity*. Distant learning programs are based on the modular principle. Each separate course creates a comprehensive view of a particular subject area. This allows forming of a curriculum, which meets individual or group needs, from a set of independent module

• Freedom of choice of time and place of training, which makes it very attractive

no other opportunities for higher education, or citizens with physical disabilities

makes the learning process more individual, effective, exciting, and interesting

*As the main properties of distant learning, the following ones may be identified:*

• Audiovisual (printed material, audio cassettes, videotapes, videodisks)

acquired knowledge, skills, and habits.

and multimedia programs)

nities for individual learning.

edge banks, video libraries, etc.

courses.

courses.

*The main features of the distant learning (DL)*:

work with databases in the direct access mode)

To implement multimedia training technologies, it is required to have modern computers performing a large number of functions.

Despite only a decade of existence of this technology, the world has accumulated a lot of experience in development, creation, and usage of hardware and software training products. As they improve, the main advantages of multimedia are revealed.

They consist in the presence of branch points in training programs, which allows students to regulate individually the process of perception of information, whereupon, the more such points, the more intensive the program and the more flexible its usage within the learning process. Another advantage of multimedia is the ability to choose from several alternatives, followed by an assessment of correctness of each step. Current self-control is especially necessary in the process of self-education and self-learning.

Combination of audio comments with video information or animation, which allows you gradually, step by step, to explain the most complex processes in development of objects, should be recognized as an important advantage.

This type of training has one more, entertaining and emotional, advantage. Building of the learning process in the form of interactive educational games sharply increases interest and attention to a learning material, and the musical accompaniment brings esthetic satisfaction and improves quality of information.

With the usage of multimedia, the role of a teacher also significantly changes, which has become more effective in spending learning time, focusing on individual assistance to students, discussing information, and developing their creative approach.

Currently, there are quite a lot of different training courses. Of them, the most methodically prepared are interactive language courses that combine a colloquial dictionary with explanatory pictures, grammar training technique, set of situational dialogs accompanied by audio and video, as well as tests and possibility of pronunciation correction by recording the speech of a student.

The amount of knowledge generated by the mankind in the course of its development now doubles almost every 10 years. To maintain and support the scientific and educational potential of the higher school, it is necessary to provide student and teaching staff with wide and open access to accumulated information resources. The solution of this task is assigned to new distant learning forms.

Distant learning is understood as a complex of educational services provided with the help of a specialized information and educational environment at any distance from educational institutions.

This is, first of all, a set of information technologies ensuring delivery of the major part of the learning material to students, interaction of students and teachers, provision of students with the opportunity to work independently to assimilate the learning material, and assessment of acquired knowledge, skills, and habits.

The means of implementing distant learning technology are divided into three main groups:


With the help of the telecommunication system, they give a student a wide range of opportunities for individual learning.

*The distant learning technology* is a combination of forms, methods, and means of interaction between a computer and a student within the process of independent but controlled mastering of a certain array of knowledge. It is built on the specific content accumulated in special courses and modules that are designed for distant learning and are located in data and knowledge banks, video libraries, etc.

*The main features of the distant learning (DL)*:

A set of hardware and software providing such a representation of information, in which a person perceives it simultaneously and in parallel with several senses, is understood by *multimedia technology*. After all, in real life, this happens exactly when we receive more than 90% of information from the joint activity of the organs of vision and hearing, and not successively,

To implement multimedia training technologies, it is required to have modern computers

Despite only a decade of existence of this technology, the world has accumulated a lot of experience in development, creation, and usage of hardware and software training products.

They consist in the presence of branch points in training programs, which allows students to regulate individually the process of perception of information, whereupon, the more such points, the more intensive the program and the more flexible its usage within the learning process. Another advantage of multimedia is the ability to choose from several alternatives, followed by an assessment of correctness of each step. Current self-control is especially neces-

Combination of audio comments with video information or animation, which allows you gradually, step by step, to explain the most complex processes in development of objects,

This type of training has one more, entertaining and emotional, advantage. Building of the learning process in the form of interactive educational games sharply increases interest and attention to a learning material, and the musical accompaniment brings esthetic satisfaction

With the usage of multimedia, the role of a teacher also significantly changes, which has become more effective in spending learning time, focusing on individual assistance to stu-

Currently, there are quite a lot of different training courses. Of them, the most methodically prepared are interactive language courses that combine a colloquial dictionary with explanatory pictures, grammar training technique, set of situational dialogs accompanied by audio and video, as well as tests and possibility of pronunciation correction by recording the speech

The amount of knowledge generated by the mankind in the course of its development now doubles almost every 10 years. To maintain and support the scientific and educational potential of the higher school, it is necessary to provide student and teaching staff with wide and open access to accumulated information resources. The solution of this task is assigned to new

Distant learning is understood as a complex of educational services provided with the help of a specialized information and educational environment at any distance from educational

dents, discussing information, and developing their creative approach.

As they improve, the main advantages of multimedia are revealed.

212 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

sary in the process of self-education and self-learning.

should be recognized as an important advantage.

and improves quality of information.

of a student.

institutions.

distant learning forms.

as it is saved in PC.

performing a large number of functions.


*As the main properties of distant learning, the following ones may be identified:*


**4.** *Economic efficiency*. World experience shows that the distant education costs 50% cheaper than traditional educational forms. Relatively, lower cost is provided due to usage of more concentrated representation and unification of content, orientation of teaching technologies to a greater number of students, and through more efficient usage of existing training areas and technical facilities.

Structure of a module contains a list of all learning elements included in it, for each of which information (reference to an available source), instructions with correct tasks, and recommendations for studying the content are given. Each learning element is preceded by the wording of a goal of its study, and at the end of the content part of the module, a generalization (sum-

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Modular training integrates, to some extent, progressive experience accumulated in pedagogical theory and practice. In particular, the idea of activating educational and cognitive activity, which is provided by rigid logic of metered material supply and a clear system of self-control, is borrowed from the programmed learning. The system approach enriched the modular training with the idea of flexible management of the learning process due to the

The great complexity of creating modules and considerable expenses for their publication and replication should be referred to the apparent disadvantages of the modular training technology. The usage of this technology requires high qualifications of teachers, their motivation,

An important place in pedagogy is occupied by training technologies based on graphic methods of information compression. A typical example of training technologies based on graphic methods of information compression is the method of V.F. Shatalov, one of the outstanding teachers-innovators of the twentieth century. Using many years of experience in teaching mathematics and physics in the secondary school of Donetsk (Ukraine), he developed the so-

The supportive compendium is a compendium code, which can be recognized only by a student or teacher dedicated to it. This compendium is very concise; it contains one notebook page of the material of several lessons coded in a figurative, easily visible form. There are short key phrases, individual words and concepts, mathematical calculations, and numbers

Arrangement of the material, frame, arrows, different fonts, and colors that highlight the main parts is strictly thought out and makes up a logically harmonious and systemic algorithm of reasoning, trajectory of movement of idea, and movement of thought. At the same time, this compendium is the base for a teacher's 20-minute lecture at a lesson. Naturally, when composing such a compendium, a teacher should show both its creative imagination and, to some extent, the art of presenting the maximum of information with the minimum

The annual material of a discipline (physics, mathematics, etc.) takes only 30–40 pages of a compendium. These supportive signals are then issued in a mass circulation as teaching guides, and teachers of the relevant disciplines may use them without spending much time

Having such a supportive sheet in hands, a teacher begins a lesson with its detailed decoding, unfolding a condensed abstract into the full text. At the same time, if necessary, the teacher repeats the course of its reasoning twice or thrice at a rapid pace, without fear of repetition,

while students would not see clearly a logical scheme of a question being posed.

called method of supportive signals in his "supportive compendium."

mary) and a control task are offered.

and availability to the modular training.

to remember on the page.

of volume.

on similar work.

individual choice of the pace of mastering a material.

**5.** *A new role of a teacher*. It is entrusted with such functions as coordinating the cognitive process, correcting the course taught, and consulting during preparation of an individual curriculum, management of educational projects, etc.

Distant learning technologies are one of the forms of the system of continuous education, which is designed to realize the human rights for information and education. Distant education opens equal opportunities for students and civil and military specialists in all regions of a country and abroad. This is due to more active usage of the scientific and educational potential of leading universities, various industry centers for training and retraining of personnel, as well as centers for professional development, and other educational institutions.

Modern technologies include the *modular training*. The essence of the *modular training* is that it allows each student to achieve specific goals of educational and cognitive activity independently (or with the support of a teacher). The so-called training modules serve as an educational tool.

Modular curriculum consists of a complex didactic goal (CDG) and a set of modules, M1, M2 … Mn, ensuring its achievement.

The complex didactic goal should determine the level of mastering a learning material, its use in practice, as well as in subsequent academic disciplines. To formulate a modular program, a teacher identifies the main scientific ideas of this discipline. Further, from the CDG, integrating didactic goals (IDG) are singled out, each of which has its own training module, M1, M2 … Mn. Since these modules contain large blocks of educational material, the integrating didactic goal is divided into private didactic goals (PDG), each of which has its own learning element, LE1, LE2 … LEk.

Thus, a "tree" of goals is constructed. Its top is CDG for building a modular program, the middle layer is IDG for building modules, and the lower layer is PDG for building learning elements. Management of the learning process is due to organization of control, analysis, and necessary correction. Before introduction of each new module, the input control of knowledge and skills of students and determination of the level of their readiness for mastering this module are conducted. In the course of work with each learning element, current and intermediate controls are carried out in combination with a student's self-control. After completion of work with the module, the output control is carried out in order to establish the level of mastering the material and the need for its improvement.

Development of a modular program requires from a teacher not only a deep knowledge of the material but also a high methodological skill. For effective independent work on studying the material for students, a module should be written in such words the teacher seemed talking with a student via the text, activated it to search, reasoning, and guessing. The style of writing should be accessible, focus on success, and inspire.

Structure of a module contains a list of all learning elements included in it, for each of which information (reference to an available source), instructions with correct tasks, and recommendations for studying the content are given. Each learning element is preceded by the wording of a goal of its study, and at the end of the content part of the module, a generalization (summary) and a control task are offered.

**4.** *Economic efficiency*. World experience shows that the distant education costs 50% cheaper than traditional educational forms. Relatively, lower cost is provided due to usage of more concentrated representation and unification of content, orientation of teaching technologies to a greater number of students, and through more efficient usage of existing training

**5.** *A new role of a teacher*. It is entrusted with such functions as coordinating the cognitive process, correcting the course taught, and consulting during preparation of an individual

Distant learning technologies are one of the forms of the system of continuous education, which is designed to realize the human rights for information and education. Distant education opens equal opportunities for students and civil and military specialists in all regions of a country and abroad. This is due to more active usage of the scientific and educational potential of leading universities, various industry centers for training and retraining of personnel,

Modern technologies include the *modular training*. The essence of the *modular training* is that it allows each student to achieve specific goals of educational and cognitive activity independently (or with the support of a teacher). The so-called training modules serve as an educa-

Modular curriculum consists of a complex didactic goal (CDG) and a set of modules, M1, M2

The complex didactic goal should determine the level of mastering a learning material, its use in practice, as well as in subsequent academic disciplines. To formulate a modular program, a teacher identifies the main scientific ideas of this discipline. Further, from the CDG, integrating didactic goals (IDG) are singled out, each of which has its own training module, M1, M2 … Mn. Since these modules contain large blocks of educational material, the integrating didactic goal is divided into private didactic goals (PDG), each of which has its own learning

Thus, a "tree" of goals is constructed. Its top is CDG for building a modular program, the middle layer is IDG for building modules, and the lower layer is PDG for building learning elements. Management of the learning process is due to organization of control, analysis, and necessary correction. Before introduction of each new module, the input control of knowledge and skills of students and determination of the level of their readiness for mastering this module are conducted. In the course of work with each learning element, current and intermediate controls are carried out in combination with a student's self-control. After completion of work with the module, the output control is carried out in order to establish the level of mastering

Development of a modular program requires from a teacher not only a deep knowledge of the material but also a high methodological skill. For effective independent work on studying the material for students, a module should be written in such words the teacher seemed talking with a student via the text, activated it to search, reasoning, and guessing. The style of writing

as well as centers for professional development, and other educational institutions.

areas and technical facilities.

… Mn, ensuring its achievement.

element, LE1, LE2 … LEk.

the material and the need for its improvement.

should be accessible, focus on success, and inspire.

tional tool.

curriculum, management of educational projects, etc.

214 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Modular training integrates, to some extent, progressive experience accumulated in pedagogical theory and practice. In particular, the idea of activating educational and cognitive activity, which is provided by rigid logic of metered material supply and a clear system of self-control, is borrowed from the programmed learning. The system approach enriched the modular training with the idea of flexible management of the learning process due to the individual choice of the pace of mastering a material.

The great complexity of creating modules and considerable expenses for their publication and replication should be referred to the apparent disadvantages of the modular training technology. The usage of this technology requires high qualifications of teachers, their motivation, and availability to the modular training.

An important place in pedagogy is occupied by training technologies based on graphic methods of information compression. A typical example of training technologies based on graphic methods of information compression is the method of V.F. Shatalov, one of the outstanding teachers-innovators of the twentieth century. Using many years of experience in teaching mathematics and physics in the secondary school of Donetsk (Ukraine), he developed the socalled method of supportive signals in his "supportive compendium."

The supportive compendium is a compendium code, which can be recognized only by a student or teacher dedicated to it. This compendium is very concise; it contains one notebook page of the material of several lessons coded in a figurative, easily visible form. There are short key phrases, individual words and concepts, mathematical calculations, and numbers to remember on the page.

Arrangement of the material, frame, arrows, different fonts, and colors that highlight the main parts is strictly thought out and makes up a logically harmonious and systemic algorithm of reasoning, trajectory of movement of idea, and movement of thought. At the same time, this compendium is the base for a teacher's 20-minute lecture at a lesson. Naturally, when composing such a compendium, a teacher should show both its creative imagination and, to some extent, the art of presenting the maximum of information with the minimum of volume.

The annual material of a discipline (physics, mathematics, etc.) takes only 30–40 pages of a compendium. These supportive signals are then issued in a mass circulation as teaching guides, and teachers of the relevant disciplines may use them without spending much time on similar work.

Having such a supportive sheet in hands, a teacher begins a lesson with its detailed decoding, unfolding a condensed abstract into the full text. At the same time, if necessary, the teacher repeats the course of its reasoning twice or thrice at a rapid pace, without fear of repetition, while students would not see clearly a logical scheme of a question being posed.

Students independently, holding this supportive sheet before itself, recall the teacher's story and, naturally, using the textbook recommended to it, mentally unfold the scheme into the full text. Then, simultaneously, it again folds it into the supportive signal, whereupon, it does not remember and does not "cram," but works with its mind.

**9.** *Accuracy and clarity*. Accuracy, clarity, readability, and simplicity of graphic forms from the point of view of psychophysiological properties of a person allow to "capture" with an eye a group of letters or even words simultaneously, to increase the speed of recognizing

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**10.***Color harmony*. Supportive compendia should preferably be in a color, the psychological aspect of which consists in influencing the mental state, which can either slow down the processes of assimilation or, conversely, promote them. First, color design of a compendium should provide a clear and comfortable perception; second, it should promote crea-

After a supportive compendium has been created, it is necessary to transfer it to a poster or

The next lesson in this discipline begins with the students (usually sitting with their backs to the board) on separate sheets reproducing from memory the compendium of the material from the previous lesson. At this time, four to five students are writing this compendium on

At the second stage, when everyone returns their test papers, an oral presentation of the material is practiced by a listener invited to the blackboard. Each student checks itself and com-

Obviously, within two training days, the compendium emerges before the eyes of a listener so many times, and the material is coded/decoded so many times that it becomes impossible

A teacher checks knowledge in full, without spending a single minute of its off-hour time. The control is provided every day and concerns all students, because knowledge is checked

If the study of a material was a homework, then, at the beginning of the next lesson, students at a fast pace write a list of signals from memory and after 10–15 minutes pass it to a teacher. A teacher immediately sorts them into piles (marks five, marks four, and marks three) and announces the undeniable marks to the whole class. Those, who did not cope with the task or who did not manage it without any reproaches and edifications, get a dash in the class regis-

A teacher is treated differently with tasks and examples: it does not give marks for their resolution and does not conduct any tests until the end of an academic year. As a rule, two to three typical tasks, which are mandatory for all, are solved on a lesson. A single listener solves a task at the blackboard, but the others do not write anything; they follow the blackboard, think, reason, and help. At home, each of them should solve this task again, solely, so that even the weakest student can cope. It is important that every student individually receives a

The author of this training technology believes that everyone should study with fun, courage, and triumph. He himself leads them to victory by immensely increasing the measure of help and control. The usage of this technique confirms that it provides an increase in intensity of

pares its answers in its mind with the answers he has heard.

ter, and they will have to learn and write a list of signals again.

set of tasks of varying degrees of difficulty for independent work.

letters and comprehending visuals.

tion of an emotional uplift.

make a slide and multiply it.

the blackboards.

to forget it.

in a folded form.

training by 1.2–1.5 times.

Here, a completely new kind of educational mental activity is proposed: folding and unfolding of a text concerning a material under study become a visual process of thinking and mastering the material.

Principles of compilation of supporting compendia:


**9.** *Accuracy and clarity*. Accuracy, clarity, readability, and simplicity of graphic forms from the point of view of psychophysiological properties of a person allow to "capture" with an eye a group of letters or even words simultaneously, to increase the speed of recognizing letters and comprehending visuals.

Students independently, holding this supportive sheet before itself, recall the teacher's story and, naturally, using the textbook recommended to it, mentally unfold the scheme into the full text. Then, simultaneously, it again folds it into the supportive signal, whereupon, it does

Here, a completely new kind of educational mental activity is proposed: folding and unfolding of a text concerning a material under study become a visual process of thinking and mas-

**1.** *Conciseness*. Information complex (IC) in terms of perception should contain 350–500 bits. If 6–8 ICs are reflected in a compendium, the total amount of information of the supportive compendium should not be more than 3000–4000 bits or 600–800 characters. The second aspect of this principle requires a teacher to be able to tell a material on IC in 20–25 minutes. In other words, the material of a 2-hour lecture on the supporting compendium should be

**2.** *Structural properties*. When drawing up supportive compendia, the method of integration of didactic units of information assimilation is used, which allows presenting a material with the entire blocks and bundles. A supportive compendium contains about 4–5 blocks, the structure of which should be convenient for reproduction and memorization; that is, supportive signals are not necessarily arranged in rows but in a variety

**3.** *Emphasis*. The material of a supportive compendium is made "relief" by enclosing it in the framework of the most unusual configuration, using different fonts, colors, and arrange-

**4.** *Unification*. Symbols used as supportive signals must be unified. A situation, when in different blocks, the same symbol by inscription would have different contents, is not allowed. It is convenient to introduce certain icon symbols to indicate key or frequently

**5.** *Independence*. Each of the 4–5 blocks of a supportive compendium is displayed separately, with little or no link to other blocks. Thus, if one of the blocks is forgotten, the rest can be

**6.** *Familiar associations and stereotypes*. Ability to skillfully select keywords is necessary. A good joke, an image, an anecdote, a drawing, etc. make it possible to revive an entire story

**7.** *Otherness*. Very often, when drawing up supportive compendia, the same mistake is made: they are similar as two peas in a pod. Infinite tables, circles, triangles, squares, blocks etc., as a result, are difficult to save in long-term memory. Supportive compendia should be

**8.** *Simplicity*. A supportive compendium should be simple for both memorization and reproduction. It is necessary to avoid fanciful fonts, complex drawings, pictures, charts, dia-

not remember and does not "cram," but works with its mind.

216 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Principles of compilation of supporting compendia:

ment of words (vertically, diagonally, etc.).

repeated words (or whole combinations).

diversified by form, structure, and graphic expression.

easily reproduced without it.

tering the material.

of ways.

in memory.

grams, etc.

stated in 20–25 minutes.

**10.***Color harmony*. Supportive compendia should preferably be in a color, the psychological aspect of which consists in influencing the mental state, which can either slow down the processes of assimilation or, conversely, promote them. First, color design of a compendium should provide a clear and comfortable perception; second, it should promote creation of an emotional uplift.

After a supportive compendium has been created, it is necessary to transfer it to a poster or make a slide and multiply it.

The next lesson in this discipline begins with the students (usually sitting with their backs to the board) on separate sheets reproducing from memory the compendium of the material from the previous lesson. At this time, four to five students are writing this compendium on the blackboards.

At the second stage, when everyone returns their test papers, an oral presentation of the material is practiced by a listener invited to the blackboard. Each student checks itself and compares its answers in its mind with the answers he has heard.

Obviously, within two training days, the compendium emerges before the eyes of a listener so many times, and the material is coded/decoded so many times that it becomes impossible to forget it.

A teacher checks knowledge in full, without spending a single minute of its off-hour time. The control is provided every day and concerns all students, because knowledge is checked in a folded form.

If the study of a material was a homework, then, at the beginning of the next lesson, students at a fast pace write a list of signals from memory and after 10–15 minutes pass it to a teacher. A teacher immediately sorts them into piles (marks five, marks four, and marks three) and announces the undeniable marks to the whole class. Those, who did not cope with the task or who did not manage it without any reproaches and edifications, get a dash in the class register, and they will have to learn and write a list of signals again.

A teacher is treated differently with tasks and examples: it does not give marks for their resolution and does not conduct any tests until the end of an academic year. As a rule, two to three typical tasks, which are mandatory for all, are solved on a lesson. A single listener solves a task at the blackboard, but the others do not write anything; they follow the blackboard, think, reason, and help. At home, each of them should solve this task again, solely, so that even the weakest student can cope. It is important that every student individually receives a set of tasks of varying degrees of difficulty for independent work.

The author of this training technology believes that everyone should study with fun, courage, and triumph. He himself leads them to victory by immensely increasing the measure of help and control. The usage of this technique confirms that it provides an increase in intensity of training by 1.2–1.5 times.

Shatalov's method has been widely used and spread in many schools in Russia and a number of other countries. It was successfully mastered and used by secondary school teachers and university professors but taking into account the specifics of vocational education.

**8. Conclusion**

**Author details**

**References**

learning, education, and human development.

Alexander Bolotin and Vladislav Bakayev\*

DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2015.03054

Kultury; 2014;**14**(7):5-6

Polytechnic University, Russia

\*Address all correspondence to: vlad.bakaev@gmail.com

Any science including pedagogy is most commonly defined as the scope of human activity. Development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge of reality take place in it. In general, *pedagogy* as a field of scientific disciplines on upbringing, training, and education of a person reveals laws of the pedagogical process, as well as formation and development of a personality in it. The main categories of pedagogy reflect its essence. Significant categories are self-education, self-improvement, pedagogical process, and pedagogical interaction. Creative application of various technologies in pedagogy is of particular importance now.

Scientific and Theoretical Prerequisites for Improvement of Modern Pedagogical Technologies

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72342

219

The application of teaching technologies presupposes an organizational arrangement of all the dependencies of the learning process, the alignment of its stages, the identification of the conditions for their implementation, and the correlation of methods, forms, methods, and means of instruction in conducting classes, with the abilities of the instructor and students. Modern educational technologies allow us to consider pedagogy with the modern realities of

Institute of Physical Education, Sports and Tourism, Peter the Great St. Petersburg

[1] Bolotin АЕ, Bakaev VV. Structure and content of the educational technology of managing students' healthy lifestyle. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2015;**15**(3):362-364.

[2] Bakayev V, Bolotin A. Pedagogical model of children swimming training with the use of method of substitution of hydrogenous locomotion. In: Proceedings of Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb (8th International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology); 10-14 May 2017; Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia. Opatija; 2017. pp. 763-767

[3] Bolotin AE, Bakayev VV, Vazhenin SA. Educational technology of using the system of Pilates for the prevention of spine disorders of female students. Journal of Physical

[4] Bolotin AE, Schegolev VA, Bakaev VV. Educational technology of use of means of physical culture to adapt students for future professional work. Teoriya i Praktika Fizicheskoy

Education and Sport. 2015;**15**(4):724-729. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2015.04110

The process of developing a specific pedagogical technology in pedagogy was called pedagogical design. It is carried out taking into account such didactic principles as scientificity, systematic character, systematicity, strength of teaching, unity of training, upbringing, and development of a student, considering individual abilities trained in the collective nature of the learning process. At the same time, the design of training technology relies on such principles of modern education as integrity, fundamentality, cultural conformity, humanitarization and humanization, connection between teaching and research, continuity of education, and link between learning and practice.

To succeed in this direction, a teacher should have certain qualities. Such qualities, first of all, are professional knowledge and pedagogical abilities.

*Professional knowledge* is the fundamental basis. This knowledge of a taught subject, pedagogy and psychology, forms and methods of teaching, technological organization of the educational process, and material and technical support. At the base of the teacher's work, enthusiasm concerning the subject and need for communication with students should be clearly seen.

*Pedagogical abilities* are individual prerequisites for successful activity and stimulators of professional growth. They point out the specifics of implementation of psychological processes and capability to find such technological approaches to the learning process that would contribute to successful pedagogical activity.

Evaluation of effectiveness of a training technology consists of the following components:


Given the increase in the level of knowledge, skills, and abilities, it is difficult to evaluate assimilability of a material theoretically. It is possible to analyze this only on extensive empirical material, comparing the average scores of students' progress by traditional and innovative technologies.

*Therefore*, training technology is a scientifically based system of methods, ways, techniques, and technical means that provides training with specified indicators of a certain category of students with respect to this subject in conditions that take into account temporary and financial and economic constraints.

### **8. Conclusion**

Shatalov's method has been widely used and spread in many schools in Russia and a number of other countries. It was successfully mastered and used by secondary school teachers and

The process of developing a specific pedagogical technology in pedagogy was called pedagogical design. It is carried out taking into account such didactic principles as scientificity, systematic character, systematicity, strength of teaching, unity of training, upbringing, and development of a student, considering individual abilities trained in the collective nature of the learning process. At the same time, the design of training technology relies on such principles of modern education as integrity, fundamentality, cultural conformity, humanitarization and humanization, connection between teaching and research, continuity of education,

To succeed in this direction, a teacher should have certain qualities. Such qualities, first of all,

*Professional knowledge* is the fundamental basis. This knowledge of a taught subject, pedagogy and psychology, forms and methods of teaching, technological organization of the educational process, and material and technical support. At the base of the teacher's work, enthusiasm concerning the subject and need for communication with students should be

*Pedagogical abilities* are individual prerequisites for successful activity and stimulators of professional growth. They point out the specifics of implementation of psychological processes and capability to find such technological approaches to the learning process that would con-

Evaluation of effectiveness of a training technology consists of the following components:

in the course of objective control of training lessons and inspection (final control)

• Evaluation of completeness of presentation of educational information, which is revealed

• Evaluation of training results, which is made in the course of the current progress control

Given the increase in the level of knowledge, skills, and abilities, it is difficult to evaluate assimilability of a material theoretically. It is possible to analyze this only on extensive empirical material, comparing the average scores of students' progress by traditional and innovative

*Therefore*, training technology is a scientifically based system of methods, ways, techniques, and technical means that provides training with specified indicators of a certain category of students with respect to this subject in conditions that take into account temporary and finan-

university professors but taking into account the specifics of vocational education.

218 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

and link between learning and practice.

tribute to successful pedagogical activity.

• Intermediate attestation of students

• Final state attestation • Reviews on graduates

cial and economic constraints.

technologies.

clearly seen.

are professional knowledge and pedagogical abilities.

Any science including pedagogy is most commonly defined as the scope of human activity. Development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge of reality take place in it. In general, *pedagogy* as a field of scientific disciplines on upbringing, training, and education of a person reveals laws of the pedagogical process, as well as formation and development of a personality in it. The main categories of pedagogy reflect its essence. Significant categories are self-education, self-improvement, pedagogical process, and pedagogical interaction. Creative application of various technologies in pedagogy is of particular importance now.

The application of teaching technologies presupposes an organizational arrangement of all the dependencies of the learning process, the alignment of its stages, the identification of the conditions for their implementation, and the correlation of methods, forms, methods, and means of instruction in conducting classes, with the abilities of the instructor and students. Modern educational technologies allow us to consider pedagogy with the modern realities of learning, education, and human development.

### **Author details**

Alexander Bolotin and Vladislav Bakayev\*

\*Address all correspondence to: vlad.bakaev@gmail.com

Institute of Physical Education, Sports and Tourism, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Russia

### **References**


[5] Osipov A, Kudryavtsev M, Kuzmin V, Salyamova P, Gavrilyuk O, Struchkov V, Galimov G, Zakharova L. Methods of operative and informative control of the muscle loading level used during the training of sambo wrestlers. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2016;**16**(4):1247-1252. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2016.04198

[16] Bolotin AE, Bakayev VV, Vazhenin SA. Factors that determine the necessity for developing skills required by cadets in higher education institutions of the Aerospace Forces to organize their kettlebell self-training. Journal of Physical Education and Sport.

Scientific and Theoretical Prerequisites for Improvement of Modern Pedagogical Technologies

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[17] Bakaev VV, Bolotin AE, Vasil'eva VS. Factors determining sports specialization of cross-

[18] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Pedagogical conditions required to improve the speed-strength training of young football players. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2017;

country skiers. Teoriya i Praktika Fizicheskoy Kultury. 2015;**15**(2):40-41

2016;**16**(1):102-108. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2016.01017

**17**(2):638-642. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2017.02095


[16] Bolotin AE, Bakayev VV, Vazhenin SA. Factors that determine the necessity for developing skills required by cadets in higher education institutions of the Aerospace Forces to organize their kettlebell self-training. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2016;**16**(1):102-108. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2016.01017

[5] Osipov A, Kudryavtsev M, Kuzmin V, Salyamova P, Gavrilyuk O, Struchkov V, Galimov G, Zakharova L. Methods of operative and informative control of the muscle loading level used during the training of sambo wrestlers. Journal of Physical Education and Sport.

[6] Bolotin AE, Bakayev VV, Vazhenin SA. Pedagogical model for developing skills required by cadets of higher education institutions of the Aerospace Forces to organize their kettlebell self-training. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2016;**16**(1):177-186. DOI:

[7] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Pedagogical conditions necessary for effective speed-strength training of young football players (15-17 years old). Journal of Human Sport and

[8] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Educational technology for teaching survival skills to pilots using training routines. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2016;**16**(2):413-417. DOI:

[9] Bakaev VV, Bolotin AE, Aganov SS. Physical training complex application technology to prepare rescuers for highland operations. Teoriya i Praktika Fizicheskoy Kultury.

[10] Osipov A, Starova O, Malakhova A, Vonog V, Zhavner T, Salyamova P, Struchkov V, Kudryavtsev M. Modernization process of physical education of students in the framework of implementation of the state strategy for the development of physical culture, sport and tourism in the Russian Federation. Journal of Physical Education and Sport.

[11] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Factors that determine high efficiency in developing speed and strength abilities of female hurdlers. Journal of Physical Education and Sport.

[12] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Peripheral circulation indicators in veteran trail runners. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2017;**29**(8):1092-1094. DOI: 10.1589/jpts.29.1092

[13] Bolotin A, Bakayev V, Orlova N, Kozulko A. Peculiarities of time structure and of biomechanical organization of a construction of motor actions in the hammer throw. In: Proceedings of Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb (8th International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology); 10-14 May 2017; Faculty of Kinesiology, University of

[14] Bolotin A, Bakayev V. Efficacy of using isometric exercises to prevent basketball injuries. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2016;**16**(4):1177-1185. DOI: 10.7752/

[15] Bakayev V. Determining the significance of practical military skills applied by the special purpose regiments of the Internal Troops of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs to deliver combat objectives. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2015;**15**(4):

2016;**16**(4):1247-1252. DOI: 10.7752/jpes.2016.04198

220 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Exercise. 2017;**12**(2):405-413. DOI: 10.14198/jhse.2017.122.17

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Zagreb, Croatia. Opatija; 2017. pp. 137-141

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10.7752/jpes.2016.01028

10.7752/jpes.2016.02064

2016;**16**(6):6-8

jpes.2016.04188


**Chapter 13**

Provisional chapter

**Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model**

Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

This chapter reveals the early development of eclectic game-based pedagogical model labeled as the Style 'E' Tactical (SET). The SET underpins Style E from Spectrum of Mosston teaching styles, variations of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) models and constraints-led theory. The efficacy of SET was first tested as an experimental research comparing with two other teaching approaches developed from Mosston teaching styles and TGfU known as Style B Tactical and Style H Tactical among secondary school boys. The findings revealed that the SET achieved learning outcomes that were better than, or equal to, the results obtained from the two other teaching approach, as for speed, knowledge, skill execution, and tactical decision-making in field hockey. In another research tested among Malaysian aborigines' primary school students in 5 versus 5 mini soccer games, findings indicated no significant difference in skill execution between SET and TGfU pedagogical models. Whereas in handball study, findings indicated significant improvement via TGfU, SET for skill execution, and decision-making in 4 versus 4 game play, increased in knowledge and interest compared to the technical model. To conclude, this SET could bridge the disparity between varying student-teacher centered in game

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74033

Keywords: SET pedagogical model, game play, varying skill levels, Mosston teaching

Physical education (PE) teachers may agree that helping elementary students mastering basic fundamental motor skills at times is very challenging as many will agree that direct instruction would be one of the best teaching approaches dealing with less-skilled and slow learners. Whereby, the fundamental motor skills such as catching, kicking, running, striking, throwing, jumping, and so on play an integral role as prerequisite elements for game play. Those students

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

learning; however, more research is needed to fulfill the claim.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74033

Sanmuga Nathan

Sanmuga Nathan

Abstract

styles, TGfU

1. Introduction

#### **Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model** Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model

#### Sanmuga Nathan Sanmuga Nathan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74033

#### Abstract

This chapter reveals the early development of eclectic game-based pedagogical model labeled as the Style 'E' Tactical (SET). The SET underpins Style E from Spectrum of Mosston teaching styles, variations of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) models and constraints-led theory. The efficacy of SET was first tested as an experimental research comparing with two other teaching approaches developed from Mosston teaching styles and TGfU known as Style B Tactical and Style H Tactical among secondary school boys. The findings revealed that the SET achieved learning outcomes that were better than, or equal to, the results obtained from the two other teaching approach, as for speed, knowledge, skill execution, and tactical decision-making in field hockey. In another research tested among Malaysian aborigines' primary school students in 5 versus 5 mini soccer games, findings indicated no significant difference in skill execution between SET and TGfU pedagogical models. Whereas in handball study, findings indicated significant improvement via TGfU, SET for skill execution, and decision-making in 4 versus 4 game play, increased in knowledge and interest compared to the technical model. To conclude, this SET could bridge the disparity between varying student-teacher centered in game learning; however, more research is needed to fulfill the claim.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74033

Keywords: SET pedagogical model, game play, varying skill levels, Mosston teaching styles, TGfU

### 1. Introduction

Physical education (PE) teachers may agree that helping elementary students mastering basic fundamental motor skills at times is very challenging as many will agree that direct instruction would be one of the best teaching approaches dealing with less-skilled and slow learners. Whereby, the fundamental motor skills such as catching, kicking, running, striking, throwing, jumping, and so on play an integral role as prerequisite elements for game play. Those students

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

with good grasp of these fundamental skills are able to catch up game play competence in secondary school much more easier compared to those students who are weak in fundamental skills. Therefore, the dilemma exists in game play instruction, when to use direct instruction or indirect such as employing game-based approaches (GBAs). In the lens of Malaysian PE classes, direct instruction approach via demonstration of skills and skill-led drills approach still considered useful before introducing game play approach for students in early primary years and secondary school in learning games. Based on some preliminary research in hockey and badminton, students need to be taught to practice game skills via skill drills prior introducing to tactical guided discovery game play approach. On the other hand, GBAs such as Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), Game Sense, and Play Practice, which are much sought types of pedagogical model via student-centered tactical inquiry approach, seem to be global approach [6, 15].

game is embarrassing for the slow runner and boring for the fast runner while playing with low-skilled runner or player [19]. Those children who are involved in after school experience in playing invasion games such as soccer, hockey, and basketball, to name some, can dominate learning tasks and playing games in physical education context to an extent than the lessskilled children. At most of the times, less-skilled children never get opportunities to practice passing because high-skilled children tackle and steal the ball quickly. Therefore, opportunity should be given in learning tasks or game play according to the children's skill and ability group. Teachers through their instructional approach can group the children based on their skill level and do not announce that you are arranging groups by ability and skill level, just do

Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model

225

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74033

Metzler highlighted that there has been a shift in the research paradigm among authors with the majority of research into skills-based learning becoming largely irrelevant in game teaching. Moreover, model-based approaches such as TGfU, Sports Education model, Fitness model to name a few seem to be much-sought instructional model in physical education lately compared to teaching styles instruction [10]. On the contrary, motor learning exponents heightened the importance of the influence of constraints-led theory factors such environment, task and performer that can shape game learning and game performance. As mentioned earlier, environments may influence children or students to grasp higher skill or ability than students who do not involve in after school activities. Considering on such scenario, it is pertinent for teachers to choose the right type of teaching and learning instructions and activities to cater all levels of students to match the motor, cognitive and affective levels.

Therefore, considering these pitfalls and pedagogical dilemmas, the author of this chapter introduces an eclectic pedagogical model known as Style E Tactical (SET). The development of Style E Tactical (SET) evolved around Style E or inclusion of Mosston teaching style, the original model of TGfU, revised TGfU model supported by tactical framework elements from Tactical Game Model by Mitchell, Grffin and Oslin and some elements from constraints-led

Theoretical background provides the provisions and guiding principle for the author to develop pedagogical model of Style E Tactical (SET). First, the author unpacked the underpinnings of spectrum of Mosston and Ashworth teaching style that do have some unique styles that are able to address and shaping of players on learning to play game [12]. As depicted in Figure 1, there are 11 styles arranging from teacher's centered teaching to student-centered learning styles. However, in this present SET pedagogical model, the Inclusion Style or Style E from this spectrum was selected. As this teacher-centered behavioral style as teacher provides opportunities for individual students or in groups to practice a task at their chosen entry level of difficulty. Furthermore, they too self-assess their performance using established teacherprepared criteria sheet. The early part of this lesson labeled pre-impact or the planning stage as the teacher prepares the task of subject matter or content and materials with different entry

it [21].

theory [2, 7, 11, 14–17].

2. SET pedagogical development

Tactical pedagogical model such as TGfU is a favorable global game learning approach proven by numerous research findings. However, when handling this approach, one must act with caution [5, 19, 20]. At times, this approach seems to be conundrum for slow and low-skilled learners to solve their game play problems as their cognition level, skill, and fitness do not support this approach. As game play configurations require players to grasp various elements such as basic motor skills, fitness, game tactical knowledge, rules and regulation, concentration, cooperation, and so on. Therefore, it is upheaval task for teachers to plan game activities especially employing tactical approach. What more in different situational learning environment with traditions, politics, and philosophy pose challenges for teacher in planning game play via GBAs.

Teaching games and enhance game playing abilities require a teacher to design various learning task considering students' varying abilities, learning environment, and biological and chronological developmental age. This requires teacher and educator to use different and eclectic models in dealing with students' varying abilities in game teaching and learning. Models seem to be entrusted game teaching and learning approach lately as it seems to be more holistic in curriculum alignment in sense of content, pedagogy and assessments [10, 16].

In the context of game teaching-learning in PE classes, the overall purpose of any means of instructions to fulfill three learning domains viz. psychomotor (motor), cognitive and affective. As Barret reiterated that all students learning tasks in PE be it motor, cognitive, and affective aspects require deliberate consideration and planning to cater the varying students' skill and ability levels. For example, motor aspect of passing a ball in hockey including hitting and pushing the ball to the partner. The skill of executing hitting and pushing to pass the ball, this skill needs to be learned before the players able to execute automatically [1]. Meanwhile, the affective aspects that include feeling of continuity of flow and the feeling of cooperation in executing the hockey task, players need to mold as well, whereas the cognitive aspects that include deciding whether to dribble or passing and deciding where to send the ball so as to score goals. Therefore, it is pertinent to consider these three domains, especially, and the motor domain as well as the cognitive and affective domain before preparing game play tasks, which are complex and chaotic for learning [8, 9].

Sometimes, it is necessary to group children by their ability levels in invasion games. Experts highlighted, a child who cannot run fast can never be tagged as the fast runner, so playing game is embarrassing for the slow runner and boring for the fast runner while playing with low-skilled runner or player [19]. Those children who are involved in after school experience in playing invasion games such as soccer, hockey, and basketball, to name some, can dominate learning tasks and playing games in physical education context to an extent than the lessskilled children. At most of the times, less-skilled children never get opportunities to practice passing because high-skilled children tackle and steal the ball quickly. Therefore, opportunity should be given in learning tasks or game play according to the children's skill and ability group. Teachers through their instructional approach can group the children based on their skill level and do not announce that you are arranging groups by ability and skill level, just do it [21].

Metzler highlighted that there has been a shift in the research paradigm among authors with the majority of research into skills-based learning becoming largely irrelevant in game teaching. Moreover, model-based approaches such as TGfU, Sports Education model, Fitness model to name a few seem to be much-sought instructional model in physical education lately compared to teaching styles instruction [10]. On the contrary, motor learning exponents heightened the importance of the influence of constraints-led theory factors such environment, task and performer that can shape game learning and game performance. As mentioned earlier, environments may influence children or students to grasp higher skill or ability than students who do not involve in after school activities. Considering on such scenario, it is pertinent for teachers to choose the right type of teaching and learning instructions and activities to cater all levels of students to match the motor, cognitive and affective levels.

Therefore, considering these pitfalls and pedagogical dilemmas, the author of this chapter introduces an eclectic pedagogical model known as Style E Tactical (SET). The development of Style E Tactical (SET) evolved around Style E or inclusion of Mosston teaching style, the original model of TGfU, revised TGfU model supported by tactical framework elements from Tactical Game Model by Mitchell, Grffin and Oslin and some elements from constraints-led theory [2, 7, 11, 14–17].

### 2. SET pedagogical development

with good grasp of these fundamental skills are able to catch up game play competence in secondary school much more easier compared to those students who are weak in fundamental skills. Therefore, the dilemma exists in game play instruction, when to use direct instruction or indirect such as employing game-based approaches (GBAs). In the lens of Malaysian PE classes, direct instruction approach via demonstration of skills and skill-led drills approach still considered useful before introducing game play approach for students in early primary years and secondary school in learning games. Based on some preliminary research in hockey and badminton, students need to be taught to practice game skills via skill drills prior introducing to tactical guided discovery game play approach. On the other hand, GBAs such as Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), Game Sense, and Play Practice, which are much sought types of pedagogical model via student-centered tactical inquiry approach, seem to be

224 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Tactical pedagogical model such as TGfU is a favorable global game learning approach proven by numerous research findings. However, when handling this approach, one must act with caution [5, 19, 20]. At times, this approach seems to be conundrum for slow and low-skilled learners to solve their game play problems as their cognition level, skill, and fitness do not support this approach. As game play configurations require players to grasp various elements such as basic motor skills, fitness, game tactical knowledge, rules and regulation, concentration, cooperation, and so on. Therefore, it is upheaval task for teachers to plan game activities especially employing tactical approach. What more in different situational learning environment with traditions, politics, and philosophy pose challenges for teacher in planning game play via GBAs. Teaching games and enhance game playing abilities require a teacher to design various learning task considering students' varying abilities, learning environment, and biological and chronological developmental age. This requires teacher and educator to use different and eclectic models in dealing with students' varying abilities in game teaching and learning. Models seem to be entrusted game teaching and learning approach lately as it seems to be more holistic in curriculum alignment in sense of content, pedagogy and assessments [10, 16]. In the context of game teaching-learning in PE classes, the overall purpose of any means of instructions to fulfill three learning domains viz. psychomotor (motor), cognitive and affective. As Barret reiterated that all students learning tasks in PE be it motor, cognitive, and affective aspects require deliberate consideration and planning to cater the varying students' skill and ability levels. For example, motor aspect of passing a ball in hockey including hitting and pushing the ball to the partner. The skill of executing hitting and pushing to pass the ball, this skill needs to be learned before the players able to execute automatically [1]. Meanwhile, the affective aspects that include feeling of continuity of flow and the feeling of cooperation in executing the hockey task, players need to mold as well, whereas the cognitive aspects that include deciding whether to dribble or passing and deciding where to send the ball so as to score goals. Therefore, it is pertinent to consider these three domains, especially, and the motor domain as well as the cognitive and affective domain before preparing game play tasks, which

Sometimes, it is necessary to group children by their ability levels in invasion games. Experts highlighted, a child who cannot run fast can never be tagged as the fast runner, so playing

global approach [6, 15].

are complex and chaotic for learning [8, 9].

Theoretical background provides the provisions and guiding principle for the author to develop pedagogical model of Style E Tactical (SET). First, the author unpacked the underpinnings of spectrum of Mosston and Ashworth teaching style that do have some unique styles that are able to address and shaping of players on learning to play game [12]. As depicted in Figure 1, there are 11 styles arranging from teacher's centered teaching to student-centered learning styles. However, in this present SET pedagogical model, the Inclusion Style or Style E from this spectrum was selected. As this teacher-centered behavioral style as teacher provides opportunities for individual students or in groups to practice a task at their chosen entry level of difficulty. Furthermore, they too self-assess their performance using established teacherprepared criteria sheet. The early part of this lesson labeled pre-impact or the planning stage as the teacher prepares the task of subject matter or content and materials with different entry

The original and revised models of TGfU [2, 7] were further blended with Tactical Game Model (TGM) by Mitchell, Griffin and Oslin [12]. As TGM proposes attacking strategy, defending strategy, and restarting as integral part, tactical strategy of game play as well as the importance of assessment in a game play, hence, Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) was introduced to assess the tactical decision-making, skill acquisition within small-sided

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Skill acquisition stems robustly among motor learning theory generator for long time and skill execution crucial for any game play. These motor learning advocates the values of constraintsled theory (CLT) in shaping and chaining players with game skills, movement skills and game play knowledge. The motor learning proponents argue that the constraints-led framework can help physical educators to build their teaching and learning instruction using different tasks, level of performer, and environmental constraints to explain how learners acquire movement skills and decision-making behaviors. The constraints-led approach was developed based on ecological psychology and dynamical system. The constraints-led theory, as shown in Figure 4, is divided into three categories such as performer, environments, and task as these factors that interact shape students' behaviors as created by Newell to provide a framework for under-

standing how skills and movement patterns emerge during task performance [17].

Figure 3. Revised TGfU model by Kirk and Macphail [7] with permission from Prof. David Kirk.

game play situations [14].

Figure 4. Constraints-led theory.

Figure 1. Mosston and Ashworth teaching styles (with permission from Sara Ashworth).

of difficulty level for all learners so that varying students will enjoy and capable of doing the planned task by the teacher. Next, the impact stage deals with the task or lesson intervention, while post-impact refers to reflection on teaching had on students learning.

On the other hand, the original TGfU model with six steps of learning as illustrated in Figure 2 was coined practically in Loughborough University in the late 1960s, much more sought learning game play model via tactic skill learning approach compared to linear and structured skill-led model [2, 13] despite TGfU being established as the instructional model globally in game curriculum of physical education and coaching setting. However, as mentioned by Kirk and Macphail, the original TGfU should be aligned with the emergence of new learning theory to stay relevant, therefore, revised TGfU model as reflected in Figure 3 also play an important role in supporting the original TGfU model [7].

Figure 2. Original TGfU model with permission from Rod Thorpe.

The original and revised models of TGfU [2, 7] were further blended with Tactical Game Model (TGM) by Mitchell, Griffin and Oslin [12]. As TGM proposes attacking strategy, defending strategy, and restarting as integral part, tactical strategy of game play as well as the importance of assessment in a game play, hence, Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) was introduced to assess the tactical decision-making, skill acquisition within small-sided game play situations [14].

Skill acquisition stems robustly among motor learning theory generator for long time and skill execution crucial for any game play. These motor learning advocates the values of constraintsled theory (CLT) in shaping and chaining players with game skills, movement skills and game play knowledge. The motor learning proponents argue that the constraints-led framework can help physical educators to build their teaching and learning instruction using different tasks, level of performer, and environmental constraints to explain how learners acquire movement skills and decision-making behaviors. The constraints-led approach was developed based on ecological psychology and dynamical system. The constraints-led theory, as shown in Figure 4, is divided into three categories such as performer, environments, and task as these factors that interact shape students' behaviors as created by Newell to provide a framework for understanding how skills and movement patterns emerge during task performance [17].

Figure 3. Revised TGfU model by Kirk and Macphail [7] with permission from Prof. David Kirk.

Figure 4. Constraints-led theory.

of difficulty level for all learners so that varying students will enjoy and capable of doing the planned task by the teacher. Next, the impact stage deals with the task or lesson intervention,

On the other hand, the original TGfU model with six steps of learning as illustrated in Figure 2 was coined practically in Loughborough University in the late 1960s, much more sought learning game play model via tactic skill learning approach compared to linear and structured skill-led model [2, 13] despite TGfU being established as the instructional model globally in game curriculum of physical education and coaching setting. However, as mentioned by Kirk and Macphail, the original TGfU should be aligned with the emergence of new learning theory to stay relevant, therefore, revised TGfU model as reflected in Figure 3 also play an important

while post-impact refers to reflection on teaching had on students learning.

Figure 1. Mosston and Ashworth teaching styles (with permission from Sara Ashworth).

226 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

role in supporting the original TGfU model [7].

Figure 2. Original TGfU model with permission from Rod Thorpe.

#### 2.1. The SET pedagogical model development

The innovative pedagogical model of Style E pedagogical model (SET) still at initial stages of development specially designed for invasion types of games learning such as hockey, soccer, and so on. The heuristic is being developed by principal researcher and SET creator Sanmuga Nathan [15, 16]. This model dwelled using various combination predominantly using Mosston's teaching style of E (Inclusion Style) in terms of pre-impact, impact and post-impact framework and activities merged with six steps of learning from original model of TGfU [2] and skill drills development and cues from revised TGfU model. Besides, this SET pedagogical underpins three important elements (task, performer and environment constraints) of constraint-led theory [17]. As learning game play and game performance to a great extent underpins the influence of learning task, the performer or students and environment condition during practicing game play. Therefore, lesson task designed by the teacher should consider the level of performers.

What is of value is an exploration of these models, from an integrated perspective, with the possibility that such a model could provide a firm basis leading toward the development of a stronger conceptual framework for teaching invasion games, with the additional bonus of optimization of individuals' different performances [16]. However, to date, still lack of research and practical experience in addressing players with different ability, skill level and environmental constraints learning the game play and upgrading game performance. The teaching and learning dovetails do consider the important dynamics of social interaction and emotional values of a varying range of students' skill levels and ability [15, 4]. As such, the SET pedagogical model aims to cater for students at different entry learning levels as well as a learner's emotional and social characteristics.

As Figure 5 represents schematic SET pedagogical caters students' varying skill abilities. With the intention of catering for students who have different levels of ability in games (high, medium and low), the emerging eclectic pedagogical model of SET was conceived to achieve an improvement in psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning output and outcomes as to support the product and process curriculum. Thus, the principal aim with this approach is to improve learning process and game play performance in terms of tactical decision-making and skill performance as well as social–emotional values. Through the application of the SET model, there is every probability that students' game learning and playing competency can be upgraded. The heart of SET pedagogical model and the lesson tasks were prepared during preimpact stage in three different difficult entry levels viz. high, medium, and low difficulty levels to cater students in three different skill levels. Meanwhile, in impact stage, the teacher clustered students into high-skilled, medium-skilled and low-skilled without informing the group according to their skill levels and enable them to engage tasks according to their skill level. Their game play task follows the sequence of activities: first activity involves warmingup and game-related strategies. The second activity is based on analyzing tactical topic, application discussed tactic in small-sided game play, and some tactical drills. The third

Figure 5. Schematic SET pedagogical caters students' varying skill abilities.

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Figure 5. Schematic SET pedagogical caters students' varying skill abilities.

2.1. The SET pedagogical model development

228 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

learner's emotional and social characteristics.

the level of performers.

The innovative pedagogical model of Style E pedagogical model (SET) still at initial stages of development specially designed for invasion types of games learning such as hockey, soccer, and so on. The heuristic is being developed by principal researcher and SET creator Sanmuga Nathan [15, 16]. This model dwelled using various combination predominantly using Mosston's teaching style of E (Inclusion Style) in terms of pre-impact, impact and post-impact framework and activities merged with six steps of learning from original model of TGfU [2] and skill drills development and cues from revised TGfU model. Besides, this SET pedagogical underpins three important elements (task, performer and environment constraints) of constraint-led theory [17]. As learning game play and game performance to a great extent underpins the influence of learning task, the performer or students and environment condition during practicing game play. Therefore, lesson task designed by the teacher should consider

What is of value is an exploration of these models, from an integrated perspective, with the possibility that such a model could provide a firm basis leading toward the development of a stronger conceptual framework for teaching invasion games, with the additional bonus of optimization of individuals' different performances [16]. However, to date, still lack of research and practical experience in addressing players with different ability, skill level and environmental constraints learning the game play and upgrading game performance. The teaching and learning dovetails do consider the important dynamics of social interaction and emotional values of a varying range of students' skill levels and ability [15, 4]. As such, the SET pedagogical model aims to cater for students at different entry learning levels as well as a

As Figure 5 represents schematic SET pedagogical caters students' varying skill abilities. With the intention of catering for students who have different levels of ability in games (high, medium and low), the emerging eclectic pedagogical model of SET was conceived to achieve an improvement in psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning output and outcomes as to support the product and process curriculum. Thus, the principal aim with this approach is to improve learning process and game play performance in terms of tactical decision-making and skill performance as well as social–emotional values. Through the application of the SET model, there is every probability that students' game learning and playing competency can be upgraded. The heart of SET pedagogical model and the lesson tasks were prepared during preimpact stage in three different difficult entry levels viz. high, medium, and low difficulty levels to cater students in three different skill levels. Meanwhile, in impact stage, the teacher clustered students into high-skilled, medium-skilled and low-skilled without informing the group according to their skill levels and enable them to engage tasks according to their skill level. Their game play task follows the sequence of activities: first activity involves warmingup and game-related strategies. The second activity is based on analyzing tactical topic, application discussed tactic in small-sided game play, and some tactical drills. The third activity revolves around skill discussion and application skill execution in small-sided game play plus skill drill activities. Then, the fourth activity proposes efficient application tacticalskill in game play situation, as at this stage, the students will be evaluated using modified game play observation instrument (GPAI) and limbering down. Oral and written reflection will made by students and teacher at the post-impact lesson stage.

Table 1 illustrates some lesson guiding principle and tactical framework (attacking strategy, defending strategy and restarting game play) in planning game-based lessons for invasion game such as field hockey, while Table 2 depicts wall and net game play herewith an example of badminton game play. The game lesson dwelled around using tactical topics, learning standard (1 refers to Psychomotor, 2 refers to cognitive and 3 refers to affective standards), learning objectives through psychomotor, cognitive and affective domains correspond to learning standards through SET pedagogical model.


On the other hand, Tables 3a and 3b provides a lesson plan and task card using SET pedagogical model for hockey, while Tables 4a and 4b illustrate a lesson plan and task card for badminton. These lesson plans were planned based on learning content, learning standard, learning objectives in terms of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domain, teaching aids, ways to foster critical and creative thinking skills and assessments based on three objectives domain. The manipulation of lesson activities based on different game situation, discussion and application of tactics, skills via guided discovery approach predominantly and some skill drills with cue perception to improve skill developments, different task cards for students in varying skill groups of high-skilled (HS), medium-skilled (MS) and low-skilled (LS). As per lesson, each group of students will be provided with task cards to assist their learning pursuit

Learning objective domains Learning standards

3, and 5 vs 5 game play

engaging in the activities

in defense in field hockey

vs 3 and 5 vs 5 game play

engaging in the activities

vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game play

engaging in the activities

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

game

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

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1. Able to use skill such as ball control, passing, dribbling, anticipating, and tackling

2.1. Able to describe the importance in field hockey. 2.2. Able to justify when and to use skill such as ball control, passing, dribbling, anticipating, and tackling in defense and repossesses the ball from attacking players. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

1. Able to employ correct push or hit skills with accuracy during the restarting of the

2.1. Able to describe the importance push and hit in field hockey. 2.2. Able to justify when and to use skill such as push or hit skills with accuracy during the restarting of the game. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3

Standard-based curriculum propagates the importance of curriculum alignment of instructional design and assessment. Therefore, Table 5 presents game play instrument adapted from

as depicted in Tables 3b and 4b.

Unit Topics: tactical problems/ assessments

4 Prevention of Scoring -Winning the ball

> Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

5 Restarting Play - Push in - Hit in Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

defending space

ball back

game play

play

restarting of the game

Affective: So that the students enjoy the game

Affective: Appreciation and enjoyment of the

Psychomotor : So that the players will employ correct push or hit skills with accuracy during the

Cognitive: To encourage players to make correct tactical decisions, using declarative and procedural game knowledge

Affective: So that the students enjoy the game

Table 1. Invasion game topics, learning standard, learning objectives, and assessment.

Psychomotor: So that players are able to use skill such as ball control, passing, dribbling, anticipating, and tackling in defense. Players can repossesses the ball from attacking players Cognitive: Tactical decision making using declarative and procedural knowledge to win the


Table 1. Invasion game topics, learning standard, learning objectives, and assessment.

activity revolves around skill discussion and application skill execution in small-sided game play plus skill drill activities. Then, the fourth activity proposes efficient application tacticalskill in game play situation, as at this stage, the students will be evaluated using modified game play observation instrument (GPAI) and limbering down. Oral and written reflection

Table 1 illustrates some lesson guiding principle and tactical framework (attacking strategy, defending strategy and restarting game play) in planning game-based lessons for invasion game such as field hockey, while Table 2 depicts wall and net game play herewith an example of badminton game play. The game lesson dwelled around using tactical topics, learning standard (1 refers to Psychomotor, 2 refers to cognitive and 3 refers to affective standards), learning objectives through psychomotor, cognitive and affective domains correspond to

Learning objective domains Learning standards

1. Able to execute ball control and execute accurate passing skills of in field hockey 2.1. Able to describe the importance of ball control and passing skills. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use passing skills. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

1. Able to execute ball control and execute accurate skills of passes, dribble, anticipate, tackle and score goals in field hockey 2.1. Able to describe the importance of passes, dribble, anticipate, tackle and score goals in field hockey. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use passes, dribble, anticipate, tackle and score goals. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

1. Able to defend space and goal skills from

2.1. Able to describe the importance such as ball control, passing, dribbling, anticipating, and tackling in defense in field hockey. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use passes, dribble, anticipate, tackle and score goals. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 s 2, 3 vs

engaging in the activities

attacking team in field hockey

vs 5 game play

play

engaging in the activities

Psychomotor: To create players who are able to possess, retain the ball, and be able to make

Cognitive: So players can utilize the declarative knowledge of the games and are able to make basic tactical decisions during the game Affective: To learn to enjoy the game play

Psychomotor: To permit players to be able to control the ball and make skillfully make accurate passes, dribble, anticipate, tackle and score goals To enhance players, not in possession of the ball, ability to be able to provide "width"

Cognitive: Players are able to make meaningful tactical decisions related to passing, dribbling,

Affective: To enable players to enjoy the game

Psychomotor: Players know how to defend the space and goal from the attacking team. Players are able to use skill, such as ball control, passing, dribbling, anticipating, and tackling in defense. So that players can repossesses the ball from

Cognitive: Players are able to make correct tactical decisions using declarative and procedural knowledge to win the ball when

and support to the attacking players

tackling and scoring goals

attacking players

accurate passes to teammates

will made by students and teacher at the post-impact lesson stage.

230 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

learning standards through SET pedagogical model.

Unit Topics: tactical problems/ assessments

> Maintaining ball possession Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

2 Scoring/attack - Attacking the goal - Creating space in attack Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

3 Prevention of scoring/defense - Defending space - Winning the ball

> Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

1 Scoring

On the other hand, Tables 3a and 3b provides a lesson plan and task card using SET pedagogical model for hockey, while Tables 4a and 4b illustrate a lesson plan and task card for badminton. These lesson plans were planned based on learning content, learning standard, learning objectives in terms of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domain, teaching aids, ways to foster critical and creative thinking skills and assessments based on three objectives domain. The manipulation of lesson activities based on different game situation, discussion and application of tactics, skills via guided discovery approach predominantly and some skill drills with cue perception to improve skill developments, different task cards for students in varying skill groups of high-skilled (HS), medium-skilled (MS) and low-skilled (LS). As per lesson, each group of students will be provided with task cards to assist their learning pursuit as depicted in Tables 3b and 4b.

Standard-based curriculum propagates the importance of curriculum alignment of instructional design and assessment. Therefore, Table 5 presents game play instrument adapted from


Unit Topics: tactical problems, assessments

> strategy and defending strategy Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

Learning standard:

Learning objectives

situations

Learning development

Phase 1 Discussion on strategy of attacking and defending tactics, Dynamic warm-up with hockey sticks

Preimpact (planning done by teacher)

5. Scoring

Learning objectives Learning standards

Class: Grade 5-6 Time: 8.00-9.00 Topic: attacking strategy, ball control, and dribbling

1. Able to execute ball control, dribbling skills of in field hockey. 2.1. Able to describe the importance of ball control and dribbling skills .2.2. Able to justify when and where to use dribbling skills. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game play. 3.1. Able

Psychomotor: Students different skills group (High Skills (HS), Medium Skills (MS), and Low Skills (LS) able to execute

Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and encouraging doubles mini game play

Elements across curriculum (EMK): Creative and critical in examining tactics and skills in field hockey. Teaching aids:

Evaluation of T&L: Skills execution and tactical decision making base on modified GPAI observation instrument.

and so on.

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and cover space

ball control, dribbling and cover skills, technically sound in 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game play situations

1. Able to execute executive skills of forehand and backhand overhead drop short badminton 2.1. Able to describe various movement skill to skills of underhand and overhead drop short. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use underhand and overhead drop short. As well as when and where to apply open space and close space tactics while attacking and defending strategy during doubles game play

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233

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

engaging in the activities

Organization Discovery (discussion

Teacher divides students based on ability level, without telling them their ability level. Teacher guides the group to choose the activities such 2 vs 2. 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5. Adjusting game play size, goalmouth, ball

Based on skill groups. Students in the given specific area roll, tap and control ball ac warming up activities

and questions)

Topic of discussion difficulty varies according skill groups. Groups will provided with task cards.

Q: Why do roll and tap

A: To control ball and important for 3 vs 3 dribbling activities.

ball

situations

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton forehand and backhand drop short, technically sound in doubles mini game play

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and close space during defending strategy in doubles mini game play situations Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and

encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Table 2. Net/wall game topics, learning standard, learning objectives, and assessment.

during attacking and defending strategy in 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, 5 vs 5 game play situations

Reflection: By teacher and students reflection using affective assessment

Activities of T& L (instructional activities)

MS, and LS)

Teacher plans activities based on students' different ability levels (HS,

Warming-up activities with sticks and ball using zigzag running and ball control skills with roll and tap as dominant activities

situations

to demonstrate happiness while engaging in the activities

Racket, shuttle, nets, skittles, poster, video


Table 2. Net/wall game topics, learning standard, learning objectives, and assessment.

Unit Topics: tactical problems, assessments

1 Restarting (Service) Scoring strategy Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

2 Scoring

3. Scoring

4. Scoring

strategy and defending strategy Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

strategy and defending strategy Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

strategy and defending strategy Adopted GPAI Affective domain assessment

Learning objectives Learning standards

1. Able to execute high, low forehand backhand service badminton game play 2.1. Able to describe high, low and backhand service. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

1. Able to execute movement skills to base, as well as able to executive skills of forehand overhead-underhand stroke of clear in

2.1. Able to describe various movement skills to base, skills of underhand and overhead stroke of clear. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use underhand and overhead stroke of clear. When and where to apply open space and close space tactics while attacking and defending strategy during doubles game play

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

1. Able to execute movement skills to base, forehand overhead-underhand stroke of clear

2.1. Able to describe various movement skills to base, skills of underhand and overhead stroke of clear. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use underhand and overhead stroke of clear. As well as when and where to apply open space and close space tactics while attacking and defending strategy during

1. Able to execute executive skills of forehand and backhand overhead drop short badminton 2.1. Able to describe various movement skills to skills of underhand and overhead drop short. 2.2. Able to justify when and where to use underhand and overhead drop short. As well as when and where to apply open space and close space tactics while attacking and defending strategy during doubles game play

3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

engaging in the activities

doubles game play situations 3. Able to demonstrate happiness while

engaging in the activities

engaging in the activities

situations

use low and high service

engaging in the activities

badminton

situations

in badminton

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton skills of high, low forehand and backhand service, technically sound in game

232 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply where to send high, low forehand and backhand back service during offensive strategy in badminton game play situations Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and

encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and close space during defending strategy in doubles mini game play situations Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and

encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and close space during defending strategy in doubles mini game play situations Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and

encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and close space during defending strategy in doubles mini game play situations Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and

encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton forehand and backhand drop short, technically sound in doubles mini game play

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton movement skills to the base, forehand overhead clear as well as underhand stroke of clear, technically sound in doubles

mini game play situations

situations

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton movement skills to the base, forehand overhead clear as well as underhand stroke of clear, technically sound in and singles

doubles mini game play situations

play situations

#### Class: Grade 5-6 Time: 8.00-9.00 Topic: attacking strategy, ball control, and dribbling

#### Learning standard:

1. Able to execute ball control, dribbling skills of in field hockey. 2.1. Able to describe the importance of ball control and dribbling skills .2.2. Able to justify when and where to use dribbling skills. When and where to apply open space tactics while attacking and when to cover while applying defending strategy during 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game play. 3.1. Able to demonstrate happiness while engaging in the activities

#### Learning objectives

Psychomotor: Students different skills group (High Skills (HS), Medium Skills (MS), and Low Skills (LS) able to execute ball control, dribbling and cover skills, technically sound in 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, and 5 vs 5 game play situations

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply when and where to create space in attacking strategy and cover space during attacking and defending strategy in 2 vs 2, 3 vs 3, 5 vs 5 game play situations

Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and encouraging doubles mini game play situations

Elements across curriculum (EMK): Creative and critical in examining tactics and skills in field hockey. Teaching aids: Racket, shuttle, nets, skittles, poster, video

Evaluation of T&L: Skills execution and tactical decision making base on modified GPAI observation instrument. Reflection: By teacher and students reflection using affective assessment



Class: Form one Time: 8.00-9.00 Topic: Badminton (Forehand stroke)

1. Able to execute high, low forehand backhand service badminton game play. 2.1. Able to describe high, low forehand, and backhand service. 2.6.3. Able to justify when and where to use low and high service. 3. Able to demonstrate

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton skills of high, low forehand and backhand service, technically sound in

Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and encouraging doubles mini game play

Learning development Activities of T& L (instructional activities) Organization Discovery (discussion

and questions)

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cards.

Half court singles Q: Why footwork

Topic of discussion: Question for discussion varies difficulties according skill groups. Groups will be provided with task

important in badminton game play? (HS and MS). Q: How to execute footwork? (HS and MS). Q: Where do you send the softball so that you win a point (LS)?

Q: How do you score a point in badminton? (HS, MS, LS)) Q: How do you stop your opponent from scoring? (HS, MS, LS) Q: How can you push your opponent back? (HS, MS) After pushing your opponent back at baseline, where the space you can attack? (HS, MS). Q: How do you attack the front space rather? (HS) What skill do you use? (HS and MS)

Q: What sort of service, could you use or single and doubles game play? (HS, MS).

Teacher divide students base on ability level, without telling them their ability level. Teacher guides the group to choose the

activities

Half court single 1 vs. 1 (Forehand grip and game play, Q&A, 15 minutes for HS) .1 vs 1 (Forehand grip and game play 12 min

1 vs 1 ( forehand grip and game play with Q &A 12 min for LS)

Half court singles 1 vs. 1 (forehand high and low service)

for MS)

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply where to send high, low forehand and backhand back service during

Elements across curriculum (EMK): Creative and Critical thinking in examining tactics and skills

Teacher plan activities based on students different abilities level (HS, MS and LS)

Warm-up: students in HS and MS practicing footwork from the base to the base of court. Looking at pictures and video students create warming up activities via footwork. LS play forehand service

Mini game situation 1 (Creating space): Push and attacking opponent at open space at the back. Work across the grid in half court singles using overhead clear

game with volleyball

Skill drills Forehand service

Evaluation of T &L: High and low service execution and tactical decision making (GPAI instrument)

Learning standard:

Learning Objectives

game play situations

situations

Pre-impact (Planning done by teacher)

Phase 1 Warm up, and followed discussion o skills (10 min)

Phase 2 Planning and applications of tactics and skills (15 min)

Phase 3 Planning and applications of skills (Q& A forehand high

happiness while engaging in the activities

offensive strategy in badminton game play situations

Teaching Aids: Racket, shuttle, nets, skittles, poster, video

Reflection: By teacher and students (before, during and after game play)

Table 3a. An SET pedagogical model lesson plan for field hockey.


Table 3b. A task card for field hockey game play activities.

GPAI instrument with permission from Mitchell, which is able to assess students' game play performance in terms of psychomotor, cognitive domain, and affective domain-based SET pedagogical model. Based on adapted GPAI instrument, teacher can observe students' varying skill levels modified small-sided game through various parameters of game play such as psychomotor domain ball control, support players without ball, skill execution (passing, dribbling, tackling and scoring), cognitive domain, (passing, dribbling, tackling, and scoring), and affective domain (positive and negative behaviors as reflected in Table 6).

Q: How do you attack the goalmouth? A: Passing, looking open space to attack at goal mouth. Q: How do you cover your opponent from scoring in your goalmouth? A: Man-man tackle or zone marking.

Q: How do dribble ball A: Using low or high dribble especially employing India dribble

technique.

Cooling down Summary and reflective

discussion.

Task: Creating space for attack and closing space and cover while defending in 3 vs 3 (LS)/8 min (1 set of

i. Dribble and ball control in pairs

Task: Efficient skill execution in 3 vs 3 (LS)/8 min (2 set of goal mouth)

ii. Cover in two pairs Learning task 2 Mini game situation 2

Learning task 1 Mini game situation 1

goal mouth) Skill drills in groups

#### Class: Form one Time: 8.00-9.00 Topic: Badminton (Forehand stroke)

Learning standard:

1. Able to execute high, low forehand backhand service badminton game play. 2.1. Able to describe high, low forehand, and backhand service. 2.6.3. Able to justify when and where to use low and high service. 3. Able to demonstrate happiness while engaging in the activities

#### Learning Objectives

GPAI instrument with permission from Mitchell, which is able to assess students' game play performance in terms of psychomotor, cognitive domain, and affective domain-based SET pedagogical model. Based on adapted GPAI instrument, teacher can observe students' varying skill levels modified small-sided game through various parameters of game play such as psychomotor domain ball control, support players without ball, skill execution (passing, dribbling, tackling and scoring), cognitive domain, (passing, dribbling, tackling, and scoring), and

XXXXXXXXX (HS, MS, LS)

T (Teacher)

Task: Creating space for attack and closing space and cover while defending in 3 vs 3 for 10 min (1 set of

i. Dribble and ball control in pairs

Task: Efficient skill execution 3 vs 3 for 10 min (2 sets of goal mouth)

ii. Cover in two pairs Learning task 2 Mini game situation 2

affective domain (positive and negative behaviors as reflected in Table 6).

Phase 2 Planning and applications of tactics and skills (15 min)

Phase 3

Phase 4 Reflection (5 min) Affective Assessment

Learning task 1 Mini game situation 1

goal mouth) Skill drills in groups

Task: Creating space for attack and closing space and cover while defending in 3 vs 3 for 12 min (2 sets of

i. Dribble and ball control in pairs

Task: Efficient skill execution in 4 vs 4 for 10 min (4 set of goal mouth)

Table 3b. A task card for field hockey game play activities.

ii. Cover in two pairs Learning task 2 Mini game situation 2

Skill drills (15 min) Planning and applications skills ball control, dribbling and cover in game play (15 min) Adapted GPAI observation

Mini game 1

Group skill drills i. Dribble and ball control

ii. Cover in two pairs. Mini game 2

Reflection and cooling

Table 3a. An SET pedagogical model lesson plan for field hockey.

HS group MS group LS group

Learning task 1 Mini game situation 1

goal mouth) Skill drills in groups

4 vs 4 (HS)/12 min ( 2 sets of goal mouth),12 min 3 vs 3 (MS)/10 min (1 set of goal mouth), 3 vs. 3 (LS)/8 min (2 set of goal mouth)

in pairs

Closure

down

Creating space for attack and closing space and cover while defending 3 vs 3 (HS)/12 min ( 2 sets of goal mouth), 3 vs 3 (MS)/10 min (1 set of goal mouth), 3 vs 3 (LS)/8 min (1 set of goal mouth)

234 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Psychomotor: Students able to execute badminton skills of high, low forehand and backhand service, technically sound in game play situations

Cognitive: Students able to discuss and apply where to send high, low forehand and backhand back service during offensive strategy in badminton game play situations

Affective: Students able to take responsibility to organize, administer positive and encouraging doubles mini game play situations

#### Elements across curriculum (EMK): Creative and Critical thinking in examining tactics and skills

Teaching Aids: Racket, shuttle, nets, skittles, poster, video

Evaluation of T &L: High and low service execution and tactical decision making (GPAI instrument) Reflection: By teacher and students (before, during and after game play)


and backhand low service application in skill drills and game play) (30 min) Teacher teach forehand and backhand service

2 vs 2 (backhand low

service)

### (LS) Mini game situation 2

i. Application of forehand high, low service in single using half court. ii. Skill drills

#### Backhand service

Mini game situation 3 ii. Application of backhand low service in single using full court

forehand high, low and backhand service? (HS, MS). Q: How to execute forehand service? A: Forehand grip. Shake hands with racquet, thumb on ten o'clock, all four fingers wrapped around the grip. Thumb and first finger of the hand create a "V" shape on the racket handle. Palm is leading the movement, fingers are spread Q: How to execute backhand service? (HS, MS).A: Use a short, relaxed thumb grip. Place the racket out in front of the body. Place shuttle on racket. Backswing. Take the racket back a short distance. Open racket face slightly. Make forward swing. Push through and strike the shuttle out of the hand and follow through.

> training model showed that performance was retained from posttest 1 to posttest 2 without the training intervention of speed of execution of general hockey skills as compared with the other two training models F(2,148) = .201, p < 0.01. As for declarative and procedural knowledge, the three programs SET, SBT, and SHT training programs indicated significant improvement at posttest 1, with Wilks' Lambda = .920, F(4, 420) = 4.51, p < 0.01. On the other hand, for ball control, decision-making (passing, dribbling, tackling, scoring) and skill execution (passing, dribbling, tackling, scoring) showed that the SET model together with SBT and SHT training models produced significant improvement immediately after training intervention for ball control, decision-making and skill execution in 3 versus 3 game play at posttest 1, Wilks' Lambda = .676, F(6, 188) = 6.773, p < 0.05. However, the SET training model only showed sustainability or retention of performances for skill execution from posttest 1 to posttest 2.

HS group MS group LS group

Learning task 1

via footwork. Learning task 2 Tactical (Creating space)

court

Table 4b. A task card for field badminton game play activities.

Warm-up: students in MS practicing footwork from the base to the base of court. Looking at pictures and video students create warming up activities Learning task 1

teacher instruction) Learning task 3 (20 min) Forehand service and skill drills –

teacher instruction Mini game situation 2.: Application of forehand high, low

service in 1 vs 1.

teacher instruction Mini game situation 3.: Application of backhand low service in single using full court-

teacher instruction

volleyball Learning task 2 Tactical (Creating space) Half court single

LS play forehand service game with

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1 vs 1 (Forehand grip and creating space game play 12 minutes though

Backhand service and skill drills –

1 vs. 1 (Forehand grip and creating space game play 12 minutes, via Q&A, Learning task 3 (25 min)

Q & A Forehand service and skill drills Mini game situation 2. Application of forehand high, low service in 1 vs 1. Q & A backhand service and skill drills Mini game situation 3.: Application of backhand low service in single using full

Learning task 1

via footwork. Learning task 2 Tactical (Creating space )

court

Warm-up: students in HS practicing footwork from the base to the base of court. Looking at pictures and video students create warming up activities

1 vs. 1 (Forehand grip and creating space game play 15 minutes, via Q&A, Learning task 3 (30 min)

Q & A Forehand service and skill drills Mini game situation 2. Application of forehand high, low service in 1 vs 1. Q & A backhand service and skill drills Mini game situation 3.: Application of backhand low service in single using full

In another quasi-experimental physical education study, Farihan Sulong examined the effects of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) and Style E tactical (SET) pedagogical model on aborigines' primary school student in 5 versus 5 mini game in Malaysia using intact sampling of, n = 30, male, aged 10 12 years old who were equally divided into two groups of TGfU and SET [3]. This study completed 6 weeks of intervention. Players' game performances were evaluated in terms of decision-making (attacking and defending), skill execution (passing, receiving the ball, dribbling and scoring) in a modified game situation of 5 versus 5. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Findings indicated there was no significant difference in game component of skill execution between these two pedagogical models. However, as for decision-making, component findings indicated there was significant difference between the

Q: When do you use

Phase 3 Reflection (5 min) Closure Reflection and cooling down Whole Cooling down Summary and reflective discussion.

Table 4a. An SET pedagogical model lesson plan for badminton.

#### 2.2. Research findings

The initial work of SET model was compared with two other developed teaching models, which have combination of TGfU and Style B and H from Mosston teaching style characteristics. These two styles labeled as SBT (Style B combined with Tactical element of TGfU) and SHT (Style H combined with tactical elements of TGfU) [14]. Through the application of the SET model to practical game training in the sport of field hockey, this model was tested and evaluated using balanced factorial design with repeated measures technique. Analysis of the results revealed that the SET model achieved learning outcomes that were better than, or equal to, the results obtained from the two other teaching models for most learning domains (general skill, knowledge and ball control, decision-making, skill execution in mini game play and interest) specifically for the sport of field hockey. As for speed and accuracy for the execution of general hockey skills, it is revealed that the SET model together with SBT and SHT training models demonstrated a significant improvement in speed and accuracy, immediately after the training intervention (posttest 1), Wilks' Lambda = .888, F(4, 426) = 6.492, p < 0.01. The SET

Table 4b. A task card for field badminton game play activities.

2.2. Research findings

Phase 3 Reflection (5 min)

and backhand low service application in skill drills and game

Teacher teach forehand and backhand service

(LS) Mini game situation 2

ii. Skill drills Backhand service

Mini game situation 3

single using full court

Reflection and cooling down

Closure

Table 4a. An SET pedagogical model lesson plan for badminton.

i. Application of forehand high, low service in single using half court.

236 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

2 vs 2 (backhand low

Whole Cooling down

Summary and reflective

discussion.

Q: When do you use forehand high, low and backhand service? (HS, MS). Q: How to execute forehand service? A: Forehand grip. Shake hands with racquet, thumb on ten o'clock, all four fingers wrapped around the grip. Thumb and first finger of the hand create a "V" shape on the racket handle. Palm is leading the movement, fingers are spread Q: How to execute backhand service? (HS, MS).A: Use a short, relaxed thumb grip. Place the racket out in front of the body. Place shuttle on racket. Backswing. Take the racket back a short distance. Open racket face slightly. Make forward swing. Push through and strike the shuttle out of the hand and follow through.

service)

ii. Application of backhand low service in

play) (30 min)

The initial work of SET model was compared with two other developed teaching models, which have combination of TGfU and Style B and H from Mosston teaching style characteristics. These two styles labeled as SBT (Style B combined with Tactical element of TGfU) and SHT (Style H combined with tactical elements of TGfU) [14]. Through the application of the SET model to practical game training in the sport of field hockey, this model was tested and evaluated using balanced factorial design with repeated measures technique. Analysis of the results revealed that the SET model achieved learning outcomes that were better than, or equal to, the results obtained from the two other teaching models for most learning domains (general skill, knowledge and ball control, decision-making, skill execution in mini game play and interest) specifically for the sport of field hockey. As for speed and accuracy for the execution of general hockey skills, it is revealed that the SET model together with SBT and SHT training models demonstrated a significant improvement in speed and accuracy, immediately after the training intervention (posttest 1), Wilks' Lambda = .888, F(4, 426) = 6.492, p < 0.01. The SET training model showed that performance was retained from posttest 1 to posttest 2 without the training intervention of speed of execution of general hockey skills as compared with the other two training models F(2,148) = .201, p < 0.01. As for declarative and procedural knowledge, the three programs SET, SBT, and SHT training programs indicated significant improvement at posttest 1, with Wilks' Lambda = .920, F(4, 420) = 4.51, p < 0.01. On the other hand, for ball control, decision-making (passing, dribbling, tackling, scoring) and skill execution (passing, dribbling, tackling, scoring) showed that the SET model together with SBT and SHT training models produced significant improvement immediately after training intervention for ball control, decision-making and skill execution in 3 versus 3 game play at posttest 1, Wilks' Lambda = .676, F(6, 188) = 6.773, p < 0.05. However, the SET training model only showed sustainability or retention of performances for skill execution from posttest 1 to posttest 2.

In another quasi-experimental physical education study, Farihan Sulong examined the effects of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) and Style E tactical (SET) pedagogical model on aborigines' primary school student in 5 versus 5 mini game in Malaysia using intact sampling of, n = 30, male, aged 10 12 years old who were equally divided into two groups of TGfU and SET [3]. This study completed 6 weeks of intervention. Players' game performances were evaluated in terms of decision-making (attacking and defending), skill execution (passing, receiving the ball, dribbling and scoring) in a modified game situation of 5 versus 5. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Findings indicated there was no significant difference in game component of skill execution between these two pedagogical models. However, as for decision-making, component findings indicated there was significant difference between the


3. Conclusion

Name of student: ……………

Points

Acknowledgements

Author details

Sanmuga Nathan

Malaysia

The SET pedagogical is still an early part of implementation; therefore, more research and validation are needed to further improve the SET pedagogical model across different culture and background. This pedagogical model could bridge the disparity between teacher-centered approach and students' game learning across physical education and coaching context.

Affective Domain Assessment Net and Wall Games (Field hockey)

Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model

239

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74033

The purpose of this assessment is to keep track of behaviors displayed by students learning tasks and game play. Whether or not you assign a point value to the categories is your decision. Keep in mind that games are self-officiated, so there will

Supports and encourages teammates Lacks any show of support or encouragement for teammates

Class: ……… Evaluated name:………………… Team: …………. Observation date: ……..

be opportunities to observe students taking responsibility for their behavior

Acceptable behaviors Unacceptable behaviors

Follows all call without argument Argues or breaks rules regularly

Positive behavior identified 5 4 3 2 1 negative behavior identified

Table 6. Game play observation instrument for affective domain.

Other Other Total Total

Adapted with permission Mitchell et al. [12].

The author would like to extend sincere appreciation and gratitude to the Education Ministry of Malaysia in allowing to access and conduct studies with Malaysian students. The author also acknowledges and expresses gratitude to Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Universiti Sains Malaysia for supporting the author to conduct research and publish the abovementioned SET pedagogical model. The author would like to extend sincere thanks to TGfU colleagues Prof. Steve Mitchell, Prof David Kirk, and Sir Rod Thorpe for giving permission to utilize their models and instruments and also Prof. Sarah Ashworth, the co-developer

of Mosston teaching styles and host of others that were mentioned here.

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (Sultan Idris Education University), Tanjung Malim,

Address all correspondence to: sanmuga@fsskj.upsi.edu.my

Adopted GPAI with permission Mitchell et al. [12].

Table 5. Game play observation instrument for psychomotor and cognitive domain.

TGfU (7.33 4.92) and SET (3.86 2.55), F (1,28) = 5.85, p = .022, p < 0.05) after intervention. As conclusion, SET needs further research to confirm the as effective as TGfU model for aborigines' students for game play outcome. In another study, Palanippan investigated the effect of TGfU, SET Pedagogical Style and Technical model among junior secondary school boys 13 14 via quasi-experimental study in terms of skill execution (passing and scoring) and tactical decision-making (passing and scoring) in 4 versus 4 mini game play and enjoyment aspect in handball [18]. The results revealed that there was a significant improvement using instructional models of TGfU, SET and Technical on the posttest score for passing, scoring and decision-making ability in 4 versus 4 game play. Qualitative findings for enjoyment aspect showed that TGfU and SET instructional models enhanced students' skill mastery, knowledge and increase of interest compared to the Technical model.

#### Affective Domain Assessment Net and Wall Games (Field hockey)

Name of student: …………… Class: ……… Evaluated name:………………… Team: …………. Observation date: …….. The purpose of this assessment is to keep track of behaviors displayed by students learning tasks and game play. Whether or not you assign a point value to the categories is your decision. Keep in mind that games are self-officiated, so there will be opportunities to observe students taking responsibility for their behavior Points Positive behavior identified 5 4 3 2 1 negative behavior identified Acceptable behaviors Unacceptable behaviors Supports and encourages teammates Lacks any show of support or encouragement for teammates Follows all call without argument Argues or breaks rules regularly Other Other Total Total

Adapted with permission Mitchell et al. [12].

Table 6. Game play observation instrument for affective domain.

### 3. Conclusion

The SET pedagogical is still an early part of implementation; therefore, more research and validation are needed to further improve the SET pedagogical model across different culture and background. This pedagogical model could bridge the disparity between teacher-centered approach and students' game learning across physical education and coaching context.

### Acknowledgements

The author would like to extend sincere appreciation and gratitude to the Education Ministry of Malaysia in allowing to access and conduct studies with Malaysian students. The author also acknowledges and expresses gratitude to Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Universiti Sains Malaysia for supporting the author to conduct research and publish the abovementioned SET pedagogical model. The author would like to extend sincere thanks to TGfU colleagues Prof. Steve Mitchell, Prof David Kirk, and Sir Rod Thorpe for giving permission to utilize their models and instruments and also Prof. Sarah Ashworth, the co-developer of Mosston teaching styles and host of others that were mentioned here.

### Author details

TGfU (7.33 4.92) and SET (3.86 2.55), F (1,28) = 5.85, p = .022, p < 0.05) after intervention. As conclusion, SET needs further research to confirm the as effective as TGfU model for aborigines' students for game play outcome. In another study, Palanippan investigated the effect of TGfU, SET Pedagogical Style and Technical model among junior secondary school boys 13 14 via quasi-experimental study in terms of skill execution (passing and scoring) and tactical decision-making (passing and scoring) in 4 versus 4 mini game play and enjoyment aspect in handball [18]. The results revealed that there was a significant improvement using instructional models of TGfU, SET and Technical on the posttest score for passing, scoring and decision-making ability in 4 versus 4 game play. Qualitative findings for enjoyment aspect showed that TGfU and SET instructional models enhanced students' skill mastery, knowledge

GAME OBERVATION INSTRUMENT FOR HOCKEY (Adopted GPAI)

5 = Very effective performance, 4 = Effective performance (Usually), 3 = Moderately effective performance (Sometimes), 2 =

• Skill execution (passing, dribbling, tackling and scoring) – Players pass the ball accurately, reaching the intended

Name/Number BC DM SE SUP

pass drib tack sc pass drib tac sc

• Decision making (passing, dribbling, tackling and scoring)- Players make appropriate choice when passing, dribbling, tackling and scoring (i.e., passing to unguarded teammates to set up a scoring opportunity – right

• Support – Players attempt to move into position to receive a pass from teammates (i.e., forward the goal)

AGE GROUP: …………………. Team: ……………………. Game: ………

238 Advanced Learning and Teaching Environments - Innovation, Contents and Methods

Key: BC: Ball Control, DM: Decision Making SE: Skill Execution pass: passing, drib: dribbling, tack: tackling sc: scoring, sup: support

Date:……………. Evaluator: …………………………………,

Very weak performance, 1= Very weak performance (Never)

• Ball control –Players able to control the ball

Adopted GPAI with permission Mitchell et al. [12].

Team:……………………….

Scoring Key

Components and Criteria

receiver

decision)

and increase of interest compared to the Technical model.

Table 5. Game play observation instrument for psychomotor and cognitive domain.

Sanmuga Nathan

Address all correspondence to: sanmuga@fsskj.upsi.edu.my

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (Sultan Idris Education University), Tanjung Malim, Malaysia

### References

[1] Barret. I wish I could fly. A philosophy in motion; 1972. In Rovegno I, Bandhauer D, editors. Elementary Physical Education Curriculum and Instruction. Burlington, USA: Jones and Bartlett Learning; 2013. pp. 70-83

presented at the Asia Pacific Sports Education Conference. 21 January 2008; Flinders

Style E Tactical Pedagogical Model

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[15] Nathan S. Badminton instructional in Malaysian schools: a comparative analysis of TGfU and SDT pedagogical models. Springer Plus. 2016;5:1215. DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2872-3

[16] Nathan S, Haynes J. A move to an innovative games teaching model: Style E Tactical (SET). Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education. 2013;4(3):287-302.

[17] Newell KM. Constraints on the development of coordination. In: Wade MG, Whiting HTA, editors. Motor Development in Children. Aspects of Coordination and Control.

[18] Palanipan V. The effect of TGfU and SET instructional models towards handball game configuration among form two boys [Unpublished PhD dissertation]. Tanjung Malim:

[19] Rink J. Teaching Physical Education for Learning. New York: McGraw Hill Education;

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presented at the Asia Pacific Sports Education Conference. 21 January 2008; Flinders University, Australia

[15] Nathan S. Badminton instructional in Malaysian schools: a comparative analysis of TGfU and SDT pedagogical models. Springer Plus. 2016;5:1215. DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-2872-3

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**Chapter 14**

**Provisional chapter**

**Learning Styles in Physical Education**

**Learning Styles in Physical Education**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72503

The learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological traits concerning how students perceive and process information, which is why their knowledge is relevant to enhance the methodologies of classes by teachers and learning strategies by students. Although there are several models that define and evaluate learning styles, a few of them have been used in physical education, highlighting the theories of Alonso, Gallego and Honey, the Kolb model, Herrmann's theory of brain dominance and Model VAK. The few studies carried out in this sample show a preference for reflexive, divergent, dominated B (organized) and D (holistic) styles and for a kinesthetic style. Further studies are required on how students perceive and process information in various areas of education, with the aim of contributing with one more tool to improving the teaching-learning process.

**Keywords:** learning styles, physical education, reflective, diverging, dominance,

The term learning style refers to the fact that people use different methods to learn. Although these strategies vary according to what one wants to know, each one develops and enhances cognitive traits, preferences, and tendencies to face a knowledge process, aspects that are defined as a learning style [1]. In 2007, Camargo and Hederich [2] defined the concept of style, explaining that its origin does not correspond to the educational context, but comes from the arts, referring to the characteristics of an esthetic trend identifiable and distinctive. According to Camargo and Hederich, the term style begins to be used in psychology toward the decade of 1950 to talk about

Hernán Díaz Muñoz and Luis Valenzuela Contreras

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

certain differentiating or individualizing traits in the characterization of a person.

Fernando Maureira Cid, Elizabeth Flores Ferro,

Fernando Maureira Cid, Elizabeth Flores Ferro, Hernán Díaz Muñoz and Luis Valenzuela Contreras

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72503

**Abstract**

kinesthetic

**1. Introduction**

**Provisional chapter**
