**3. Research methodology and methods**

Time geography can serve as a basic framework for travel behaviors, focusing on identifiable spatial and temporal features in human activity movement paths. Time geography explores the spatial range of movements within a given time period, made by individuals who exist within a specific period and location [11, 12]. Human activities are influenced by multiple structural factors; people's range of movement is restricted within the terrestrial space. The main constraints include: (1) capability constraints, which are limitations imposed on individuals' activities by their own physiological abilities and tools. For example, an individual's chosen form of transportation could influence his or her path of movement and range of accessibility; (2) coupling constraints, which are bundles formed by individuals when they are producing, consuming, or engaged in other social activities. For example, some limitations on spatial movements in daily life could be caused by the interactions required in a particular type of job; and (3) authority constraints, which involve the specific, temporal, or spatial exclusion of people or objects due to the law or social norms. For example, limitations are imposed on the WHMs' working holidays by their tourist visa location, age, and financial

72 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

Decision-making involves the actions that individuals perform after considering all the information they can perceive, while relying on their value systems. An individual's decisionmaking process is influenced by a number of factors, which can be divided into personal internal factors and environmental external factors [14]. The personal internal factors that influence an individual's travel decision-making are often related to his or her recreational needs. Maslow [15] proposed that humans have a hierarchy of needs, which can generally be classified as physiological needs, psychological needs, and cognitive needs. Individuals must first satisfy their lower order needs before they can fulfill their higher order needs. The different levels of needs are interdependent and carry different weights [15]. Thus, needs that influence a decision to produce travel behavior, on a psychological level, are related to the individual's travel motivation, personality, attitudes, perceptions, interests, and past travel experiences [16–18]. An individual's disposable income is also an important economic consideration affecting travel activities. For this reason, the travel budget often forms an economic threshold for travel activities [19]. However, the integration of work into the working holiday model provides travelers with an opportunity to earn an income, which can also motivate them to experience travel activities. In addition, the travel behaviors of individuals at certain stages of their lives may be strongly influenced by others. For example, individuals' travel behavior may be influenced by their family and peers [20, 21]. Most WHMs are young people, who may have little social experience; for this reason, their travel decision-making may be influenced by the opinions of family members and travel companions at the same stage of life. External factors that influence travel decision-making can include the destination country's history and culture, social security, language environment, entry visa conditions, and the appeal of tourism resources, work salary and opportunities, accessibility of transportation,

To analyze the logical thinking behind an individual's travel decision making, Golledge and Stimson [22] divided their decision-making model into four categories: (1) riskless theories, which assume that economic rationality is a prerequisite. These theories propose that individuals can obtain complete decision-making information to maximize their decision outcomes

means [13].

and other factors [14, 20].

The main study participants were university graduates in Taiwan, and the research focus was on their decision-making regarding destination country and travel behavior when participating in working holidays. By adopting a qualitative research approach and applying "constructivism" as the research concept, this study investigated graduates' re-examination of past life events through questions raised by the researchers during interviews. "Personal constructs" and "social constructs" were used to understand and reconstruct the knowledge construct of the participants' experiences. This is because all "reality" can be regarded as the product of personal constructs, which are based on personal cognitive schemata, and social constructs, which are based on the interactions between society and culture. That is, the unique concepts or constructs that are established within a specific physical, psychological, social, and cultural context are used by humans to actively understand the situations that they experience.

The foundation of the personal construct theory is based on personal cognitive processes in the field of psychology. Any reality that humans encounter within their living environment needs to be perceived by their senses followed by information processing and meaning comprehension in the brain in order to generate specific interpretations and judgments [24]. The social construct theory, on the other hand, states that the process of knowledge construction is focused on the product of social constructs based on the inter-subjectivity of knowledge. It centers on the collective understanding of meaning generated through language norms and social interactions. The cognitive development of individuals should be examined within the context of language, community, society, and country [25]. In other words, members of society develop a "collective consciousness" due to their shared norms in society, thereby reflecting their social and cultural traditions, customs, and beliefs [26].

Our strategy for participant recruitment first involved posting announcements on websites related to working holidays and then inviting the subsequent participants via snowball sampling. A total of nine participants were interviewed between January and October 2014, who participated in working holidays between 2010 and 2013. The participants were aged between 24 and 35 years and included three males and six females. Among them, two traveled to Australia (anonymous code: A1–A2), four traveled to Canada (anonymous code: C1–C4), and three traveled to Japan (anonymous code: J1–J3). During the later stages of the interview, much of the interview content was repeated, and it was clear that the information had reached saturation. Open-ended in-depth interviews were selected as the main research method. Each interview was conducted in a comfortable and casual atmosphere, and the length was about 2–4 h. Participants' consent to the use of recording equipment was obtained prior to conducting the interviews in order to facilitate subsequent collation and analysis. As this was a recallbased study of traveling behaviors, participants were advised before the interview to bring along items that may enhance their memories, such as diaries, photographs, souvenirs, etc. These items facilitated the participants' recall of their traveling behavior during their working holiday, which enabled them to provide more detailed research data.
