**Author details**

disease other than cIMT, although cIMT has been better represented in preventative measures [68]. It has been suggested that plaque numbers and cIMT may be involved in cognitive impairment and dementia [66]. These studies report early intervention of atherosclerosis to prevent cognitive impairment [72]. It is obvious that carotid atherosclerosis can be a potential target for early intervention and risk management for those at risk for cognitive decline. A recent study was performed under the hypothesis that cognitive performance in the dominantly affected domain would be related to carotid plaque burden and cIMT, and cognitive decline would be shown differently in the racial and ethnical diverse Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS) [93]. They indicated that elderly individuals with a larger cIMT have a higher future risk of progression to MCI or dementia. It is required to monitor patients for earlier detection of cognitive dysfunction [93]. Additionally, they identified a cutoff value for predicting cognitive impairment progression (0.825 mm of cIMT), which corresponds to the cutoff values for predicting stroke

Considering the role of vascular blood factors in patients with MCI, some blood factors suggested in our previous study may also influence the progression of cognitive decline [94]. However, there are currently no markers for prognostication or the risk of conversion from MCI to dementia. Therefore, it is necessary to develop noninvasive diagnostic methods for the assessment of vascular status [80]. This aspect is discussed further in the next section along with my results. Our results may provide a route for determining the most appropriate treat-

According to recent research, trends of dementia prevalence and incidence have been reported, which are based on healthcare and insurance databases, clinical records, and meta-analysis. These studies have not currently provided how to control the recent trends of cognitive function about diagnosis, clinical details, or public awareness for it. Nonetheless, researchers and clinicians are agreeing that long-term determinants are needed for both healthy and unhealthy aging in the most of society. Furthermore, it goes on the efforts to reduce risk of

Clinically and pathologically, atherosclerosis is an important disease in a worldwide aging society. It has been shown that innate immune factors and adaptive immune factors are associated with the atherosclerotic process since inflammatory mechanisms are identified as major causes in patients. A number of studies have identified several potential targets for therapy. Unfortunately, however, inflammation is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis progression in humans. Researchers have tried to evaluate the mechanism of immunerelated therapies in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Along with inflammation-related mechanisms, autophagy in atherosclerosis is also responsible for the foam cell formation and insoluble oxLDL uptake and clearance in human atherosclerotic lesions. Autophagic macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-beta and interleukin-6, and these cytokines are not immunologically silenced during the autophagic process. Lipid droplets

and CVD in the previous report [93].

110 Atherosclerosis - Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

dementia by maintaining health with age.

**6. Conclusions**

ment strategy for patients with MCI or multiple diagnoses.

Kyoung Joo Cho<sup>1</sup> \* and Gyung Whan Kim<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: nehemier@gmail.com

1 Department of Life Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon, South Korea

2 Department of Neurology, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
