3. Efficacy of biorational insecticides on Liriomyza sativae Blanchard without totally inhibiting the presence of the parasitoids

The leaf miner species present in the chickpea is Liriomyza sativae Blanchard. The aedeagus presents a barely conspicuous constriction (Figure 1A), where the edges of the distifalo have only a slight undulation. The ejaculatory pump apodema has a thin base that is wider at the distal end than the diameter of the bulb (Figure 1C).

Biorational Insecticides and Diatomaceous Earth for Control Sustainability of Pest in Chickpea and Mexican… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71534 5

While in the entomology laboratory of the same, faculty research was done to determine the efficacy of diatomaceous earth doses, where the colony of beans weevil (Zabrotes subfasciatus Boheman) was purified in glass bottles with a capacity of 5 kg, which were kept under a temperature that fluctuated between 30 and 35�C, with a purpose of having a homogeneous

To establish the tests; polystyrene beakers with capacity of 500 g, and 2 kg of bean per treatment were used; the application of the diatomaceous earth was homogenized on the grain, then 20 adults of bean weevil were deposited in each repetition and covered with organza cloth. The investigation was carried out in two phases: (a) the first one was done in a completely random design with seven treatments and four repetitions. The treatments were diatomaceous earth at doses of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 g kg�<sup>1</sup> of seed, a chemical control (deltamethrin) at a dose of 1.0 mL kg�<sup>1</sup> of seed, plus an absolute control (without application of substances); (b) the second phase consisted of another completely random experimental design with the same amount of treatments and repetitions, but with the doses of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 g kg�<sup>1</sup> of diatomaceous earth, a chemical control (deltamethrin) at a dose of 0.1 mL kg�<sup>1</sup> of seed plus the absolute

In the both phases of the experiment, the response variables were the percentage of dead adults and the germination of bean seeds. In the first phase, mortality was determined with the number of live and dead insects in each experimental unit, at 15, 30, 45, and 60 days after application (daa), while in the second phase, it was done at 10, 20 30, and 40 daa. With the averages of mortality in each experimental unit, the percentage of effectiveness was obtained

Corrected mortality <sup>¼</sup> mortality of the treatment–mortality of the absolute control � <sup>100</sup>

Germination was evaluated with 100 bean seeds planted in polystyrene trays filled with peat moss and determined at 10, 20 and 30 daa of the diatomaceous earth and deltamethrin doses, counting the seedlings emerged in each of the experimental units and comparison of averages with respect at average of the absolute control, while percentages were also determined with the equation of Abbott [24]. All data were subjected to an analysis of variance and multiple

comparison of means of Tukey test (α = 0.05) of the statistical package SAS 9.1 [23].

without totally inhibiting the presence of the parasitoids

distal end than the diameter of the bulb (Figure 1C).

3. Efficacy of biorational insecticides on Liriomyza sativae Blanchard

The leaf miner species present in the chickpea is Liriomyza sativae Blanchard. The aedeagus presents a barely conspicuous constriction (Figure 1A), where the edges of the distifalo have only a slight undulation. The ejaculatory pump apodema has a thin base that is wider at the

100 � mortality of the absolute control

colony for the test.

4 Insecticides - Agriculture and Toxicology

control.

by the following Eq. [24]:

Figure 1. Liriomyza Sativae: (A) aedeagus ventral view, (B) aedeagus side view, and (C) sperm pump.

Based on the final averages of the two experiments (Table 1), it could be interpreted that after applying the biorational insecticides, chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, and spinosad, twice as well as the conventional insecticide, chlorpyrifos, there was no statistical difference between the efficacy of the biorationals and that of the conventional one, and live larval populations of L. sativae were reduced to 43, 33, 22, and 39%, respectively, compared to the 100% presence of larvae in the foliage on average in the absolute control in the cycle 2013, while in 2014, the respective decreases were 55, 47, 45, and 46%. The tendency of the population of L. sativae to stay below the economic threshold in the two experiments, from the second application, was perhaps due to the physiological maturity of the chickpea approaching the senescence of the foliage and, consequently, to the harvest grain.

According to the final averages of Table 2, in 2013, the percentage of empty mines was reduced to 29, 37, 11, and 29% with chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, spinosad, and chlorpyrifos, respectively, compared with 100% represented by the average of the control. In 2014, the respective decreases were 19, 3, 16, and 22% with the same treatments. In addition, the time of action of biorationals was very similar to that of chlorpyrifos. The results allowed to corroborate that the biorationals are products that can be used for the control of L. sativae with the same effectiveness of the conventional insecticide chlorpyrifos.


Treatments February 2013 March 2013 Final

Chlorantraniliprole 1.40ab 1.49ab 1.00ab 0.77bc 1.59ab 1.61 1.25<sup>b</sup> 0.79b 1.21b Cyromazine 1.30ab 1.05ab 0.84b 0.60<sup>c</sup> 0.89b 2.08 1.59ab 1.40ab 1.20b Spinosad 1.29ab 1.73a 1.52a 1.39ab 1.95ab 2.16 2.50ab 1.01ab 1.75ab Chlorpyrifos 1.79a 0.61b 1.56a 0.51<sup>c</sup> 2.34a 1.09 1.07<sup>b</sup> 3.04a 1.46ab Absolute control 0.98b 1.51ab 1.59a 1.70<sup>a</sup> 1.74ab 1.85 3.15<sup>a</sup> 2.36ab 1.98a

7<sup>3</sup> 14 212 28 7 14 22 28

Chlorantraniliprole 1.18b 2.05b 0.35b 0.73ab 4.30 3.93 1.20<sup>b</sup> 9.78 2.94bc Cyromazine 0.00c 1.38b 0.08b 0.28<sup>b</sup> 7.20 2.08 1.05<sup>b</sup> 2.63 1.83c Spinosad 4.15a 6.88a 0.25b 1.15ab 10.93 2.75 5.08<sup>a</sup> 7.78 4.87a Chlorpyrifos 0.35bc 9.95a 0.03b 0.75ab 8.70 0.38 5.28<sup>a</sup> 6.85 4.03b Absolute control 5.98a 6.53a 1.13a 1.68<sup>a</sup> 9.98 2.93 7.10<sup>a</sup> 7.85 5.39a

Table 3. Average adult leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Treatments February 2013 March 2013 Final

Chlorantraniliprole 20.1 9.7b 9.9b 5.1b 2.8b 20.4 8.4b 4.5b 8.7<sup>b</sup> Cyromazine 20.2 9.1b 5.9bc 6.6b 5.0b 20.1 7.5b 8.1b 8.9<sup>b</sup> Spinosad 20.1 12.2b 4.9c 8.6b 4.6b 22.1 8.0b 8.6b 9.9<sup>b</sup> Chlorpyrifos 21.2 9.3b 4.2c 6.2b 3.2b 22.0 8.9b 9.5b 9.0<sup>b</sup> Absolute control 20.9 22.7a 22.1a 22.6a 31.2a 25.8 21.8a 23.9a 24.3a

7<sup>3</sup> 14 21<sup>2</sup> 28 7 14 22 28

Table 4. Percentage of damage by leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in leaf chickpea plants. Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Chlorantraniliprole 11.2ab 9.8bc 20.2 13.9 9.7 8.9 9.4b 7.9d 11.4d Cyromazine 16.4ab 14.8ab 21.0 19.7 7.6 11.1 9.3b 10.9cd 13.8bc Spinosad 18.5<sup>a</sup> 13.8ab 21.3 16.8 6.7 14.9 12.4ab 15.4b 15.0b Chlorpyrifos 11.1<sup>b</sup> 8.0c 20.4 16.0 8.6 12.3 10.5ab 14.3bc 12.7c Absolute control 20.3ab 20.2a 20.4 20.1 20.2 20.2 20.9a 22.2a 20.5a

February 2014 March 2014

7<sup>1</sup> 14 21 28 7 14<sup>2</sup> 22 28 Average

February 2014 March 2014

\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

1

2

3

1

2

3

Two days before the first application.

Five days after the first application.

Two days before the second application.

Two days before the first application.

Five days after the first application.

Two days before the second application.

71 14 21 28 7 142 22 28 Average

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Biorational Insecticides and Diatomaceous Earth for Control Sustainability of Pest in Chickpea and Mexican…

\* Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

1 Two days before the first application.

2 Two days before the second application.

3 Five days after the first application.

Table 1. Average live larvae of leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.


\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

1 Two days before the first application.

2 Two days before the second application.

3 Five days after the first application.

Table 2. Average empty mines of leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Biorational Insecticides and Diatomaceous Earth for Control Sustainability of Pest in Chickpea and Mexican… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71534 7


\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

1 Two days before the first application.

Treatments February 2013 March 2013 Final Average

71 14 21 28 7 14<sup>2</sup> 22 28

7<sup>3</sup> 14 21<sup>2</sup> 28 7 14 22 28

Table 1. Average live larvae of leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Treatments February 2013 March 2013 Final average

7<sup>1</sup> 14 21 28 7 14<sup>2</sup> 22 28

7<sup>3</sup> 14 21<sup>2</sup> 28 7 14 22 28

Table 2. Average empty mines of leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

Chlorantraniliprole 2.58b 0.28<sup>b</sup> 1.08 1.68 1.10 3.20ab 3.05 2.43ab 1.92b Cyromazine 2.20b 0.98ab 1.45 1.38 0.83 3.93a 3.88 3.68<sup>a</sup> 2.29ab Spinosad 3.53a 1.33<sup>a</sup> 1.23 1.63 0.83 2.08b 2.55 2.70ab 1.98ab Chlorpyrifos 1.35c 0.85ab 1.50 1.13 1.10 3.75a 2.85 2.25<sup>b</sup> 1.84b Absolute control 2.78ab 1.93<sup>a</sup> 1.45 1.48 1.28 3.40ab 3.28 3.43ab 2.37a

Chlorantraniliprole 1.58 1.73 1.03a\* 0.38ab 0.83 0.65 1.33 0.98bc 0.99bc Cyromazine 1.30 1.30 0.68ab 0.60<sup>a</sup> 0.78 1.00 1.15 0.70<sup>c</sup> 0.88c Spinosad 1.38 1.58 0.80ab 0.85<sup>a</sup> 1.18 1.13 1.68 1.50<sup>a</sup> 1.24ab Chlorpyrifos 1.28 1.70 0.38b 0.08<sup>b</sup> 1.30 1.33 1.23 0.95bc 0.99bc Absolute control 1.38 1.78 1.38a 0.85<sup>a</sup> 1.33 1.38 1.95 1.15ab 1.40a

February 2014 March 2014

Chlorantraniliprole 0.70ab 1.60 2.65b 0.83<sup>b</sup> 1.58 1.20 1.00 1.05<sup>b</sup> 1.32<sup>b</sup> Cyromazine 0.78ab 1.80 2.70b 0.73<sup>b</sup> 1.85 1.20 1.88 1.68<sup>b</sup> 1.57<sup>b</sup> Spinosad 1.58ab 1.83 2.75b 0.85<sup>b</sup> 1.35 1.98 1.40 1.25<sup>b</sup> 1.62<sup>b</sup> Chlorpyrifos 0.75<sup>b</sup> 1.85 3.85a 1.00ab 1.88 1.25 1.03 1.05<sup>b</sup> 1.58<sup>b</sup> Absolute control 3.90<sup>a</sup> 3.83 3.68a 2.03<sup>a</sup> 2.68 2.30 2.13 3.10<sup>a</sup> 2.95<sup>a</sup>

Chlorantraniliprole 2.30 1.65 0.20bc\* 0.35<sup>b</sup> 1.65 3.95 0.40<sup>b</sup> 0.05<sup>b</sup> 1.17<sup>b</sup> Cyromazine 2.20 1.85 0.30b 0.55<sup>b</sup> 1.75 3.80 0.70ab 0.75ab 1.38<sup>b</sup> Spinosad 2.00 1.85 0.75a 0.80ab 1.90 4.15 0.40<sup>b</sup> 1.30<sup>a</sup> 1.59ab Chlorpyrifos 2.30 1.15 0.10c 0.35<sup>b</sup> 1.65 3.70 0.20<sup>b</sup> 1.60<sup>a</sup> 1.25<sup>b</sup> Absolute control 2.35 2.30 0.75a 1.55<sup>a</sup> 1.90 3.95 2.00<sup>a</sup> 1.90<sup>a</sup> 2.05<sup>a</sup>

February 2014 March 2014

Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

\*

1

2

3

1

2

3

Two days before the first application.

Five days after the first application.

Two days before the second application.

Two days before the first application.

Five days after the first application.

Two days before the second application.

6 Insecticides - Agriculture and Toxicology

2 Two days before the second application.

3 Five days after the first application.

Table 3. Average adult leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 40 chickpea leaves in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.


\*Means with the same letter in each column are statistically the same (Duncan α ≤0.05).

1 Two days before the first application.

2 Two days before the second application.

3 Five days after the first application.

Table 4. Percentage of damage by leaf miner Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in leaf chickpea plants. Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.


It was observed in 2013 that the number of adults of the leaf miner emerged from leafs decreased to 39, 39, 12, and 26%, with chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, spinosad, and chlorpyrifos, with respect to 100% of the absolute control (Table 3). In 2014, it was decreased to 45, 66, 10, and 25%. The above was to be expected, since the same effect had been observed in the number of live larvae and empty mines. In this way, the results of this research can help

Biorational Insecticides and Diatomaceous Earth for Control Sustainability of Pest in Chickpea and Mexican…

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9

The percentage of folioles damaged after application of insecticides in 2013 indicates that, with chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, and spinosad, the damage decreased to 64, 63, and 59, respectively (Table 4), while chlorpyrifos was 63%. In 2014, the damages decreased to 44, 33, 27, and

The parasitoids obtained from the leaf miner of the chickpea were Opius spp. (Braconidae), Diglyphus spp., Neochrysocharis spp., and Closterocerus spp. (Eulophidae) (Table 5). In 2013, the leaf miner parasitism was 1% where spinosad was applied, 4% in plots treated with chlorpyrifos, 8% with cyromazine, and 14% in plots managed with chlorantraniliprole, compared to the average of 19% of observed parasitism in the control plot. In 2014, the parasitism was 2, 3, 2, and 11%, respectively, and in the control 12%. Three types of parasitoids found and the percentage of parasitism in the chickpea, with respect to what was observed in the absolute control, coincide with the results [26]; since 2006 and 2007, they found parasitoids Opius monilicornis,

The estimate of net utility was determined by considering the value of production minus the cost of the crop, minus the value of the insecticides. The value of the ton of chickpea taken into account for operations was MX\$ 12,700. In 2013, the highest production of chickpea was obtained where chlorantraniliprole was applied, with a net utility of MX\$ 21,011, surpassing it to control with 71%, since its net utility was MX\$ 12,305. With chlorpyrifos, spinosad, and cyromazine, a production was obtained that surpassed to control in 53, 48, and 37%, respec-

In 2014, the highest production of chickpea was also obtained from the plots applied with chlorantraniliprole, from where a net utility of MX\$ 16,036 was obtained, surpassing the control with 45%, whose net utility was MX\$ 11,083. With chlorpyrifos, spinosad, and cyromazine, the respective increases were 39, 34, and 21%. Utility differences from 1 year to other may be due to

4. Efficiency of diatomaceous earth for control of Mexican bean weevil

The results show that all doses of diatomaceous earth (DE) exerted an excellent control, such that in the evaluations registered at 15 days after application; 100% mortality was recorded in

The doses of 2.0 and 3.0 g kg<sup>1</sup> of DE caused 95 and 96% mortality, in adults of Zabrotes subfasciatus. The dose of 1.0 g of DE caused 93% mortality, without statistical differences

, similar to those observed with the chemical control (deltamethrin).

the higher incidence and damage of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 2014.

increase local awareness to reduce the use of broad-spectrum insecticides [25].

38%, respectively, in relation to 100% of the absolute control.

Diglyphus crassinervis and Neochrysocharis ambitiosa.

(Zabrotes subfasciatus Boheman)

doses 4.0 and 5.0 g kg<sup>1</sup>

tively.

LLs = Larvae of L. sativae, Ptoid = Parasitoid, and Ptism = Parasitism.

Table 5. Parasitoid species and parasitism (%) of larvae of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 400 chickpea leaves. Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

It was observed in 2013 that the number of adults of the leaf miner emerged from leafs decreased to 39, 39, 12, and 26%, with chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, spinosad, and chlorpyrifos, with respect to 100% of the absolute control (Table 3). In 2014, it was decreased to 45, 66, 10, and 25%. The above was to be expected, since the same effect had been observed in the number of live larvae and empty mines. In this way, the results of this research can help increase local awareness to reduce the use of broad-spectrum insecticides [25].

Treatments Parasitoid species Total

LLs 74

Ptism 0 9.45 2.70 1.35 14 LLs 37

Ptism 0 2.70 2.70 2.70 8 LLs 75

Ptism 0 1.33 0 0 1 LLs 184

Ptism 0 3.26 0 0.54 4 LLs 116

Ptism 12.9 0 6.03 0 19

LLs 325

Ptism 3.08 0.31 0 7.69 11 LLs 242

Ptism 2.07 0.41 0 0 2 LLs 318

Ptism 0.63 0.63 0 0.63 2 LLs 392

Ptism 2.55 0 0 0.51 3 LLs 240

Ptism 4.1 0 0 8.3 12

2013 Neochrysocharis spp. Opius spp. Closterocerus spp. Diglyphus spp.

Chlorantraniliprole Ptoid 0 7 2 1 10

Cyromazine Ptoid 0 1 1 1 3

Spinosad Ptoid 0 1 0 0 1

Chlorpyrifos Ptoid 0 6 0 1 7

Absolute control Ptoid 15 0 7 0 22

Chlorantraniliprole Ptoid 10 1 0 25 36

Cyromazine Ptoid 5 1 0 0 6

Spinosad Ptoid 2 2 0 2 6

Chlorpyrifos Ptoid 10 0 0 2 12

Absolute control Ptoid 10 0 0 20 30

Table 5. Parasitoid species and parasitism (%) of larvae of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 400 chickpea leaves. Culiacan,

LLs = Larvae of L. sativae, Ptoid = Parasitoid, and Ptism = Parasitism.

2014

8 Insecticides - Agriculture and Toxicology

Sinaloa, Mexico.

The percentage of folioles damaged after application of insecticides in 2013 indicates that, with chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine, and spinosad, the damage decreased to 64, 63, and 59, respectively (Table 4), while chlorpyrifos was 63%. In 2014, the damages decreased to 44, 33, 27, and 38%, respectively, in relation to 100% of the absolute control.

The parasitoids obtained from the leaf miner of the chickpea were Opius spp. (Braconidae), Diglyphus spp., Neochrysocharis spp., and Closterocerus spp. (Eulophidae) (Table 5). In 2013, the leaf miner parasitism was 1% where spinosad was applied, 4% in plots treated with chlorpyrifos, 8% with cyromazine, and 14% in plots managed with chlorantraniliprole, compared to the average of 19% of observed parasitism in the control plot. In 2014, the parasitism was 2, 3, 2, and 11%, respectively, and in the control 12%. Three types of parasitoids found and the percentage of parasitism in the chickpea, with respect to what was observed in the absolute control, coincide with the results [26]; since 2006 and 2007, they found parasitoids Opius monilicornis, Diglyphus crassinervis and Neochrysocharis ambitiosa.

The estimate of net utility was determined by considering the value of production minus the cost of the crop, minus the value of the insecticides. The value of the ton of chickpea taken into account for operations was MX\$ 12,700. In 2013, the highest production of chickpea was obtained where chlorantraniliprole was applied, with a net utility of MX\$ 21,011, surpassing it to control with 71%, since its net utility was MX\$ 12,305. With chlorpyrifos, spinosad, and cyromazine, a production was obtained that surpassed to control in 53, 48, and 37%, respectively.

In 2014, the highest production of chickpea was also obtained from the plots applied with chlorantraniliprole, from where a net utility of MX\$ 16,036 was obtained, surpassing the control with 45%, whose net utility was MX\$ 11,083. With chlorpyrifos, spinosad, and cyromazine, the respective increases were 39, 34, and 21%. Utility differences from 1 year to other may be due to the higher incidence and damage of Liriomyza sativae Blanchard in 2014.
