**2.2. Environmental perception, traveling behavior, and decision-making**

The main purpose of behavioral geography is to explore the behavioral patterns that humans exhibit when faced with environmental stimuli; research in this field looks at environmental perception and spatial behaviors. Environmental perception focuses on information signals that the human sense organs receive from the external environment. These are filtered by the brain, which uses the individual's value system (needs, attitudes, preferences, and memory) to identify interesting information. Finally, these pieces of information are organized into images and stored in the brain, where they serve as a reference for human environmental perception and decision-making [9, 10]. Spatial behaviors are external behaviors produced by individuals through a series of processes involving their value systems, images, and ability to make decisions. When examining the travel behaviors of individuals, we must first understand their image of the tourist destination in question. By beginning with a study of perception, researchers can use the travel behaviors of individuals to infer how their travel decision-making processes and influencing factors have shaped their spatial behaviors. To understand the travel decision-making processes and behaviors of WHMs, we can adopt the environmental perception perspective used in geography and apply the research method of post hoc recall to indirectly provide a complete picture of the WHMs' pre-travel planning and destination travel experiences.

Time geography can serve as a basic framework for travel behaviors, focusing on identifiable spatial and temporal features in human activity movement paths. Time geography explores the spatial range of movements within a given time period, made by individuals who exist within a specific period and location [11, 12]. Human activities are influenced by multiple structural factors; people's range of movement is restricted within the terrestrial space. The main constraints include: (1) capability constraints, which are limitations imposed on individuals' activities by their own physiological abilities and tools. For example, an individual's chosen form of transportation could influence his or her path of movement and range of accessibility; (2) coupling constraints, which are bundles formed by individuals when they are producing, consuming, or engaged in other social activities. For example, some limitations on spatial movements in daily life could be caused by the interactions required in a particular type of job; and (3) authority constraints, which involve the specific, temporal, or spatial exclusion of people or objects due to the law or social norms. For example, limitations are imposed on the WHMs' working holidays by their tourist visa location, age, and financial means [13].

Decision-making involves the actions that individuals perform after considering all the information they can perceive, while relying on their value systems. An individual's decisionmaking process is influenced by a number of factors, which can be divided into personal internal factors and environmental external factors [14]. The personal internal factors that influence an individual's travel decision-making are often related to his or her recreational needs. Maslow [15] proposed that humans have a hierarchy of needs, which can generally be classified as physiological needs, psychological needs, and cognitive needs. Individuals must first satisfy their lower order needs before they can fulfill their higher order needs. The different levels of needs are interdependent and carry different weights [15]. Thus, needs that influence a decision to produce travel behavior, on a psychological level, are related to the individual's travel motivation, personality, attitudes, perceptions, interests, and past travel experiences [16–18]. An individual's disposable income is also an important economic consideration affecting travel activities. For this reason, the travel budget often forms an economic threshold for travel activities [19]. However, the integration of work into the working holiday model provides travelers with an opportunity to earn an income, which can also motivate them to experience travel activities. In addition, the travel behaviors of individuals at certain stages of their lives may be strongly influenced by others. For example, individuals' travel behavior may be influenced by their family and peers [20, 21]. Most WHMs are young people, who may have little social experience; for this reason, their travel decision-making may be influenced by the opinions of family members and travel companions at the same stage of life. External factors that influence travel decision-making can include the destination country's history and culture, social security, language environment, entry visa conditions, and the appeal of tourism resources, work salary and opportunities, accessibility of transportation, and other factors [14, 20].

To analyze the logical thinking behind an individual's travel decision making, Golledge and Stimson [22] divided their decision-making model into four categories: (1) riskless theories, which assume that economic rationality is a prerequisite. These theories propose that individuals can obtain complete decision-making information to maximize their decision outcomes in relation to specific benefits. In brief, according to theories of economic rationality, individuals will always select the best alternative and will find a unique solution among multiple variables; (2) theories of risky decision making, which involve the concepts of risk and uncertainty. Risk refers to a knowledge system detailing the probabilities of various possible outcomes; risk is produced when humans make choices. Uncertainty refers to conditions in which decision makers are unable to identify the probability of a given outcome, because it is due to the uncertain situation that occurs when humans interact with the environment; (3) transitivity in decision making, which proposes that individuals start out by juxtaposing four or more goals, reaching a transitive choice through pairwise or triplet-wise comparisons when evaluating their decision; and (4) theories of games and statistical decision functions. These theories are based on mathematical computations of probabilities, where the players use formal reasoning to evaluate which action plan they should adopt to rationally pursue their interests, thereby maximizing their benefits [22].

If travelers use their own personalities to analyze decisions, their decision-making processes may contain several different types of logical thinking. These types include the following: the rational economic man model, which seeks to comprehensively evaluate the factors that influence the implementation or obstruction of an individual's travel decisions. These include minimizing travel costs, maximizing returns, minimizing travel risks, and maximizing the physical and mental benefits of all travel decisions. The emotional man model considers the preferences and emotions of each traveler, arguing that travel decision-making is influenced by personal, subjective preferences. In the passive man model, the traveler has low selfawareness; his or her travel decision-making is influenced by commercials or other stimuli. Subjective intentions are extremely low and constrained by political, economic, social, cultural, and other structural factors [22, 23].
