**6.2. Influencing factors on travel behaviors**

#### *6.2.1. Association of job type with travel behaviors*

Due to differences in the job types undertaken by WHMs, the structural factor of industry work patterns had an impact on the time available for tourism. The different industries that WHMs were working in led to a variety of travel behaviors.

#### *6.2.1.1. Travel behaviors and work patterns on a "weekly" scale*

For labor-based agricultural work, due to their long weekly hours and physically demanding jobs, WHMs mostly chose to return home to rest after work. Hence, short-distance travel behaviors were not frequent. As mentioned by one participant, *"Farming is probably the most tiring job. I went to bed immediately after going back" (J1, 2014)*. Another participant also mentioned, *"At night, the most I would do is watch films and relax because I worked the entire day" (A1, 2014).* As the tourist services industry is also affected by the peak and off-peak seasons, a similar phenomenon was observed. During the peak season, WHMs had long and intense working hours every day. For example, WHMs who undertook hotel cleaning jobs in Canada had to work for eight hours a day. Hence, short-distance travel behaviors were not easy for jobs with such characteristics. As mentioned by one participant, *"Working in hotels involved eight hours a day, 40 hours a week. I was working fully during the weekdays and had no time to have fun so I could save more money" (C2, 2014).*

As for the general service industry, due to the 2-day weekend system, WHMs had shorter working hours and more flexible work schedules. For example, working as a waiter in Canada involved about 4- or 5-h work days. Hence, WHMs could use the time after work or vacation time for short-distance travel behaviors. One participant stated, *"They rest two days a week and the café did not need to be open then, so I could plan trips over the weekend. I was quite lucky" (C3, 2014).*

#### *6.2.1.2. Travel behaviors and work patterns on a "yearly" scale*

The agricultural industry mostly involves seasonal labor work that is intensive but short term. The work transition period provides the perfect opportunity for WHMs to engage in long-distance travel behaviors. As mentioned by one participant, *"Farms are seasonal. Once the farm work has ended, you will need to wait more than two months for the next job. So, for a long period of time, I was having fun" (A2, 2014).*

The tourism industry, with its peak and off-peak seasons, also showed the same phenomenon. This type of job was mainly concentrated in the tourist seasons, for example, during the skiing season in Canada, the maple season in Japan, and so on. Some of the WHMs used their job transition period to undertake long-distance travel behaviors. For example, one participant stated, *"Usually, I do not travel very far. If you want to travel far, it can only be during the period between ending one job and transitioning to another job. Then, you can have more fun" (J2, 2014).*

As for the general service industry, due to the more advanced job requirements and more professional content of work, employers often hope that WHMs can be long-term employees. Hence, under the limitations of these job conditions, WHMs must remain in a fixed city for a long period of time and work intensively until the final few months of their visa. Then, they will quit their job and engage in long-term and long-distance travel behaviors. One participant stated, *"As work was more intensive, I worked until a certain stage and only then began to have fun. I had the most fun during the last month and a half" (C1, 2014).*

#### *6.2.2. Association with transport modes*

*not the same as seeing it on the television" (A1, 2014)*. Another participant also mentioned, *"For those who play basketball, when they come here (North America), they must see the NBA. The games* 

The spatial travel behaviors of WHMs are often restricted by the industry type and work patterns that they undertake. Thus, their travel behaviors show temporal and spatial differences, for example, regarding time allocation, job type, transportation, and other factors; hence, they exhibit a variety of patterns. This echoes the concept of time geography proposed by Hägerstraand [11], which emphasizes the temporal factors of human activities in space. Humans are influenced by multiple structural factors, which restrict the extent of their living in geographical space [11].

Due to differences in the job types undertaken by WHMs, the structural factor of industry work patterns had an impact on the time available for tourism. The different industries that

For labor-based agricultural work, due to their long weekly hours and physically demanding jobs, WHMs mostly chose to return home to rest after work. Hence, short-distance travel behaviors were not frequent. As mentioned by one participant, *"Farming is probably the most tiring job. I went to bed immediately after going back" (J1, 2014)*. Another participant also mentioned, *"At night, the most I would do is watch films and relax because I worked the entire day" (A1, 2014).* As the tourist services industry is also affected by the peak and off-peak seasons, a similar phenomenon was observed. During the peak season, WHMs had long and intense working hours every day. For example, WHMs who undertook hotel cleaning jobs in Canada had to work for eight hours a day. Hence, short-distance travel behaviors were not easy for jobs with such characteristics. As mentioned by one participant, *"Working in hotels involved eight hours a day, 40 hours a week. I was working fully during the weekdays and had no time to have* 

As for the general service industry, due to the 2-day weekend system, WHMs had shorter working hours and more flexible work schedules. For example, working as a waiter in Canada involved about 4- or 5-h work days. Hence, WHMs could use the time after work or vacation time for short-distance travel behaviors. One participant stated, *"They rest two days a week and the café did not need to be open then, so I could plan trips over the weekend. I was quite lucky" (C3, 2014).*

The agricultural industry mostly involves seasonal labor work that is intensive but short term. The work transition period provides the perfect opportunity for WHMs to engage in

*make you high" (C2, 2014).*

**6.2. Influencing factors on travel behaviors**

84 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

*6.2.1. Association of job type with travel behaviors*

*fun so I could save more money" (C2, 2014).*

WHMs were working in led to a variety of travel behaviors.

*6.2.1.1. Travel behaviors and work patterns on a "weekly" scale*

*6.2.1.2. Travel behaviors and work patterns on a "yearly" scale*

*6.1.3. Re-analysis*

The selection of transport mode and transport costs had an impact on WHMs' travel behaviors. If WHMs had a private car for transport, they were not restricted by public transportation. Hence, not only did they have high mobility, they kept a high level of flexibility in their itinerary planning and were more prone to exhibiting long-distance travel behaviors. As stated by one participant, *"Australia is very big. We bought a car so it was convenient to travel anywhere, and we went to all the places that we should have gone. So, we thoroughly enjoyed ourselves" (A1, 2014)*. WHMs will often use car rentals to travel. This not only gives them the freedom to travel but also the costs of renting the car can be split among many individuals, which helps promote long-distance travel behaviors. As mentioned by one participant, *"When we go for outings, we often rent a car. For example, we drove to Kakadu and Uluru, which saved us some money for the whole trip" (A2, 2014).*

Compared to driving their own cars, the limitations of taking public transport to travel, for example, VIA Rail in Canada, include low mobility, fewer tourist spots, and longer travel times. Moreover, sightseeing is only possible near rail or bus stations, which limits the types of tourist activities. For example, one participant stated, *"Taking the railway in Canada takes a long time, with only a few stops in the middle. So, you can only visit the places near the station for a few hours, and cannot go too far" (C1, 2014).* However, taking public transport for sightseeing within cities had the advantage of reducing travel costs, which enabled WHMs to engage in more short-distance travel behaviors. As mentioned by another participant, *"One advantage of the monthly pass was that on Family Day and during the weekends, each pass allowed two people to travel free of charge. So, during the weekends, we went shopping and on outings together. The fares during the holidays were cheaper" (C1, 2014).*

#### *6.2.3. Re-analysis*

The present study found that for the general service industry, the working hours were short and vacations were flexible, which benefitted short-distance travel behaviors during the weekdays, including regular recreational activities, participation in social gatherings, and cultural experience activities. Furthermore, the general service industry has more advanced job requirements, which implied that the long-term employment involved was not favorable to longdistance travel behaviors. Therefore, WHMs mostly used the final few months of their visas to engage in long-distance travel activities, such as visiting special attractions or participating in specific festival activities. Conversely, the tourism and agriculture industries are affected by the peak and off-peak seasons in the industry and also involve intensive and concentrated working hours. Hence, WHMs could not easily engage in short-distance travel behaviors, whereas their long-distance travel behaviors could be arranged between job transition periods.

In addition, the mode of transport could promote individuals' spatial mobility. Different modes of transport had different effects on the spatial mobility of individuals' travel behaviors, although advances in transport technology have transformed the mode of movement among tourists, giving them more flexibility and mobility during their travels. Public transport results in traveling being more linear, and the spatial travel behavior of tourists is limited to the transport corridors, for example, along railway lines or shipping routes [28]. The present study found that WHMs' travel behavior was closely related to their choice of transport type, which influenced the duration and spatial range of their travel behaviors. WHMs who rented or bought second-hand cars for travel did not have temporal or spatial limitations due to the mobility of cars. Hence, they were free to choose their travel itinerary and time spent at tourist attractions. Conversely, WHMs who took public transport had more temporal and spatial restrictions, which was less conducive to long-distance travel behaviors.
