**3.2.1 Project BudBurst and related programs in Europe**

Global climate change is already resulting in the changes in the timing of leafing, flowering, and fruiting of plants (plant phenophases) with a general lengthening of the growing season. While there have been many local records developed, there remain significant geographic gaps and gaps in the types of plants for which phenological records have been developed (Backlund et al. 2008). Project BudBurst, co-managed by National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) of the U.S. National Science Foundation (Keller et al. 2008) and the Chicago Botanic Garden (http://neoninc.org/budburst/\_AboutBudBurst.php , accessed July 2011) is designed to address these data needs through public participation. The principle objective of NEON is establishing observational and experimental sites in 20 ecoclimatic domains in the contiguous U.S. as well as the states of Alaska and Hawaii. Project BudBurst's contribution is in expanding the number of locations and species for which information on the response to climate change is collected in the U.S. and Canada by using citizen scientists referred to as "Project BudBurst Observers." See Fig. 1.

Similar to a growing number of programs involving stakeholders in environmental observations, extensive information is available for individuals or groups, including school classes, to participate in the program. A "help site" is also available for assisting in selecting sites, targeting plant species, and interpreting phenological phases. Project BudBurst Observers are encouraged to focus on recording first leaf, full leaf, and first flower, relatively easy phenological observations to make, although data is sought on other events too. For registered users, information is available on the website for interpreting these phases and results can be entered in an on-line journal. Similar to other programs described elsewhere in this chapter, results are available on-line in the form of maps that show the 100 most recent observations for a particular phenomena such as first flower and first pollen in the spring, and 50 percent leaf fall for deciduous plants in the fall. By clicking on the icon for one of the recent observations, information and a photo of the plant of interest and the phenological event observed is provided, and the record number is shown. Particularly for younger participants in the program, these types of on-

Public Involvement as an Element in Designing Environmental Monitoring Programs 175

Canada, managed by Environment Canada, Nature Canada, and the University of Guelph (http://www.naturewatch.ca , accessed July 2011). Environment Canada is the principle Canadian agency responsible for environmental protection and natural heritage conservation, as well as for providing developing climate data and making weather forecasts across the nation (http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1/, accessed July 2011). Nature Canada is one of the largest non-profit organizations in Canada supporting protection of rare species of plants and animals, habitat conservation, and environmental education (http://www/naturecanada.ca, accessed

IceWatch Canada makes extensive use of the Web for recruiting volunteers, providing training on making freeze-thaw observations, and as a platform for stakeholders to submit observations. As part of quality control, citizen scientists must register with the program where on-line resources guide them through selecting observation points and interpreting

Two principle events are the goal of "ice watching" to make observations consistent from one location to another. The first event is the date when ice completely covers a lake, bay, or river and stays intact for the winter. The second is when ice completely disappears from the same body of water. This allows the principle measurement to be determined: the length of ice duration during the year. This calculation is the most common historic measurement made of freeze-thaw cycles in the country, allowing modern records to be combined with historic ones, some of the latter being continuous from the early part of the 20th century. While during the middle of the winter or summer observations are rarely important to make, the on-line training for IceWatch Canada emphasizes the importance of daily

In addition to observations that contribute to ice duration, data on other phenomena are

 The first date that ice completely covers the water body, even when this is a temporary event. For some lakes and rivers, the first ice cover is of short duration and the ice partially or totally melts if temperatures rise. In some cases, this may happen several

Similarly in the spring, ice may disappear, but then partially or completely freeze over

The web site provides detailed instructions in selecting observation points, with a safety message that there should be no need for a citizen scientist to venture out onto an icecovered water body to complete the observations. In addition, images are provided of lakes and rivers to show complete or partial stages of freeze and thaw to help participants make similar interpretations at their observation points. Volunteers are also asked to make a detailed description of their observation point, including latitude and longitude, in part so that consistent observations can continue to be made if there is a change in the person or organization responsible for a site so that longer records can be kept for the same location. Participants are cautioned to avoid selecting water bodies in the proximity of anthropogenic processes or features such as dams or water intake facilities which may impact normal

What types of results are available on line? One is the pattern of freeze and thaw over time for individual sites that are part of the IceWatch Canada network. The second is a map of Canada showing at any given time the spatial distribution of the stages of freeze and thaw across the country. New citizen scientists are continually being sought for IceWatch Canada,

observations during the freeze-up or ice break-up period.

times before the permanent freeze of the winter occurs.

again before a permanent ice-free stage is established (Fig. 2).

July 2011).

freeze-thaw cycles.

sought including:

freeze-thaw cycles.

line results, besides being educational, reinforce that the data they are collecting is contributing to the program.

Although many Project BudBurst participants are making observations on plant species close to where they live or go to school because of the frequency of observations needed at critical times of the year, there are special projects underway. For example, Project BudBurst is teaming with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to have observations made in its refuges that are of particular ecological significance. Also, in different regions, a "most wanted" list of plants is posted and volunteers sought to record data on them.

The U.S. National Park Service (NPS) has been a leader among federal agencies in the U.S. in engaging the public in phenological observations (see "What's Invasive!" later in this chapter). At a workshop in March 2011 lead by the NPS and the USA National Phenology Network (http://www.usanpn.org , accessed August 2011), participants from government organizations, nonprofits, and institutions of higher-education met to explore ways of further engaging the public in phenological observations and standardizing protocols to better compare data from different regions. The workshop included discussion on three ongoing efforts at six NPS pilot parks in California including 1) identifying target species to assess resource response to climate change; 2) testing monitoring protocols; and 3) using different approaches to engage the public in phenological observations and documenting the results of projects in "tool kits" on the Web (Sharron and Mitchell, 2011). Material from the workshop is available at http://www.usanpn.org/nps (accessed August 2011).

Geographically large, phenological observation networks are not limited to the U.S. and Canada. The International Phenological Gardens program, managed by Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany was founded in 1957 (http://www.agrar.huberlin.de/struktur/institute/nptw/agrarmet/phaenologie/ipg/ipg\_allg-e/, accessed July 2011). Today the network includes gardens in 19 countries in continental Europe as well as Britain and Ireland, ranging from northernmost Finland to sites in southern European countries including Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Macedonia. However, because the natural environment of Europe has been much more extensively altered than those of North America, the International Phenological Gardens restricts its observations to a limited number of plant species common to a large number of gardens in Europe. Locally, a wider range of plant species have been tracked since 2002 by faculty as well as volunteers associated with the Royal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh, Scotland (http://www.rbge.org.uk/science/plants-and-climate-change/phenology-projects/,

accessed July 2011). Although not continuous, phenological research at the Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh dates from the 1850s, when curator James McNab began recording the flowering dates of more than 60 species (McNab, 1857).

#### **3.2.2 Citizen scientists and physical phenology**

In addition to biological phenology, citizen scientists are contributing to the establishment of records of changes in physical phenology that may be in response to climate change. A good example is "IceWatch Canada." Scientists have found that the freeze-thaw cycles of lakes and rivers in Canada are changing, usually resulting in a longer ice-free period during the year (e.g., Futter, 2003). However, in a country as large (nearly 149 million square kilometers {km2}) and physiographically diverse as Canada, climate change is not consistent across the country either latitudinally or longitudinally. Observations from citizen scientists are helping provide a greater geographic distribution of freeze-thaw cycle records across the country. IceWatch Canada is one element of "NatureWatch"

line results, besides being educational, reinforce that the data they are collecting is

Although many Project BudBurst participants are making observations on plant species close to where they live or go to school because of the frequency of observations needed at critical times of the year, there are special projects underway. For example, Project BudBurst is teaming with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to have observations made in its refuges that are of particular ecological significance. Also, in different regions, a "most

The U.S. National Park Service (NPS) has been a leader among federal agencies in the U.S. in engaging the public in phenological observations (see "What's Invasive!" later in this chapter). At a workshop in March 2011 lead by the NPS and the USA National Phenology Network (http://www.usanpn.org , accessed August 2011), participants from government organizations, nonprofits, and institutions of higher-education met to explore ways of further engaging the public in phenological observations and standardizing protocols to better compare data from different regions. The workshop included discussion on three ongoing efforts at six NPS pilot parks in California including 1) identifying target species to assess resource response to climate change; 2) testing monitoring protocols; and 3) using different approaches to engage the public in phenological observations and documenting the results of projects in "tool kits" on the Web (Sharron and Mitchell, 2011). Material from

wanted" list of plants is posted and volunteers sought to record data on them.

the workshop is available at http://www.usanpn.org/nps (accessed August 2011).

the flowering dates of more than 60 species (McNab, 1857).

**3.2.2 Citizen scientists and physical phenology** 

Geographically large, phenological observation networks are not limited to the U.S. and Canada. The International Phenological Gardens program, managed by Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany was founded in 1957 (http://www.agrar.huberlin.de/struktur/institute/nptw/agrarmet/phaenologie/ipg/ipg\_allg-e/, accessed July 2011). Today the network includes gardens in 19 countries in continental Europe as well as Britain and Ireland, ranging from northernmost Finland to sites in southern European countries including Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Macedonia. However, because the natural environment of Europe has been much more extensively altered than those of North America, the International Phenological Gardens restricts its observations to a limited number of plant species common to a large number of gardens in Europe. Locally, a wider range of plant species have been tracked since 2002 by faculty as well as volunteers associated with the Royal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh, Scotland (http://www.rbge.org.uk/science/plants-and-climate-change/phenology-projects/, accessed July 2011). Although not continuous, phenological research at the Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh dates from the 1850s, when curator James McNab began recording

In addition to biological phenology, citizen scientists are contributing to the establishment of records of changes in physical phenology that may be in response to climate change. A good example is "IceWatch Canada." Scientists have found that the freeze-thaw cycles of lakes and rivers in Canada are changing, usually resulting in a longer ice-free period during the year (e.g., Futter, 2003). However, in a country as large (nearly 149 million square kilometers {km2}) and physiographically diverse as Canada, climate change is not consistent across the country either latitudinally or longitudinally. Observations from citizen scientists are helping provide a greater geographic distribution of freeze-thaw cycle records across the country. IceWatch Canada is one element of "NatureWatch"

contributing to the program.

Canada, managed by Environment Canada, Nature Canada, and the University of Guelph (http://www.naturewatch.ca , accessed July 2011). Environment Canada is the principle Canadian agency responsible for environmental protection and natural heritage conservation, as well as for providing developing climate data and making weather forecasts across the nation (http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=BD3CE17D-1/, accessed July 2011). Nature Canada is one of the largest non-profit organizations in Canada supporting protection of rare species of plants and animals, habitat conservation, and environmental education (http://www/naturecanada.ca, accessed July 2011).

IceWatch Canada makes extensive use of the Web for recruiting volunteers, providing training on making freeze-thaw observations, and as a platform for stakeholders to submit observations. As part of quality control, citizen scientists must register with the program where on-line resources guide them through selecting observation points and interpreting freeze-thaw cycles.

Two principle events are the goal of "ice watching" to make observations consistent from one location to another. The first event is the date when ice completely covers a lake, bay, or river and stays intact for the winter. The second is when ice completely disappears from the same body of water. This allows the principle measurement to be determined: the length of ice duration during the year. This calculation is the most common historic measurement made of freeze-thaw cycles in the country, allowing modern records to be combined with historic ones, some of the latter being continuous from the early part of the 20th century. While during the middle of the winter or summer observations are rarely important to make, the on-line training for IceWatch Canada emphasizes the importance of daily observations during the freeze-up or ice break-up period.

In addition to observations that contribute to ice duration, data on other phenomena are sought including:


The web site provides detailed instructions in selecting observation points, with a safety message that there should be no need for a citizen scientist to venture out onto an icecovered water body to complete the observations. In addition, images are provided of lakes and rivers to show complete or partial stages of freeze and thaw to help participants make similar interpretations at their observation points. Volunteers are also asked to make a detailed description of their observation point, including latitude and longitude, in part so that consistent observations can continue to be made if there is a change in the person or organization responsible for a site so that longer records can be kept for the same location. Participants are cautioned to avoid selecting water bodies in the proximity of anthropogenic processes or features such as dams or water intake facilities which may impact normal freeze-thaw cycles.

What types of results are available on line? One is the pattern of freeze and thaw over time for individual sites that are part of the IceWatch Canada network. The second is a map of Canada showing at any given time the spatial distribution of the stages of freeze and thaw across the country. New citizen scientists are continually being sought for IceWatch Canada,

Public Involvement as an Element in Designing Environmental Monitoring Programs 177

In addition, it is a park that is struggling with the control of invasive plants since so many

With "What's Invasive!", the NPS, which manages the Santa Monica Mountains NRA, went from relying on a small staff of federal employees to locate newly established areas of invasives to the much larger community of visitors to the park. From its beginning at the NRA, "What's Invasive!" projects have been established at more than 40 local, state, and federal parks and recreation areas in the U.S., as well as locations in Canada and

Application of "What's Invasive!" has common elements at all the locations where it is in use. First, a login is required for a person to provide data to CENS which manages the databases. At a given park, the application provides users with photos and other information to help identify the most common invasive plant or those for which data is most needed. Besides noting the location, the user can send an image of the plant and make qualitative assessments of the population size (one, few, or many). Beyond providing information on correctly identifying the plant, the application also provides educational information such as where the plant is native, characteristics of its growing patterns, and how it is changing the environment where it has become established as an invasive. The citizen scientist can also look at results, such as maps of all the locations in a park where the

Rather than just relying on periodic observations from visitors to the park, "What's Invasive!" is also being used in a "campaign mode" where an agency collaborates with a school or other organization to rapidly identify where invasive plants have become established in an area. This mode has been the most effective when the application has been used as an educational tool for schools since a large number of results are generated quickly, are visually available in a short amount of time, and it is an opportunity for students to work in teams to collect the information. Finally, use of "What's Invasive!" is not limited to parks with established programs. At any location, the application automatically picks the invasive plants most associated with the nearest location to the user. Those more experienced can also turn off the automated selection list and manually choose from the list

The Community Environmental Monitoring Program (CEMP) provides a model for embedded public involvement in a monitoring program, and was designed with the specific intent of fostering better communications between participating communities and the federal agency responsible for monitoring through maximizing the involvement of public stakeholders (Hartwell et al., 2006; Shafer & Hartwell, 2011, in press). The CEMP is a network (Fig. 3) of radiation and weather monitoring stations (Fig. 4) surrounding the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), formerly known as the Nevada Test Site, where the U.S. tested nuclear devices between 1951 and 1992. It has provided a well-defined hands-on role for members of the public since its inception in 1981. Modelled in part after an independent monitoring network that was implemented around the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the U.S. after the accident there in 1979 (Gricar & Baratta, 1983), the CEMP seeks to provide maximum transparency of, and accessibility to, monitoring data both through the participation of public stakeholders and by making data available in near

non-native species have been introduced to southern California.

**3.2.4 The Community Environmental Monitoring Program** 

Denmark.

plant has been observed.

of invasive plants.

real-time on a public web site.

particularly for those parts of the country at higher latitudes where the population of Canada is sparse.

Fig. 2. Although sea ice has partially broken up on this bay, thin ice is beginning to form over the open water areas again. Such observations of episodic ice thaw are one type of observation sought in the IceWatch Canada program.

#### **3.2.3 Citizen scientists, cell phones, and natural resource management**

The growing popularity of cellular "smart" phones such as AndroidTM and iPhoneTM with embedded global position system (GPS) capability is allowing citizen scientists to collect and transmit data on environmental phenomena from dispersed locations (Kim, 2011). An example of the use of these tools for natural resource management is the "What's Invasive!" program for tracking the location of invasive plants. "What's Invasive!" is a collaboration of the Center for Embedded Networked Sensing (CENS) at the University of California, Los Angeles; the University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, and a growing number of local, state, and federal resource management agencies in the U.S. including the NPS, the U.S. Forest Service, and the USFWS (http://whatsinvasive.com, accessed July, 2011). A key element of the app that is downloaded to the smart phone is EDDMaps, or "Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System" that allows for web-based mapping the location of invasive species. EDDMaps was and continues to be developed at the University of Georgia.

The pilot effort of "What's Invasive!" occurred at the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreational Area (NRA) in California. The Santa Monica Mountains protect one of the largest areas of mountainous, Mediterranean-type ecosystem in North America, let alone the world. However, in addition to the NRA protecting habitat of many plant species of limited range, its proximity to the Los Angeles metropolitan area--the second largest in the U.S.- means that the park is a popular getaway for hikers, birdwatchers, and amateur naturalists.

particularly for those parts of the country at higher latitudes where the population of

Fig. 2. Although sea ice has partially broken up on this bay, thin ice is beginning to form over the open water areas again. Such observations of episodic ice thaw are one type of

The growing popularity of cellular "smart" phones such as AndroidTM and iPhoneTM with embedded global position system (GPS) capability is allowing citizen scientists to collect and transmit data on environmental phenomena from dispersed locations (Kim, 2011). An example of the use of these tools for natural resource management is the "What's Invasive!" program for tracking the location of invasive plants. "What's Invasive!" is a collaboration of the Center for Embedded Networked Sensing (CENS) at the University of California, Los Angeles; the University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health, and a growing number of local, state, and federal resource management agencies in the U.S. including the NPS, the U.S. Forest Service, and the USFWS (http://whatsinvasive.com, accessed July, 2011). A key element of the app that is downloaded to the smart phone is EDDMaps, or "Early Detection and Distribution Mapping System" that allows for web-based mapping the location of invasive species.

The pilot effort of "What's Invasive!" occurred at the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreational Area (NRA) in California. The Santa Monica Mountains protect one of the largest areas of mountainous, Mediterranean-type ecosystem in North America, let alone the world. However, in addition to the NRA protecting habitat of many plant species of limited range, its proximity to the Los Angeles metropolitan area--the second largest in the U.S.- means that the park is a popular getaway for hikers, birdwatchers, and amateur naturalists.

**3.2.3 Citizen scientists, cell phones, and natural resource management** 

EDDMaps was and continues to be developed at the University of Georgia.

observation sought in the IceWatch Canada program.

Canada is sparse.

In addition, it is a park that is struggling with the control of invasive plants since so many non-native species have been introduced to southern California.

With "What's Invasive!", the NPS, which manages the Santa Monica Mountains NRA, went from relying on a small staff of federal employees to locate newly established areas of invasives to the much larger community of visitors to the park. From its beginning at the NRA, "What's Invasive!" projects have been established at more than 40 local, state, and federal parks and recreation areas in the U.S., as well as locations in Canada and Denmark.

Application of "What's Invasive!" has common elements at all the locations where it is in use. First, a login is required for a person to provide data to CENS which manages the databases. At a given park, the application provides users with photos and other information to help identify the most common invasive plant or those for which data is most needed. Besides noting the location, the user can send an image of the plant and make qualitative assessments of the population size (one, few, or many). Beyond providing information on correctly identifying the plant, the application also provides educational information such as where the plant is native, characteristics of its growing patterns, and how it is changing the environment where it has become established as an invasive. The citizen scientist can also look at results, such as maps of all the locations in a park where the plant has been observed.

Rather than just relying on periodic observations from visitors to the park, "What's Invasive!" is also being used in a "campaign mode" where an agency collaborates with a school or other organization to rapidly identify where invasive plants have become established in an area. This mode has been the most effective when the application has been used as an educational tool for schools since a large number of results are generated quickly, are visually available in a short amount of time, and it is an opportunity for students to work in teams to collect the information. Finally, use of "What's Invasive!" is not limited to parks with established programs. At any location, the application automatically picks the invasive plants most associated with the nearest location to the user. Those more experienced can also turn off the automated selection list and manually choose from the list of invasive plants.

#### **3.2.4 The Community Environmental Monitoring Program**

The Community Environmental Monitoring Program (CEMP) provides a model for embedded public involvement in a monitoring program, and was designed with the specific intent of fostering better communications between participating communities and the federal agency responsible for monitoring through maximizing the involvement of public stakeholders (Hartwell et al., 2006; Shafer & Hartwell, 2011, in press). The CEMP is a network (Fig. 3) of radiation and weather monitoring stations (Fig. 4) surrounding the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), formerly known as the Nevada Test Site, where the U.S. tested nuclear devices between 1951 and 1992. It has provided a well-defined hands-on role for members of the public since its inception in 1981. Modelled in part after an independent monitoring network that was implemented around the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the U.S. after the accident there in 1979 (Gricar & Baratta, 1983), the CEMP seeks to provide maximum transparency of, and accessibility to, monitoring data both through the participation of public stakeholders and by making data available in near real-time on a public web site.

Public Involvement as an Element in Designing Environmental Monitoring Programs 179

of monthly summary data at their local monitoring stations, and serving as liaisons between their communities and the DOE and as points-of-contact for local residents who have

The original CEMs (a few of whom have participated in the program since its inception in 1981) were nominated by their communities, and largely consisted of school teachers with a general science background. However, many other CEMs are from other walks of life, including clergy, postmasters, volunteer firefighters, and retirees. The only true criteria for selection is that there be a willingness to perform the outlined duties, that they be generally respected members of their communities, and that they have a significant degree of contact with other community members. The tradition of identifying teachers as primary participants has continued throughout the program's existence, with the added benefit of knowledge gained through participation in the program often working its way into the

The public participants in this program are not strictly volunteers, but receive a small monthly stipend for their duties as employees of DRI. The decision to hire them as employees was made in part to stress the importance of their sample collection duties, but also to offer them protection for any injuries that might occur during the discharge of their duties. The amount they are paid (approximately \$150 US per month) is small, so as not to create the public perception that they are "in the pocket" of the DOE sponsors, and simply being given messages to parrot to their communities. On the contrary, CEMs are provided with regular training on the basics of ionizing radiation, and become knowledgeable on subjects ranging from radiation detection to local environmental conditions. Through attendance at these training workshops, the CEMs also become effective liaisons between local and federal entities, helping to identify concerns of people in their communities.

Fig. 4. A typical CEMP environmental monitoring station, with a full suite of meteorological sensors, radiation detection equipment, air sampler, and interpretive display with real-time

sensor readouts.

questions about the monitoring process, results, or ongoing activities at the NNSS.

teaching curricula and thus involving the local students.

Fig. 3. The monitoring stations that make up the CEMP are located in communities and ranch sites scattered across a 160,000 km2 area of southern Nevada, south-eastern California, and south-western Utah in the U.S.

The CEMP is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Nuclear Security Administration, and administered by the Desert Research Institute (DRI), a non-profit environmental research arm of the Nevada System of Higher Education. While the DOE has historically been viewed by many in the region with distrust as the agency responsible for radioactive contamination of downwind areas, particularly during the era of above ground nuclear testing, the administration of the program by a state agency associated with the higher education system helps to improve confidence in the monitoring results. However, it is the participation of residents of the local communities that achieves the greatest benefit for the program in terms of public trust, communication, and education.

Two people per community (Fig. 5) are designated as Community Environmental Monitors (CEMs). Their responsibilities include collection of bi-weekly air filter samples, the posting

Fig. 3. The monitoring stations that make up the CEMP are located in communities and ranch sites scattered across a 160,000 km2 area of southern Nevada, south-eastern California,

for the program in terms of public trust, communication, and education.

The CEMP is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Nuclear Security Administration, and administered by the Desert Research Institute (DRI), a non-profit environmental research arm of the Nevada System of Higher Education. While the DOE has historically been viewed by many in the region with distrust as the agency responsible for radioactive contamination of downwind areas, particularly during the era of above ground nuclear testing, the administration of the program by a state agency associated with the higher education system helps to improve confidence in the monitoring results. However, it is the participation of residents of the local communities that achieves the greatest benefit

Two people per community (Fig. 5) are designated as Community Environmental Monitors (CEMs). Their responsibilities include collection of bi-weekly air filter samples, the posting

and south-western Utah in the U.S.

of monthly summary data at their local monitoring stations, and serving as liaisons between their communities and the DOE and as points-of-contact for local residents who have questions about the monitoring process, results, or ongoing activities at the NNSS.

The original CEMs (a few of whom have participated in the program since its inception in 1981) were nominated by their communities, and largely consisted of school teachers with a general science background. However, many other CEMs are from other walks of life, including clergy, postmasters, volunteer firefighters, and retirees. The only true criteria for selection is that there be a willingness to perform the outlined duties, that they be generally respected members of their communities, and that they have a significant degree of contact with other community members. The tradition of identifying teachers as primary participants has continued throughout the program's existence, with the added benefit of knowledge gained through participation in the program often working its way into the teaching curricula and thus involving the local students.

The public participants in this program are not strictly volunteers, but receive a small monthly stipend for their duties as employees of DRI. The decision to hire them as employees was made in part to stress the importance of their sample collection duties, but also to offer them protection for any injuries that might occur during the discharge of their duties. The amount they are paid (approximately \$150 US per month) is small, so as not to create the public perception that they are "in the pocket" of the DOE sponsors, and simply being given messages to parrot to their communities. On the contrary, CEMs are provided with regular training on the basics of ionizing radiation, and become knowledgeable on subjects ranging from radiation detection to local environmental conditions. Through attendance at these training workshops, the CEMs also become effective liaisons between local and federal entities, helping to identify concerns of people in their communities.

Fig. 4. A typical CEMP environmental monitoring station, with a full suite of meteorological sensors, radiation detection equipment, air sampler, and interpretive display with real-time sensor readouts.

Public Involvement as an Element in Designing Environmental Monitoring Programs 181

(e.g. Hartwell et al., 2008), the overall benefits conveyed by maximum transparency (especially public trust) are much greater than any temporary detriment caused by such an

As the CEMP has continued to evolve, it has endeavored to keep pace with the advent of new technologies (you can follow the CEMP on Twitter at @DRICEMP as of May 2011), and has played a significant role in keeping the public informed not only about monitoring results associated with past nuclear weapons testing, but also about other events as well. The CEMP web site reported the program's detection of radionuclides in Nevada in the U.S. resulting from the nuclear accident caused by the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Japan in March 2011, and responded to hundreds of public inquiries from concerned citizens and requests for media interviews. By reporting data results as they became available, the CEMP was able to keep its network of community citizen scientists (Fig. 6) informed about not only the detection of radioactivity from this incident, but also that levels being measured in the U.S. were not a public health threat. As recognized points-of-contact in their communities, they were able to provide an invaluable service by mitigating much of

Members of the general public often have a surprising willingness to participate in the process of assisting scientists with the collection of data as well as the dissemination of and communication of results to the public at large. While such public participation is often driven by personal curiosity, in cases where there is either the perception or reality of a potential risk to the personal well-being of an individual, his or her family, or community, many citizens relish the opportunity to become significantly involved when the opportunity

Most models of public involvement in environmental monitoring or other scientific endeavours have traditionally stopped short of a direct role for public involvement, instead relying solely on practices such as holding public meetings, providing opportunities for written feedback in the form of response to proposals or studies, or the formation of advisory groups to provide input into the decision-making process. While these are all important avenues for public discourse, they are oftentimes regulatorydriven, with little effort or impetus on the part of the agencies or corporations involved to provide additional opportunities for public engagement. The endowment of public stakeholders with a direct role in the process of environmental monitoring (or other scientific research) can convey several potential benefits, both to the stakeholders as well as the entities responsible for conducting monitoring studies. Direct participation by public stakeholders imparts a sense of ownership to those involved as well as to the general community. Careful identification of participating individuals who are in positions of high public trust and who are representative of a broad cross-section of the members of potentially affected communities can be an important contributing factor towards increasing public confidence in monitoring results. A role for direct involvement for the public from the outset (as opposed to in the conduct of damage control following an incident which has caused a loss of public trust) can be seen as a gesture of both good faith and public transparency in the monitoring process. The inclusion of these public stakeholders also helps to engender increased accountability on the part of those

the concern being expressed by their neighbors over the event.

aforementioned incident.

**4. Conclusions** 

is made available.

conducting the monitoring activities.

CEMs in participating communities are part of the official chain-of-custody for collected samples, and become trained in the basics of ionizing radiation, including detection and potential health effects. They become knowledgeable points-of-contact for other community members. Although the CEMs are the primary means of interacting with and disseminating information to the public, DRI and DOE personnel actively participate in community events (e.g., producing displays and giving presentations for civic organizations and schools).

In 1999, DRI developed a public web site and upgraded communications at the stations so that most could upload their data every ten minutes (http://cemp.dri.edu/, accessed July 2011). In addition, data are archived back to the year 1999 for most stations, and users are able to produce tabular and graphical summary data for multiple parameters in any combination. The advent of the web site ushered in a new era of even greater transparency for the monitoring program, since now the public could access the data in near real-time, and know that they were seeing the data as soon as anyone else, including personnel of the sponsoring federal government. With time, links were developed to multi-level educational information on ionizing radiation, as well as a means to contact and discourse with program personnel.

Fig. 5. A photo of a CEMP station and its CEMs in California, taken when nuclear testing was still ongoing at the Nevada National Security Site, then called the Nevada Test Site.

There are undoubtedly some pitfalls associated with significant public transparency that can be provided by a public web site such as the CEMP. The public sees not only the normal data when it is posted, but also is occasionally privy to "bad" data caused by message mistranslation during communication, power outages, or equipment malfunction. While these incidents can cause significant angst for program personnel for short periods of time (e.g. Hartwell et al., 2008), the overall benefits conveyed by maximum transparency (especially public trust) are much greater than any temporary detriment caused by such an aforementioned incident.

As the CEMP has continued to evolve, it has endeavored to keep pace with the advent of new technologies (you can follow the CEMP on Twitter at @DRICEMP as of May 2011), and has played a significant role in keeping the public informed not only about monitoring results associated with past nuclear weapons testing, but also about other events as well. The CEMP web site reported the program's detection of radionuclides in Nevada in the U.S. resulting from the nuclear accident caused by the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Japan in March 2011, and responded to hundreds of public inquiries from concerned citizens and requests for media interviews. By reporting data results as they became available, the CEMP was able to keep its network of community citizen scientists (Fig. 6) informed about not only the detection of radioactivity from this incident, but also that levels being measured in the U.S. were not a public health threat. As recognized points-of-contact in their communities, they were able to provide an invaluable service by mitigating much of the concern being expressed by their neighbors over the event.
