**5. Conclusion**

216 Environmental Monitoring

start, mid and end points of line transects can be treated as grid of points which is preferred for estimating area proportions of different land cover classes within a landscape and thus Shannon's diversity. It would also be effective in terms of cost if several metrics could

From a statistical point of view unbiasedness is a desirable property of an estimator. In sample based assessment of landscape metrics, attributes (metrics components) such as the number, size, and edge length of patches must unbiasedly be estimated (Traub and Kleinn, 1999) if an unbiased estimate is needed. However, this is a necessary but not sufficient conditions (Ramezani, 2010). For instance, in the case of Shannon' diversity, there is still bias despite its component i.e., area proportions of land cover classes can be estimated without bias through both point and line intersect sampling methods (Ramezani et al., 2010; Ramezani and Holm, 2011c). The bias is due to non–linear transformation, which also generally is the case for other metrics with non–linear expression such as contagion. Bias of selected metric estimators is very small if the sample size is large and the magnitude of bias depends jointly on type of selected metric, the sampling method, and the complexity of the landscape structure. To achieve an acceptable precision in a complex landscape there is a need for a larger sample size compared to the

The landscape metrics used in this study are based on a patch-mosaic model where sharp borders are assumed between patches. In such procedure, as noted by Gustafson (1998) the patch definition is subjective and depends on criterion such as the smallest unit that will be mapped (minimum mapping units, MMU). This becomes more challenging in a highly fragmented landscape where smaller patches than predefined MMU are neglected. Even though these patches constitute a small proportion (area) of the landscape, they contribute significantly to the overall diversity of that landscape; including biodiversity where other type organisms may occupy these patches habitats. However, in sample based approach which can be conducted in non–delineated aerial photos, there is no need to predefine minimum patch size and even very small patches can be included in the monitoring system. Furthermore, point sampling appears to be in consistent with gradient based model of landscape (McGarigal and Cushman, 2005) where landscape properties change gradually and continuously in space and where no subjective sharp border need to be assumed

Polygon delineation errors are common in manual mapping process. It can be assumed that this error can be eliminated when sampling methods are used for estimating some landscape metrics. As a result, obtained information and subsequent analysis is more reliable than for traditional manual polygon delineation. As an example, for estimating the metrics Shannon's diversity and contagion using point sampling, no mapped data are needed and assessment is only concentrated on sampling locations. This is also true for the LIS, for instance, the total length estimation of linear features within a landscape is to be based on simply counting the interactions between lines transect and a potential patch border. Consequently, assessment is conducted along line transect which, thus, considerable

It is clear, however, that a sample based approach cannot compete with a complete mapping approach, in particular when high quality mapped data is available. With the mapping approach a suite of metrics can be calculated for patch, class, and landscape levels whereas in sample based approach a limited number of metrics on landscape level can often be

simultaneously be derived from a single sampling method.

homogenous landscape.

between patches.

estimated.

reduce the polygon delineation error.

A sample based approach can be used complementary to complete mapping approach, and adds a number of advantages, including 1) the possibility to extract metrics at low cost 2) applicable in case of lacking categorical map of entire landscape 3) the possibility in some case to obtain more reliable information and 4) the possibility of estimating some metrics from ongoing field-based inventory such as national forest inventories (NFI). In some cases, there is a need to slightly redefine currently used landscape metrics or develop new metrics to meet sample data. There is obviously plenty of room for further studies into this topic since sample based assessment of landscape metrics is a new approach in landscape ecological surveys.
