*2.4.1. Environmental management systems, ISO 14001 and EMAS*

The ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards appeared in 1996 (the first edition) and are intended to assist organizations manage the environmental effect of their activity. The ISO 14001 standard gives the generic requirements for an environmental management system (EMS) and promotes useful tools for managing environmental impact of the organization activity. EMS is based on process approach, the system' processes including establishing the organization's environmental policy, planning the EMS and implementing it, checking for corrective actions, and management review [71]. The organizations compliant with this standard are able to avoid risks and costly mistakes by incorporating environmental controls into daily operations.

ISO 14001 is designed to reduce environmental damage and industrial waste, and it applies to all businesses. Tourism is one of the domains where the environmental issues occupy a key position. In the hotel industry, especially, there are various initiatives for the environmental preservation, given that hotels have a significant environmental impact, and therefore, their contributions and responsibilities toward the environment should not be ignored. The hotel industry uses large amounts of energy resources for functions such as transportation, cleaning and laundering, food services etc., and it also releases waste in different forms. Accordingly, environmental dimensions of hotels include water, energy, wastes, purchasing, emissions, indoor air quality, and noise [72]. Considering these aspects, the implementation of environmental management practices is essential for all hotel operations, resulting in a greater sustainable development of the hotel industry. In this regard, Peiró-Signes et al. say that "sustainability is actually one of the main opportunities for the hospitality industry" [73]. As Vaz points out, within the tourism domain, "sustainability seems to be the backbone which supports and allows the reconciliation of the different interests of tourism suppliers, tourists, and local communities" [74]. All these actors must take into account the economic, environmental, and social aspects of products and production systems and to carry out sustainable practices within their daily activity.

As more and more tourism organizations, and especially hotels, are interested in implementing environmentally friendly practices, many are looking to ISO 14001 certification to help them achieve their goals. There are several studies that reflect the growing interest of tourism organizations and destinations for implementation and certification of EMSs based on the ISO 14001 model. Some of these workpapers illustrate the results of the EMSs implementation, based on case studies [75–78]. The effects are measured by reducing energy consumption, raw materials, and maintenance costs, with all these savings resulting in additional profit. Some researchers specify that the EMSs implementation can bring benefits to a company not only regarding the economic results, but also in terms of improving the company's image [79], and clients' perception related to hotel comfort and quality [73]. Chan and Hsu review and synthesize 149 hospitality-related studies published in the last two decades. In conclusion of this analysis, they found the increasing of the EMS maturity, the evolution of the environment approach in organizations from the basic issues, related to environmental policies and practices, to the environmental indicators and benchmarking [80].

However, ISO 14001 certification has a small share in the tourism industry. Based on the survey conducted in 36 hotels from different parts of New Zealand, Ustad points out the existence of several models for environmental certification. This analysis shows that a small number of surveyed hotels (6%) are ISO 14001 certified, the majority of the hotels having environmental systems based on Qualmark Green and Green Globe 21 models. The analysis also shows that there are hotels with more than one certification: 44% of the hotels surveyed hold only one certification, 31% of the hotels have two types of certifications, and a further 8% of hotels have three environmental certifications [72]. Matysek and Krivoken make a similar observation on certification patterns used in the Australian tourism industry, where the certification based on specific environmental models was preferred to the EMS certification in compliance with ISO 14001 [81]. These specific tourism patterns will be presented in Section 2.4.2.

Another general model, "Eco-Management, and Audit Scheme" (EMAS), exists in Europe. EMAS, which predates the ISO 14000 standards, is a voluntary regulation that was created to promote improved environmental performance among the EU companies. According to the European Committee for Standardization, compliance with ISO 14001 satisfies most of EMAS' requirements, but the European regulation takes into account additional elements to support organizations that continuously improve their environmental performance [82].

In the tourism field, in 2013, about 300 hotels, camping grounds, nature reserves, and other leisure and accommodation facilities in Europe were using EMAS to improve their environmental performance. Among them are such prestigious names as the Ritz Carlton and Scandic hotels in Berlin, and educational tours operator Studiosus [82]. Recently, a guideline was elaborated, aiming to promote EMAS and the EU ecolabel in the tourism sector in line with the objectives of the European Commission framework, starting from successful initiatives already implemented. More details on the EU ecolabels are presented in Section 2.4.2.

#### *2.4.2. Specific environmental models, and marks in tourism*

*2.4.1. Environmental management systems, ISO 14001 and EMAS*

172 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

controls into daily operations.

tainable practices within their daily activity.

practices, to the environmental indicators and benchmarking [80].

The ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards appeared in 1996 (the first edition) and are intended to assist organizations manage the environmental effect of their activity. The ISO 14001 standard gives the generic requirements for an environmental management system (EMS) and promotes useful tools for managing environmental impact of the organization activity. EMS is based on process approach, the system' processes including establishing the organization's environmental policy, planning the EMS and implementing it, checking for corrective actions, and management review [71]. The organizations compliant with this standard are able to avoid risks and costly mistakes by incorporating environmental

ISO 14001 is designed to reduce environmental damage and industrial waste, and it applies to all businesses. Tourism is one of the domains where the environmental issues occupy a key position. In the hotel industry, especially, there are various initiatives for the environmental preservation, given that hotels have a significant environmental impact, and therefore, their contributions and responsibilities toward the environment should not be ignored. The hotel industry uses large amounts of energy resources for functions such as transportation, cleaning and laundering, food services etc., and it also releases waste in different forms. Accordingly, environmental dimensions of hotels include water, energy, wastes, purchasing, emissions, indoor air quality, and noise [72]. Considering these aspects, the implementation of environmental management practices is essential for all hotel operations, resulting in a greater sustainable development of the hotel industry. In this regard, Peiró-Signes et al. say that "sustainability is actually one of the main opportunities for the hospitality industry" [73]. As Vaz points out, within the tourism domain, "sustainability seems to be the backbone which supports and allows the reconciliation of the different interests of tourism suppliers, tourists, and local communities" [74]. All these actors must take into account the economic, environmental, and social aspects of products and production systems and to carry out sus-

As more and more tourism organizations, and especially hotels, are interested in implementing environmentally friendly practices, many are looking to ISO 14001 certification to help them achieve their goals. There are several studies that reflect the growing interest of tourism organizations and destinations for implementation and certification of EMSs based on the ISO 14001 model. Some of these workpapers illustrate the results of the EMSs implementation, based on case studies [75–78]. The effects are measured by reducing energy consumption, raw materials, and maintenance costs, with all these savings resulting in additional profit. Some researchers specify that the EMSs implementation can bring benefits to a company not only regarding the economic results, but also in terms of improving the company's image [79], and clients' perception related to hotel comfort and quality [73]. Chan and Hsu review and synthesize 149 hospitality-related studies published in the last two decades. In conclusion of this analysis, they found the increasing of the EMS maturity, the evolution of the environment approach in organizations from the basic issues, related to environmental policies and As several studies show [45, 79, 83], the environmental management in hotels started in the USA in the form of initiatives by various associations and activities which begun in 1993, when the Prince of Wales launched the International Hotels Environment Initiative (IHEI). But the environmental certification of tourism services began in Europe, with the Blue Flag Campaign for beaches in Denmark, in 1987, and the "Silberdistel" label for lodgings and restaurants in Austria, in 1988. According to Bien, in the decade between the Earth Summit (1992) and the International Year of Ecotourism (2002), more than 60 environmental tourism programs were developed, and their number continued to grow [45]. In connection with these programs is the usage of environmental labels, which are symbols—pictures or logos indicating that a product has been manufactured and operates in consideration of the environment. In other words, labeling gives information about the environmental impacts associated with the production or use of a product.

Currently, there are many different environmental certification systems and corresponding awards and ecolabels. A synthesis of the best known certification programs for sustainable tourism launched in the middle of 1990s is presented by Hensens [52] and includes global application models, e.g., Green Globe (1993), Green Key (1994), Leaders in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED, 2000), and regional application models, e.g., Green Key Global—applied in USA and Canada, Green Leaf Eco Standards—in South Africa etc. The main environmental programs are also presented by Goldstein and Primlani, which differentiate the next three categories: Environmental Certification Programs Specific to Hospitality, Green Building Certification Programs, and Product-Specific Standards and Certification Programs [84]. In addition, there are environmental certifications of tourism organizations based ISO 14001 and EMAS models, whereof it was talking in Section 2.4.1.

The global list of environmentally friendly and sustainable tourism certification programs, labels, and standards has been continuously compiled and updated by ECOTRANS, a European network of experts and organizations involved in tourism, environment, and regional development founded in 1993. ECOTRANS is running the DestiNet portal, which offers a free Knowledge Base and DestiNet Services for making tourism more sustainable. The data provided by DestiNet show that today there are more than 100 independent certificates for environmentally friendly and/or sustainable tourism services, destinations, and tour operators [85]. The large majority of these environmental programs and labels are in Europe, and fewer are performed in Africa, Asia-Pacific, the Caribbean, and the Americas.

Certification models for environmental systems apply in tourism organizations, but the success of these actions largely depends on the national framework of the environment approach in tourism. In this regard, an example of good practice is Australia, where the environment certification programs in tourism are coordinated by Ecotourism Australia (EA), an organization created in 1991, which in 1996 launched the world's first National Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) [83].

Awarding the environmental marks and ecolabels are based on certification programs that include specific criteria. In order to develop a common language about sustainability in tourism, a set of Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC) has been promoted since the early 1990s, by UNWTO together with The Rainforest Alliance, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The GSTCs are organized around four main themes: (1) Effective sustainability planning; (2) Maximizing social economic benefits for the local community; (3) Enhancing cultural heritage; (4) Reducing negative impacts to the environment. In present, there are two sets of global criteria: Hotel & Tour Operator Criteria (GSTC-H&TO) and Destination Criteria (GSTC-D). The current version of these criteria is available online [86] According to Hall et al., GSTC specifies minimum requirements for tourism businesses and destinations to protect resources and promote responsible travel practices [87].

The European Commission also has several initiatives for sustaining sustainable development of tourism in Europe. In chronological order, they include sectoral reference documents (SRD) for the tourism sector in addition to EMAS [88], the EU ecolabels, and the two specific tools for the sustainable management of destinations, namely QUALITEST and ETIS, already presented in Section 2.3.

The EU ecolabel was established in 1992 and forms an important component of the European Commission's strategy to support green growth and ecoinnovation. The "EU ecolabel" (the Flower) applies in all domains, including tourism. Awarding this mark for tourist accommodations is a voluntary certification based on specific criteria and can be requested by all types of accommodation facilities (hotels, guest houses, mountain lodges, private room providers, tourist farms, and camp grounds) for environmentally friendly tourist accommodations. Currently, there are two separate sets of criteria and labeling schemes: one for tourist accommodation services (TAS) and the second for campsite services (CSS). The application of the EU ecolabel is officially recognized throughout the EU for tourist accommodations from 2003 (2003/287/EC) and for campsite services from 2005 (2005/338/EC), respectively.

global application models, e.g., Green Globe (1993), Green Key (1994), Leaders in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED, 2000), and regional application models, e.g., Green Key Global—applied in USA and Canada, Green Leaf Eco Standards—in South Africa etc. The main environmental programs are also presented by Goldstein and Primlani, which differentiate the next three categories: Environmental Certification Programs Specific to Hospitality, Green Building Certification Programs, and Product-Specific Standards and Certification Programs [84]. In addition, there are environmental certifications of tourism organizations

The global list of environmentally friendly and sustainable tourism certification programs, labels, and standards has been continuously compiled and updated by ECOTRANS, a European network of experts and organizations involved in tourism, environment, and regional development founded in 1993. ECOTRANS is running the DestiNet portal, which offers a free Knowledge Base and DestiNet Services for making tourism more sustainable. The data provided by DestiNet show that today there are more than 100 independent certificates for environmentally friendly and/or sustainable tourism services, destinations, and tour operators [85]. The large majority of these environmental programs and labels are in Europe,

Certification models for environmental systems apply in tourism organizations, but the success of these actions largely depends on the national framework of the environment approach in tourism. In this regard, an example of good practice is Australia, where the environment certification programs in tourism are coordinated by Ecotourism Australia (EA), an organization created in 1991, which in 1996 launched the world's first National Ecotourism Accreditation

Awarding the environmental marks and ecolabels are based on certification programs that include specific criteria. In order to develop a common language about sustainability in tourism, a set of Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC) has been promoted since the early 1990s, by UNWTO together with The Rainforest Alliance, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The GSTCs are organized around four main themes: (1) Effective sustainability planning; (2) Maximizing social economic benefits for the local community; (3) Enhancing cultural heritage; (4) Reducing negative impacts to the environment. In present, there are two sets of global criteria: Hotel & Tour Operator Criteria (GSTC-H&TO) and Destination Criteria (GSTC-D). The current version of these criteria is available online [86] According to Hall et al., GSTC specifies minimum requirements for tourism businesses

and destinations to protect resources and promote responsible travel practices [87].

The European Commission also has several initiatives for sustaining sustainable development of tourism in Europe. In chronological order, they include sectoral reference documents (SRD) for the tourism sector in addition to EMAS [88], the EU ecolabels, and the two specific tools for the sustainable management of destinations, namely QUALITEST and ETIS, already

The EU ecolabel was established in 1992 and forms an important component of the European Commission's strategy to support green growth and ecoinnovation. The "EU ecolabel" (the Flower) applies in all domains, including tourism. Awarding this mark for

based ISO 14001 and EMAS models, whereof it was talking in Section 2.4.1.

174 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

and fewer are performed in Africa, Asia-Pacific, the Caribbean, and the Americas.

Program (NEAP) [83].

presented in Section 2.3.

In the context of growing interest in ecolabeling, in the last decades, the number of studies related to the extension, implementation, and effectiveness of these programs has been increasing. According to Lubbert, "there is a myriad of ecolabels of varying quality, criteria, contents, and scope, causing customer confusion to the point of preferring to ignore them" [83]. Hamele appreciates that Europe has far more "green" certification programs than any other region of the world [89]. As Golden outlines, the rapid proliferation of ecolabels in the market is accompanied by a high level of redundancy [90]. In Mihalic's opinion, some tourism ecolabels have poor reputation and suffer from lack of credibility. They often refer to the natural environment and do not take into account the social and economic aspects [91].

Ban et al. underline the benefits of ecolabeling for tourists, tourist enterprises, and tourism industry. In the authors' opinion, an ecolabel will always be related to economic efficiency, although it requires a longer period of achievement [92]. The impact eco certification has on purchase behavior is one of the predilection objects of research: several case studies indicate that the majority of tourists does not seem to be affected by eco certifications [93, 94], and others, referring to Europe, show that ecolabeling represents an important communication gate to consumers, almost half of the respondents saying that ecolabeling plays an important role in their purchasing decisions [95].

But, although there are many environmental programs and ecolabels, some researchers consider that ecolabeling in the tourism industry is still in early stage [95, 96]. According to Graci and Dodds, despite there have been efforts in America and Europe to implement environmental certification schemes, "certification doesn't appear to have a significant effect on spreading sustainable tourism practices overall" [97]. In order to improve the certification efficacy, Graci and Dodds formulate some recommendations including developing international standards and a clear ecolabeling system; linking quality with environmental and social criteria; focusing on educational and training programs for the industry and consumers too. One example on the linkage between eco certification and quality is presented by Dodds and Joppe, who speak about the partnership between Green Globe and Australia's AAA to award green stars to products, using an existing quality standard to promote eco principles [98]. To be awarded a Green Star, an accommodation property must achieve a set of environmental criteria, including energy efficiency, waste minimisation, and water management. Green Stars make it possible to identify tourism businesses committed to reducing the environmental impacts of their operation.

It must mention that integrating quality and environment systems is an actual objective of the organizations in all areas, and it materializes in so-called "integrated management systems" (IMSs). According to Beckmerhagen, the integration is achieved through "putting together the different functions and elements of specific management systems into a single and more effective IMS" [99] and can embrace all the processes and elements that need to be controlled by organization. It is important to stress that the IMS collocation, as defined above, refers to all management systems based on international standards (e.g., QMS—ISO 9001, EMS—ISO 14001, etc.) and should not be confused with the IQM systems for quality assurance in tourist destinations (see Section 2.3).
