**2.1. Urbanisation and urban tourism**

Urbanisation has had important consequences for many aspects of social, political and economic life [2].

Urbanisation and, consequently, greater concentration of citizens as well as people in general (travellers, traders, residents of nearby places, etc.) enabled exchange of ideas, goods and objects, focusing on products of human creativity such as the literature and poetry, philosophy, architecture, art, craftsmanship, trade, law, administration and other achievements.

Since the archaeological evidence is fragmentary, we still cannot define the exact moment when the process of urbanisation started. Furthermore, there are different definitions of urban structures identified as cities. In the study of the ancient world, the city is generally defined as a large populated urban centre of commerce and administration with sanitation and sewerage system [3].

Bearing in mind the complexity of defining the term city, we can conclude that in this process the following factors should be considered: population (number and density), spatial structure and organisation, buildings (number, height, function and complexity), sewer and sanitation system and defence system (walls and/or fortifications).

Settlements preceded the development of cities and their establishment coincided with mankind's abandonment of nomadic living and beginning of organised dwelling in specific locations. Cities had most commonly developed at the intersection of ancient trade routes.

The origin of urbanisation can be traced to Sumer and Mesopotamia. The first Sumerian city was Eridu (present day Abu Shahrein, Iraq), founded in 5400 BCE. Uruk was the earliest city in Mesopotamia region dated around 4500 BCE and then Ur around 3800 BCE. Both Uruk and Ur were situated in proximity to the banks of the Euphrates River. After Sumer and Mesopotamia, urbanisation spread to Egypt. Some cities in ancient Egypt grew out of the agricultural developments and other settlements as a result of the state's need to organise its unifying political centres. While two most powerful city-states in ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta, other influential city-states were Corinth, Thebes, Argos, Delphi and Rhodos. The largest cities during the Roman Empire were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus, Constantinople, Smyrna, Pergamon, Jerusalem and Leptis Magna.

A massive influx of tourists into the cities poses considerable challenges, including the preservation of cultural resources and the built environment, the sustainability of social interaction between local citizens and tourists, waste management, increased energy consumption and

Sustainable development is a 'sine qua non' for building a sustainable future. Preservation and protection of natural, cultural and social resources are an unconditional necessity to us and future generations. Unfortunately, despite all the strategies, scientific and research activities, the increasingly frequent statements made by experts and quite homogeneous position of profession (economists, sociologists, architects and urban planners), we are still witnessing tourism development mainly going in the wrong direction towards the unsustainable mass tourism. Mass tourism strongly affects the recourses it is dependent on, ruining its own exis-

European Travel Commission (ETC) authors of Global Development Tourism Analysis [1] point out that urban tourism is a constantly growing segment. Urban centres have become tourist destinations. In that respect, it is crucial to understand the specificity of the city in rela-

Urbanisation has had important consequences for many aspects of social, political and eco-

Urbanisation and, consequently, greater concentration of citizens as well as people in general (travellers, traders, residents of nearby places, etc.) enabled exchange of ideas, goods and objects, focusing on products of human creativity such as the literature and poetry, philosophy, architecture, art, craftsmanship, trade, law, administration and other achievements.

Since the archaeological evidence is fragmentary, we still cannot define the exact moment when the process of urbanisation started. Furthermore, there are different definitions of urban structures identified as cities. In the study of the ancient world, the city is generally defined as a large populated urban centre of commerce and administration with sanitation

Bearing in mind the complexity of defining the term city, we can conclude that in this process the following factors should be considered: population (number and density), spatial structure and organisation, buildings (number, height, function and complexity), sewer and

Settlements preceded the development of cities and their establishment coincided with mankind's abandonment of nomadic living and beginning of organised dwelling in specific locations. Cities had most commonly developed at the intersection of ancient trade routes.

sanitation system and defence system (walls and/or fortifications).

other.

**2. Urban tourism and sustainability**

222 Mobilities, Tourism and Travel Behavior - Contexts and Boundaries

tence like cutting off the branch one is standing on.

tion to other tourist destinations.

nomic life [2].

and sewerage system [3].

**2.1. Urbanisation and urban tourism**

For several millennia, cities appeared in more and more regions across the world, but the size of the largest cities did not substantially exceed 10,000 inhabitants.

This changed only from 1500 BC onwards when Thebes in Egypt might have exceeded 100,000 inhabitants and Babylon reached 200,000 inhabitants in 600 BC [4].

During the eighth and ninth century AD many cities in Europe, Asia and Middle East, such as Bagdad, reached population of several hundred thousand inhabitants. Water supply, waste management and sanitation were most important limiting factors for further development. Furthermore, the urbanisation level, also, depended on the quantity of food production and resources coming from peripheral areas, as well as the possibility of delivery to the city region.

After the decline of the Roman Empire, cities spread further across the world, but no region reached comparable urbanisation levels until the eighteenth century [5].

The proximity of trade routes, food sources and other vital resources has significantly contributed to the speed of urbanisation and city development, but they pale in comparison to the effect of the Industrial Revolution beginning in the second half of the eighteenth century in Great Britain.

Great Britain was the global leader of urbanisation happening all over the world at that time.

Industrial revolution has led to increased labour demand at particular location, and that was the primary driver of the fast-paced urbanisation. As a larger population could be sustained from farming the same amount of land, the number of people that could live in cities increased strongly [6].

London population continued to grow, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century, it reached 3 million inhabitants. In 1863, the first underground railway line was opened. Initially, it was operated on steam and then electrified from 1890 onwards. The underground lines with the horse-drawn omnibus were the first comprehensive urban mass transport system in the world. This resulted in further growth of the city and the number of inhabitants, which increased to 6.5 million in 1900.

By the turn of the twentieth century, steel frame construction structures were one of the most important technological innovations that contributed significantly to the transformation of city and city views. At that time, and for most of the past millennium, churches were always the peaks of city skylines. Their construction had a little weight and provided with none or small usable space. At the same time, the tallest office or residential buildings reached heights of only a few dozen metres. Steel-framed construction and reinforced concrete increased heights for residential and office buildings tenfold and exceeded 300 m. This building structure technological innovation contributed to increased population density.

In the first half of the twentieth century, labour-saving innovation slowed down the growth of employment in manufacturing. Jobs were created in the service sector and in knowledge-intensive professions. Although expected, the shift away from manufacturing did not entail de-urbanisation trends. The urbanisation continued and reasons for that can be found in the amenities that cities offer, such as various types of entertainment places (pub concert rooms, cinemas, theatres, restaurants and concert halls), better healthcare, education facilities and specialised shopping opportunities. Agglomeration effects ensured advantage for businesses located in cities.

New technological innovation played a crucial role in shaping post-industrial urbanisation: electric trolley line (1888, Richmond, Virginia), automobile (1890s European and North American cities) and construction of freeways or highways (1950s onward).

From the 1920s onwards, automobiles became more common due to lower prices made possible by Henry Ford's revolutionary assembly-line production techniques. The affordable automobile price, city trolley line network and high-quality sub-urban and inter-urban roads allowed the increase of distance between working and place of residence for the majority of the population.

It is important to emphasise that in 1800 only 3% of the world's population lived in cities. For example, the three largest cities in population size were Boston (18,230 citizens), Philadelphia (28,522 citizens) and New York (33,131 citizens) [7].

Since the 1800s, the process of urbanisation has moved rapidly in the entire world. In 1950, about two-third of the population worldwide lived in rural settlements and one-third in urban settlements [8].

Today, more than half of the world's population lives in urban areas, and the number of cities over 1 million stands at more than 400. By 2030, almost two-thirds of the world's population is projected to live in urban areas. The number of megacities (cities with populations over 10 million) rose from 3 in 1975 to 16 in 2000 and is expected to reach 27 by 2025 [9].

According to the Sustainable Urbanisation Policy Brief, urban centres currently occupy less than 5% of the world's landmass. Nevertheless, they account for around 70% of both global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission [10].
