**2. Chemical and nutritional composition of garden cress seeds**

can be sown and harvested several times throughout the year, the January, February, and November are the most suitable months of the year to sow in a Mediterranean climate [2]. Garden cress seed (GCS) possesses several of pharmacological properties like anti-anemic, antioxidant, galactogogues, etc. and has tremendous potential for the development of functional food by fortification with it [3, 4]. Generally, GC is consumed as cooking material and with salad. In recent years, efforts are made to develop human diets in such a way that it acts as medicinal foods in order to exploit several health benefits and to prevent increased diversity of diseases. Isothiocyanates are most important biochemical agents from the human health point of view as they are the major inducers of carcinogen-detoxifying enzymes. The most potent isothiocyanates are benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC), which is present in ample quantity in garden cress [5]. GCS have been used in traditional medicine since ancient times in India [6]. The GCS are galactogogue, bitter, thermogenic, depurative, rubefacient, aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, antiscorbutic, antihistaminic, diuretic, and act as tonic. Various diseases such as asthma, coughs with expectoration, diarrhea, dysentery, poultices for sprains, leprosy, skin disease, splenomegaly, dyspepsia, lumbago, leucorrhoea, scurvy, and seminal weakness can be treated using garden cress seed [7]. It is supplemented in the diet of lactating women to increase the milk secretion during postnatal period and also recommended for the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery [8, 9]. Seeds of GC are prescribed by Ayurvedic practitioners for the treatment of bronchial asthmatic patients. Garden cress seed oil (GCSO) has a balanced amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (46.8%) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (37.6%). It contains natural antioxidants like vitamin A, E, and eugenol, which help to protect cells from damage by free radicals [10]. It also protects oil from oxidation and causing rancidity. It was reported that GCS contain 22.5% protein, 27.5% fat, 30% dietary fiber, and 1193 mg/100 g potassium [11]. Hence, it can potentially be used as a functional food. The oil content of dried cress seed is 22.7% and the primary fatty acids found in cress oil are oleic (C18:1; 30.6%), linolenic (C18:3; 29.3%), palmitic (C16:0; 9.4%), linoleic (C18:2; 7.6%), erucic (C22:1; 3.0%), stearic (C18:0; 2.8%), and arachidic (C20:0; 2.3%) acids [4, 11]. GCSO contain

**Figure 1.** Garden cress plants and seeds.

280 Advances in Seed Biology

high concentrations of *γ*-(1422 ppm) and α (356 ppm) tocopherols.

The fruit and vegetable juices are rich sources of vitamin and minerals, but these are limited in protein and fat content. For the compensation of these components, garden cress extract or powder can be added. As garden cress also acts as thickening agent, the combination of both juices and extract may lead to the formation of health promoting beverages having good textural, sensory attributes, and nutritional properties. A beverage was developed by combining lime juice Proximate composition (%) of *L. sativum* seeds reported by Zia-Ul-Haq et al. indicates the presence of appreciable amounts of protein (24.2 ± 0.5), lipids (23.2 ± 0.2), carbohydrates (30.7 ± 1.2), fiber (11.9 ± 0.4), ash (7.1 ± 0.1), and moisture (2.9 ± 0.1) [14]. Proximate composition varies depending upon plant variety, agronomic practices, and stage of collection of seeds and climatic and geological condition of area from where seeds are collected. It is an important factor for the evaluation of nutritional status of fruits and seeds of plants and crops, and it dictates further studies on components, which seem more interesting [15]. Higher amounts of ash contents indicate that the GCS are good source of minerals. The low moisture content is an index of stability, quality, and increased shelf life of seeds [16]. Higher protein and lipid contents indicate that GCS have high food energy.

Qualitative and quantitative amino acid profile as presented in **Table 1** well introduces the nutritional quality of GCS protein [4, 14]. All essential amino acids are present in high amounts in garden cress, except tryptophan and S-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. Glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the major nonessential amino acids in the GCS. The total essential amino acid percentage (47.08%) suggests that this seed may contribute significantly to the supply of essential amino acids in the diet. Essential amino acid score is 28.53% with methionine being the most limiting amino acid. Aspartic and glutamic acids are present in significant amount in this oilseed. Glutamic acid is an important excitatory neurotransmitter, and it plays a vital role in the metabolism of sugars and fats [17]. The body uses methionine to derive the brain food and choline. It also aids in digestion, as well as serving as a fat burner. It can interact with other substances to detoxify harmful agents and is essential for the production of cysteine and taurine. It is also necessary for the production of niacin and is used by the body to make neurotransmitter and serotonin [18]. These play a very important role in human nutrition. Lysine helps in proper maintenance of nitrogen balance. L-Tryptophan acts as a sleep aid. The presence of tryptophan and cystine in GCS is also reported [14].

Mineral contents of seeds (**Table 1**) varied between species, but potassium constituted the major mineral in GCS 1236.51 mg/100 g, while zinc and manganese contents are low. GCS is a good source of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium. GCS has the potential for providing essential nutrients for human and other animals, as the nutritional activity of any plant is usually related to the particular elements it contains [19]. With these minerals content, it can be utilized for the development of a number of supplementary food products.

Fatty acid composition (**Table 1**) reveals high content of linolenic acid (32.18%) and oleic acid (30.5%) in the garden cress seed oil (GCSO). Higher intake of oleic acid is associated with the decreased risk of coronary heart disease caused by high cholesterol level in blood [20]. The fatty acid composition of the GCSO is interesting from the nutritional point of view for their



**Table 1.** Amino acid profile, mineral content, and fatty acid profile of garden cress seed.

**Amino acid profile (g/100 g protein)**

Histidine 3.87 ± 0.14 Threonine 2.66 ± 0.09 Arginine 4.51 ± 0.03 Valine 8.04 ± 0.03 Methionine 0.97 ± 0.02 Phenyl alanine 5.65 ± 0.03 Isoleucine 5.11 ± 0.03 Leucine 8.21 ± 0.01 Lysine 6.26 ± 0.39

Aspartic acid 9.76 ± 0.03 Glutamic acid 19.33 ± 0.19 Serine 4.96 ± 0.09 Glycine 5.51 ± 0.07 Alanine 4.83 ± 0,02 Tyrosine 2.69 ± 0.09 Proline 5.84 ± 0.38

Calcium 266.35 Copper 5.73 Iron 8.31 Magnesium 339.23 Manganese 2.00 Phosphorus 608.63 Potassium 1236.51 Sodium 19. 65 Zinc 6.99

Palmitic acid (16:0) 10.30 ± 0.12 Palmitoleic acid (16:1) 0.70 ± 0.30 Stearic acid (18:0) 1.90 ± 0.19 Oleic acid (18:1) 30.50 ± 0.16 Linoleic acid (18:2) 8.60 ± 0.38

*Essential amino acids*

282 Advances in Seed Biology

*Nonessential amino acids*

**Mineral content (mg/100 g)**

**Fatty acid profile (%)**

higher contents of unsaturated fatty acids; especially, it is rich in omega-3 fatty acid, which is beneficial for health. Palmitic acid is the most abundant saturated fatty acid, in the amounts of 10.3 ± 0.12 g/100 g in GCS. Similarly, palmitoleic acid is the least abundant unsaturated fatty acid, with values 0.70 ± 0.30 g/100 g in GCS.
