**4. Conclusions**

The assessment of SPZ quality represents the main bioindicator of male fertility and the analysis of seminal plasma is a valid diagnostic instrument for male fertility, since it is enriched with molecules indicative of SPZ quality status. Furthermore, impressive advances have been made in conferring to SPZ a role in embryo development and in considering SPZ a carrier of "paternal experience" to the offspring. As a consequence, the combined assessments of SPZ quality and (epi)genetic study are necessary for the diagnosis and the development of personalized treatment for male infertility and to preserve embryo development and offspring health.
