**2. Properties of jet fuel**

Turbine engine fuel for aviation uses is a petroleum based fuel similar in properties to kerosene, although newer biofuels and synthetic fuels are under development. Liquid hydrocarbon based fuels are considered ideal for transportation use because they are more easily handled than solids and have a higher energy density than gasses. In most cases, fuel for aviation purposes is of a higher quality than fuels for heating or road transportation purposes. The higher quality requires a greater degree of refining to significantly reduce the level of sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen containing components. It is still thought that the heteroatom containing compounds are responsible for many of the issues of deposit formation and low temperature oxidation.

Fuel for turbine engines is produced meeting one of several specifications. Early turbine engines ran on kerosene based fuel. Over time, a wide cut fuel incorporating gasoline and kerosene was developed for use by the US military, because it was thought availability would be better. It was found, however to increase casualties and evaporation of fuel. It is still currently used in cold regions under the Jet B specification. In the rest of the world, commercial aviation has used a kerosene based fuel under the specification Jet A, Jet A-1 [2] or TS-1. Some


**Table 1.** Physical properties of some common jet fuels.

properties of each of the commercial jet fuels are shown in **Table 1**. The US military also has a number of different fuel designations; although JP-5 and JP-8 are the most commonly used and are kerosene based fuels.

compatibility issues are possible. Other aspects of storage standards require that the fuel remain free of contaminants, including surfactants, other petroleum products, microorganisms and dyes. All of these types of contaminants can arise from many sources, but careful

The storage and delivery of aviation fuels is carefully regulated and must meet certain standards Including maintaining the purity of the fuel and safety of the aircraft and ground crew [1]. In this chapter, the contamination of fuel from only a few sources will be considered; in particular water contamination, contamination with solids formed by reaction to the fuel with oxygen and contamination due to microorganisms. Finally, some of the challenges associated

Turbine engine fuel for aviation uses is a petroleum based fuel similar in properties to kerosene, although newer biofuels and synthetic fuels are under development. Liquid hydrocarbon based fuels are considered ideal for transportation use because they are more easily handled than solids and have a higher energy density than gasses. In most cases, fuel for aviation purposes is of a higher quality than fuels for heating or road transportation purposes. The higher quality requires a greater degree of refining to significantly reduce the level of sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen containing components. It is still thought that the heteroatom containing compounds are responsible for many of the issues of deposit formation and low

Fuel for turbine engines is produced meeting one of several specifications. Early turbine engines ran on kerosene based fuel. Over time, a wide cut fuel incorporating gasoline and kerosene was developed for use by the US military, because it was thought availability would be better. It was found, however to increase casualties and evaporation of fuel. It is still currently used in cold regions under the Jet B specification. In the rest of the world, commercial aviation has used a kerosene based fuel under the specification Jet A, Jet A-1 [2] or TS-1. Some

Place of use United States Western Europe Parts of Canada and Alaska

**Property Jet A Jet A-1 Jet B**

Flash point 38°C 38°C 28°C Freezing point −40°C −47°C −51°C Energy content 42.8 MJ/kg 42.8 MJ/kg 42.8 MJ/kg Aromatics 25% 25% 25%

**Table 1.** Physical properties of some common jet fuels.

Type of fuel Kerosene Kerosene Wide cut

Density 0.775–0.840 g/cm3 0.775–0.840 g/cm3 0.750–0.801 g/cm3

storage can minimize the hazards associated with some.

with the transition to alternate fuels will be discussed.

**2. Properties of jet fuel**

194 Flight Physics - Models, Techniques and Technologies

temperature oxidation.

While these properties can be met by a number of different fuel sources, the composition of the fuels can be quite different. In many cases, it is the trace heteroatom containing compounds that negatively affect the chemistry of the fuel, especially under storage conditions. In many instances, additives are included in the fuel in order to reduce the reactivity of the heteroatom containing compounds, but the additives themselves may contribute to the reactivity of the fuel. Several of the common additives found in jet fuels are described in **Figure 1** and **Table 2** [3].

**Figure 1.** Chemical structures of some common additives found in fuels.


**Table 2.** Some common additives found in jet fuel.
