**3. Volume and seminal viscosity**

Low reference index of seminal volume in fertile men is 1.5 ml. The term hyperpermia is not included in the last manual of seminal analysis. In a previous study of healthy men, the 95th percentile of the skewed data distribution was 6.3 ml and nearly 50% of them had low sperm concentrations. Seminal volume increase (hyperspermia) has been associated to male accessory gland in patients with bilateral prostate-vesiculo-epididymitis (PVE) more than those with monolateral PVE or prostatitis [50, 51].

testicular and ventral prostate weights were increased. The betamethasone exposure leads to long-term reproductive impairment in male rats. It is important to considerate the implica-

Male Accessory Glands and Sperm Function http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74321 109

Other drug that has negative impact on secretion of male accessory glands is atorvastatin because reduce acid phosphatases, NAG and L-carnitine in semen during the therapy, indicating an alteration of prostatic and epididymal functions with reduction of seminal parameters. The mechanism of the effect of atorvastatin on the function of accessory glands is not clear; possibly, the reduction in LDL-cholesterol levels affects the synthesis of testosterone by Leydig cells [56]. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estradiol, progesterone and prolactin receptors have been found in prostates of rats. It has been shown in these species that testosterone

The effect of prolactin on the prostate was studied in hypophysectomized animals treated with LH and FSH without any supply of exogenous prolactin, the animals showed low weight in prostate and seminal vesicles [58]. Prolactin potentiates the effect of androgens on the prostate and seminal vesicles in rodents, possibly favoring the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. Hyperprolactinemia in mice produces structural changes in the cells with the highest amount of androgen receptor in the epididymis and prostate [59]. Studies in castrated rats showed that prolactin stimulates the expression of epididymal and sialic acid alpha glucosidases, independent of androgens [60]. The reduction of glandular markers in the

Infection of male accessory glands (MAGI) can occur as prostatitis, prostatic-vesiculitis and prostate-vesiculo-epididymitis. MAGI can have a negative impact on the secretory function of the glands and on fertility. MAGI is often acquired as a urethral infection, it has a chronic course and it spreads to one or more accessory glands, being able to cover one or both sides, rarely causing obstruction of the seminal routes. The seminal alterations are more evident when the infection reaches two or more glands. The inflammatory response has been associated with the alteration of the seminal parameters when affecting function of the epididymis, seminal vesicles and prostate, especially by diminishing the antioxidant properties of the

Several protein components of seminal plasma are produced by certain types of tissues of the male urogenital tract; therefore, the difference in the concentration of these semen proteins could be indicators of a specific organ disease. This concept is best illustrated by the value of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) as a marker of prostate diseases. The PSA was originally discovered in semen and was isolated from it and is the most used marker to identify prostate cancer, being higher in semen than in blood serum [62]. PSA is a serine protease that cleaves semenogelin by hydrolysis and thus liquefies the semen coagulum and facilitates sperm

tions for humans, considering the use of this glucocorticoid in pregnant women [55].

induces hyperplasia and also has an anti-inflammatory effect on that gland [57].

absence of infection could be related to unknown hormonal changes.

**5. Markers of male accessory glands and infection**

seminal plasma [61].

motility and capacitation [63].

The prevalence of hyperviscosity in subfertile men is around 26.2%, and it may be mild, moderate or severe. Treatment may be completely successful only in subjects with mild hyperviscosity with a positive semen culture. In these subjects, progressive motility percentage, straight line velocity and linearity of sperm increase. Pathogenesis was strictly related to infective/inflammatory factors in only 48.0% of cases; therefore, it is possible that biochemical, enzymatic or genetic factors have a role in this condition [52].

Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been detected in semen samples of infertile men, 10.5% of them showed only single type of virus, 5.7% corresponded to the high risk type and 6.1% were type low risk, in 6.1 were more than one type of HPV. Increase of semen viscosity was observed in the samples infected with the virus in single and multiple forms. Hypospermia, leukocytospermia and increased pH are found in infected samples with multiple types of HPV, probably the seminal changes are related to the negative effects of different forms of HPV in the prostate secretion and the fertility [53].
