**2. Background**

while negative impacts are kept to a minimum. These latter may include degradation of the environment, pollution, waste of resources, disturbance to wildlife and landscapes, cultural commodification and trivialisation, displacement of host communities and introduction of undesirable activities [1]. For this reason, there is a general consensus that associating the principles of sustainable development with the practice of tourism might represent a solution to the problems faced by the industry. As a result, sustainable tourism has been proposed as a development strategy that aims to increase economic opportunities and enhance quality of

In the early 1990s, cruise tourism was mostly an elite privilege, but since then the phenomenon has constantly increased in popularity. Parallel to cruise tourism success, also its environmental, social and economic impact has been growing in scale. At the end of the twentieth century, cruise travel was popular mostly with wealthy senior holiday-makers, for whom a cruise holiday was the symbol of classiness and a luxurious lifestyle. With the beginning of this century, cruise market has seen enormous growth in both passenger numbers and destinations, with aggressive competition among cruise lines, which have developed distinctive brand positions to differentiate themselves from competitors. However, the downside of this growth is the negative impact both on environment and society created by cruise tourism. Hence, when big ships arrive to small destinations, phenomena of congestion arise causing impacts not only on environment but also on traditions and social behaviour of local residents. This would mean that many 'paradisiacal' places, such as islands, costs and ancient

Today, the most popular cruise destinations are, listed in order of traffic volume, the Caribbean and the Bahamas, the Mediterranean, the Atlantic Islands and Northern Europe. As some data from the Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) shows, the cruise industry has experienced impressive levels of growth. In the last 10 years, demand for cruising has increased by about 70%. In 2014, cruise passengers recorded to have cruised worldwide were more than 22 million, generating an economic impact of \$119.9 billion, while further increase is expected in 2017. Cruise ship capacity grew by 18% from 2009 to 2013. Due to this rapid increase in growth, sustainability represents a major issue also for the cruise industry, which has moved towards the wholesale adoption of sustainable principles in its development,

Cruise ships today offer a world of innovative facilities and services that aim to satisfy the expectations of a growing population of travellers. However, although it is clear that the cruise industry has responded to the desires of passengers by developing new destinations, ship designs and on-board amenities, in terms of sustainability the attention of the cruise lines seems confined to relatively minor policies and practices of waste management, water treatment policy and reduction of air emissions. Besides international and national laws on commerce and environmental protection, there are no standards for regulating cruise tourism. Due to the lack of comprehensive management and assessment strategies, there is no consensus about the economic, social, cultural and environmental effects of cruise industry. Therefore, much remains to be done to balance the rapidly growing demand for cruising

life while preserving the destinations' natural and cultural resources [2].

94 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

cities usually having a very delicate ecosystem, are at risk to be lost [3].

operations and branding [4].

against its negative environmental impacts.

Cruise tourism can be defined as a luxurious form of travelling, involving an all-inclusive holiday on a cruise ship of at least 48 hours, with a set and specific itinerary, in which the cruise ship calls at several ports or cities. It is characterised by the concentration of huge numbers of people in limited areas for brief periods, thus multiplying negative impacts that may lead to destruction of natural and cultural resources. According to Johnson [5], the growth of cruise tourism requires different management solutions. They include (a) fostering holistic integrated actions involving international agencies, cruise line operators and host communities; (b) reducing the impact of cruise activities for safeguarding destinations; (c) raising the environmental awareness of passengers; (d) sharing increasing profits more equably between cruise line operators and destination communities. Klein [6] highlighted that in order to keep the cruise industry focused on the issue of sustainability, it is important that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other interest groups redouble their efforts in the areas of media management, influencing also legislative processes.

Although cruise industry has apparently embraced sustainable good practices, and efforts are being made to respond to the environmental challenges it faces, a number of issues such as visits to sensitive areas, passenger-host relations in the destinations visited and waste disposal are still critical. Much remains to be done to ensure that the rapidly growing demand for cruising does not exceed the natural limits of the environment. This would lead to a potential conflict with the aims of sustainability stems from the impact of the cruise companies in the tourist destination areas [7]. Furthermore, it has been noted that cruise tourism options vary according to the size of the ship and the type of experience offered. Impacts vary widely and, therefore, many factors need to be considered by the companies, in developing sustainable cruise tourism strategies [8].

Currently, cruise tourism encompasses a variety of facilities and amenities, making sea travel much more comfortable and enjoyable for travellers. Cruise tourism has come to be associated with marine resorts, competing with traditionally marketed destinations and offering tourists an alternative form of holiday. Ritzer [9] used the expression 'cathedrals of consumption' to emphasise the structured and ordered nature of production and consumption within cruise ships, which are similar to the repeated contents of theme parks and enclave resorts. Similarly, Quatermaine and Peter [10] described modern cruises as 'cathedrals of entertainment', where destinations resemble the intervals of an ongoing show.

In the literature, many researchers have explored cruise tourists' motivations for choosing a cruise holiday. In this regard, Cartwright and Baird [11] say that the most common reasons cited are the search for luxury and entertainment. Others have highlighted that a cruise holiday allows tourists, for a short period of time, to escape their daily routines [12], to enjoy a life of privilege [13] and to be in a different world [14]. Hosany and Witham [15] investigated the relationships among cruisers' experiences, their degrees of satisfaction and their subsequent intentions to recommend the line to others.

Certain characteristics of the cruise industry seem to align the product with green values since the cruise experience brings passengers into contact with sun, water and open air. However, its eco-friendly profile has increasingly come into question, especially over the last decade, which has seen the emergence of floating cities in the form of supercruise ships, able to carry over 5000 passengers. In this regard, Sweeting and Wayne [16, p. 327] defined the cruise industry as 'a polluter, spilling oil and dumping garbage at sea', though they also pointed out that many cruise lines are now implementing practices and procedures to reduce their environmental impacts. On the contrary, some authors (e.g. [17]) have argued that, because it is an organised and spatially confined leisure activity, cruise tourism can be viewed as 'sustainable'.

The need to harmonise the interests of tourism companies with those of the populations and ecosystems they visit is the principal focus of an influential UNESCO report focusing on this commercial sector [18]. Other researches compiled a long list of potentially harmful environmental effects associated with cruise ships, most of which are exacerbated with the increasing size of the vessels: anchor damage, air and water pollution, damage to local natural and cultural ecosystems [5, 19, 20].

Cruise industry growth seems, therefore, to be in conflict with the sustainability paradigm. It therefore appears necessary to conduct proper assessment of the potential benefits, risks and impacts of cruise tourism. In this context, for an authentically sustainable version of cruise tourism development, the implementation of environmental protection measures would be necessary, involving all the stakeholders of marine tourism destinations, not just the cruise line operators [8, 21]. This would require a long-term management strategy, involving international agencies, cruise line operators and host communities.
