**Land Degradation of the Mau Forest Complex in Eastern Africa: A Review for Management and Restoration Planning**

Luke Omondi Olang1 and Peter Musula Kundu2

*1Department of Water and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, 2Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, 1Kenya 2South Africa*

### **1. Introduction**

244 Environmental Monitoring

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The Mau Forest Complex is the largest closed-canopy montane ecosystem in Eastern Africa. It encompasses seven forest blocks within the Mau Narok, Maasai Mau, Eastern Mau, Western Mau, Southern Mau, South West Mau and Transmara regions. The area is thus the largest water tower in the region, being the main catchment area for 12 rivers draining into Lake Baringo, Lake Nakuru, Lake Turkana, Lake Natron and the Trans-boundary Lake Victoria (Kundu et al., 2008; Olang & Fürst, 2011). However, in the past three decades or so, the Mau Forest Complex (MFC) has undergone significant land use changes due to increased human population demanding land for settlement and subsistence agriculture. The encroachment has led to drastic and considerable land fragmentation, deforestation of the headwater catchments and destruction of wetlands previously existing within the fertile upstream parts. Today, the effects of the anthropogenic activities are slowly taking toll as is evident from the diminishing river discharges during periods of low flows, and deterioration of river water qualities through pollution from point and non-point sources (Kenya Forests Working Group [KFWG], 2001; Baldyga et al., 2007). Augmented by the adverse effects of climate change and variability, the dwindling land and water resources has given rise to insecurity and conflicts associated with competition for the limited resources. It is hence becoming urgently important that renewed efforts are focused on this region to avail better information for appropriate planning and decision support.

Such a process will nonetheless, require an integrated characterization of the changing land and water flow regimes, and their concerned socio-economic effects on resource allocation and distribution (Krhoda, 1988; King, et al., 1999). Assessing the impacts of the environmental changes on water flow regimes generally require provision of time series meteorological, hydrological and land use datasets. However, like in a majority the developing countries, the MFC does not have good data infrastructure for monitoring purposes (Corey et al., 2007; Kundu et al., 2008). A majority of research studies in the area

Land Degradation of the Mau Forest Complex: A Review for Management and Restoration 247

results should provide detailed information with a good degree of confidence, and where possible, validated through a participatory approach involving ground measurements and indigenous knowledge (Liu et al., 2004; Refsgaard & Henriksen, 2004; Rambaldi et al., 2007). Generally, most of the existing studies in the MFC were carried-out at catchment-scales with a view to determine the hydrological impacts of the environmental changes. Studies that catalog the land cover alterations to provide time-series trajectories for continued update of the existing water resources master plans are very few. In fact, the existing efforts are often isolated, unpublished and difficult to access to enhance synergistic research geared towards dependable restoration management. In this contribution therefore, the general ecology and deforestation patterns of the MFC are reviewed with the aim of consolidating and documenting the scattered information important for hinging the development of improved tools for sustainable land and water resource management. Emphasis is placed on the findings of previous works employed to monitor surface alterations as a fundamental

Environmental changes arise from the fact that most natural and artificial earth surface features are in a state of flux. The rate of these changes is quite often not uniformly distributed, but depends rather on the interactions of the biophysical and human components (Coppin et al., 2004; Jensen, 2005). The need for resource sustainability through proper management has today prompted timely and accurate monitoring of environmental changes to understand their relationships and interactions within a given ecosystem. However, monitoring environmental changes requires a deep understanding of the relevant environmental attributes over time and space to avoid simplistic representations. Common examples of environmental changes largely witnessed today in the developing countries include changes in forest characteristics due to human induced deforestation processes, ecological changes due to the need for agricultural expansion and land use/land cover changes due to factors related to human influences from increased population (Pellikka et al., 2004; Corey et al., 2007). In the last couple of years, significant attention has been given to land use and land cover changes, since they form a major component of global changes with greater impact than that of climate change (Foody, 2001; Olang et al., 2011). Such changes in land cover can be generally differentiated into land cover modification and land cover conversion. Land cover modification generally refers to the full substitution of one

In a majority of developing countries, land cover conversion which refers to gradual changes affecting the nature of the land cover but not their overall classifications are common. Such conversions may arise from the natural resilience of an ecosystem due to climatic variability and/or from complex land cover changes due to direct or indirect anthropogenic factors. Specifically in the MFC, both land cover modifications and conversions are predominant, and are largely attributed to the increasing human population pressure demanding more land for settlement, pasture and agriculture. This is further aggravated by the dire need for economic sustainance from the within vicinity natural resources without taking into account proper land use management practices. Forest degradation through charcoal burning followed by conversion of the deforested areas into subsistence agriculture is widespread in the headwaters catchments. In addition to this are the uncontrolled cattle grazing, slash and burn farming methods in the midland areas. With

component of land degradation in the susceptible MFC.

cover type by another, as is the case with urbanization.

**2. Environmental changes and land cover degradation** 

have relied on low resolution land cover datasets, including approximate physically-based procedures to understand the space and time surface alterations. Renewed efforts are thus underway in the MFC at present in order to avail high resolution information to be used for updating the existing databases with a view of improving future forecasts for restoration management as shown in Figure 1. Datasets from relevant research organization such as the World Agro-forestry Centre (ICRAF), Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), Regional Disaster Management Center of Excellence (RDMCOE) and IGAD – Climate Prediction and Application Centre (ICPAC) are hence being harmonized for use in evaluating the environmental effects of spatial changes, especially within hotspot regions of the complex. Cost effective computer-based techniques, which can efficiently analyze diverse physically-based variables are also under consideration to enhance the application of appropriate distributed-based management interventions (Kundu, 2007; Olang, 2009).

Fig. 1. Location of the five water towers of Kenya, including the MFC region (Mosaiced images of Landsat 2000).

Furthermore, with continued advancements in global remote Sensing (RS) and GIS monitoring techniques, it is increasingly becoming possible to evaluate detailed land cover change trajectories for improved resource management. Relevant contemporary alternatives such as automated extraction of geomorphologic and hydrologic properties from satellite derived Digital Terrain Models (DEM) can thus be undertaken as viable tools for model based simulation of relevant catchment-based properties. Already, there is a general consensus that for such spatial models to be used for successive impact analyses and decision support, the

have relied on low resolution land cover datasets, including approximate physically-based procedures to understand the space and time surface alterations. Renewed efforts are thus underway in the MFC at present in order to avail high resolution information to be used for updating the existing databases with a view of improving future forecasts for restoration management as shown in Figure 1. Datasets from relevant research organization such as the World Agro-forestry Centre (ICRAF), Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), Regional Disaster Management Center of Excellence (RDMCOE) and IGAD – Climate Prediction and Application Centre (ICPAC) are hence being harmonized for use in evaluating the environmental effects of spatial changes, especially within hotspot regions of the complex. Cost effective computer-based techniques, which can efficiently analyze diverse physically-based variables are also under consideration to enhance the application of appropriate distributed-based management interventions

Fig. 1. Location of the five water towers of Kenya, including the MFC region

Furthermore, with continued advancements in global remote Sensing (RS) and GIS monitoring techniques, it is increasingly becoming possible to evaluate detailed land cover change trajectories for improved resource management. Relevant contemporary alternatives such as automated extraction of geomorphologic and hydrologic properties from satellite derived Digital Terrain Models (DEM) can thus be undertaken as viable tools for model based simulation of relevant catchment-based properties. Already, there is a general consensus that for such spatial models to be used for successive impact analyses and decision support, the

(Kundu, 2007; Olang, 2009).

(Mosaiced images of Landsat 2000).

results should provide detailed information with a good degree of confidence, and where possible, validated through a participatory approach involving ground measurements and indigenous knowledge (Liu et al., 2004; Refsgaard & Henriksen, 2004; Rambaldi et al., 2007). Generally, most of the existing studies in the MFC were carried-out at catchment-scales with a view to determine the hydrological impacts of the environmental changes. Studies that catalog the land cover alterations to provide time-series trajectories for continued update of the existing water resources master plans are very few. In fact, the existing efforts are often isolated, unpublished and difficult to access to enhance synergistic research geared towards dependable restoration management. In this contribution therefore, the general ecology and deforestation patterns of the MFC are reviewed with the aim of consolidating and documenting the scattered information important for hinging the development of improved tools for sustainable land and water resource management. Emphasis is placed on the findings of previous works employed to monitor surface alterations as a fundamental component of land degradation in the susceptible MFC.

### **2. Environmental changes and land cover degradation**

Environmental changes arise from the fact that most natural and artificial earth surface features are in a state of flux. The rate of these changes is quite often not uniformly distributed, but depends rather on the interactions of the biophysical and human components (Coppin et al., 2004; Jensen, 2005). The need for resource sustainability through proper management has today prompted timely and accurate monitoring of environmental changes to understand their relationships and interactions within a given ecosystem. However, monitoring environmental changes requires a deep understanding of the relevant environmental attributes over time and space to avoid simplistic representations. Common examples of environmental changes largely witnessed today in the developing countries include changes in forest characteristics due to human induced deforestation processes, ecological changes due to the need for agricultural expansion and land use/land cover changes due to factors related to human influences from increased population (Pellikka et al., 2004; Corey et al., 2007). In the last couple of years, significant attention has been given to land use and land cover changes, since they form a major component of global changes with greater impact than that of climate change (Foody, 2001; Olang et al., 2011). Such changes in land cover can be generally differentiated into land cover modification and land cover conversion. Land cover modification generally refers to the full substitution of one cover type by another, as is the case with urbanization.

In a majority of developing countries, land cover conversion which refers to gradual changes affecting the nature of the land cover but not their overall classifications are common. Such conversions may arise from the natural resilience of an ecosystem due to climatic variability and/or from complex land cover changes due to direct or indirect anthropogenic factors. Specifically in the MFC, both land cover modifications and conversions are predominant, and are largely attributed to the increasing human population pressure demanding more land for settlement, pasture and agriculture. This is further aggravated by the dire need for economic sustainance from the within vicinity natural resources without taking into account proper land use management practices. Forest degradation through charcoal burning followed by conversion of the deforested areas into subsistence agriculture is widespread in the headwaters catchments. In addition to this are the uncontrolled cattle grazing, slash and burn farming methods in the midland areas. With

Land Degradation of the Mau Forest Complex: A Review for Management and Restoration 249

(GEFSOC) project (FAO-UNESCO, 1998; Batjes & Gicheru, 2004). This dataset is available at a scale of 1:1M for Kenya, and is a modification of the original SOTER soils data of the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS). Other hydrological studies of the headwaters of the MFC have employed remotely sensed datasets to derive the geomorphological characteristics of the region (Kundu, 2007; Baldyga et al., 2007). A 3-Arc second grid based digital elevation model (DEM) acquired from the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission was used in this context. Through computer aided procedures in a GIS, a raster analysis was performed to generate stream directions and networks, which matched very closely with the actual drainage patterns.

The climate of the Mau complex is largely influenced by the North – South movement of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) modified by local orographic effects. In terms of seasonality, the complex can be classified as trimodal, with the long rainy season predominant between the months of May and June and the short rainy season prevalent between the months of September and November. Generally, the complex receives an average annual rainfall of about 1300 mm on normal years devoid of climatic extremes such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Mean monthly rainfall events in the range of 30

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JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC **TIM E (M ONTHS)**

Fig. 3. Monthly rainfall distribution from six selected weather stations within the Mau

There are a few pluviometric stations in the complex where quality rainfall data can be obtained from. However, due to the diverse topography of the area, the existing gauge

**3.2 Climate 3.2.1 Rainfall** 

0

Complex (Kundu, 2007).

20

40

60

80

100

**RAINFALL (MM)**

120

140

160

180

200

mm to over 120 mm are common (Figure 3).

continued diminishing economic alternatives for the rural population, more farms are being put under small scale subsistence agriculture to provide a means of a living for the riparian communities living in the forest complex.
