**6. Concluding remarks**

This confirms cardosins relevance in clotting time reduction. Cheeses produced with the different cardoons ecotypes were significantly different concerning rind and paste properties, as

Traditionally, infusions of artichoke and wild cardoon leaves have been used since the fourth century B.C. [150], based on well accepted health benefits, regarding liver protection [151] and stimulating bile flow from the gallbladder (choleretic action) [150, 152, 153]. Artichoke leaves and seed extracts are also consumed to protect toward atherosclerosis, arterial hypertension and hyperuricemia [11, 154]. Wild cardoon leaves are popular in folk medicine, given to their cardiotonic, antihemorrhodial, and antidiabetic actions [155] mainly due to the biological effects of the secondary compounds. Among the different *C. cardunculus* physiological comparts, leaves appeared to accumulate a wide range of compounds with known biological activities [31, 36, 37, 156].

In order to pull out compounds of interest from *C. cardunculus* leaves, extraction processes must be done and optimized. Divided in conventional and non-conventional, extraction methodologies applied to *C. cardunculus* are commonly conventional, as batch and Soxhlet extraction [31, 36, 37, 156, 157], while application of non-convention extraction methodologies, as ultrasound, microwave, supercritic fluid or ionic liquid solutions, are still very scarce [158].

With interesting biological activities, the study of cynaropicrin extraction, a sesquiterpene lactone, found for the first time by Ramos et al. [31] in *C. cardunculus* leaves with a Soxhlet extraction, is an important step for the recovery of this added value compound. Some studies are recently appearing, applying new and non-conventional methodologies for cynaropicrin extraction from *C. cardunculus* leaves, such as ultrasound assisted extraction, where an increase of 36% on cynaropicrin concentration was achieved as well a reduction on energetic costs [159, 160]. *C. cardunculus* biological potential is tremendous, but the challenge is to transfer this knowledge to industry, toward new value chains, being crucial the cost reduction of

The lignocellulosic fraction, especially of cultivated cardoon, over the years has demonstrated a great potential as solid biofuel. The first research on *C. cardunculus* potential as an energy crop was carried out in the 1980s [161]. Currently research within energy and cardoon is wide, with several reports which highlight different possibilities: solid biofuel [14, 162], liquid biofuel (seed oil [29], biodiesel [163] and bioethanol [22, 164, 165]), and biogas production [20, 24]. Clearly, within energy production, *C. cardunculus* represents a high potential as an

Portugal has applied recently for the registration of traditional *C. cardunculus* crude extract as an enzymatic extract for cheesemaking, which will enable the traditional utilization of cardoon

extraction/purification processes ensuring safety, and end products functionality.

**4.** *Cynara cardunculus* **L. other traditional and industrial** 

**applications: the biopharmaceutical potential**

92 Technological Approaches for Novel Applications in Dairy Processing

well as for global sensorial grade.

alternative to fossil materials.

**5. New perspectives for economic valorization**

In agro-industries, there is an increasing interest in promoting integrated exploitation of different biomass resources, in order to maximize crop value. Consequently, a global socioeconomic and environmental impact of these industries is expected in the future.

*Cynara cardunculus* biochemical profile unveils a great potential for different applications within energy generation, as well as in the food and pharmaceutical industries. In parallel, the traditional applications will be maintained, such as the use of *C. cardunculus* flower aqueous extracts for cheese production. For a number of cheeses regulated by PDO in the Iberian Peninsula, the use of this vegetable coagulant is mandatory. The increasing use of vegetable proteases as a coagulating agent is related not only to the unique sensory characteristics of the resulting cheese but also with a growing consumer interest in reducing the consumption of animal-derived products.

Due to the high variability of biochemical profiles of *C. cardunculus*, the development of a basis for certified and guaranteed enzymatic formulas for use in cheese manufacture is mandatory to develop the full innovation potential in this agro-industrial sector. Overall, the assessment of the genetic, chemical and biological diversity of natural occurring populations of *C. cardunculus* will also promote a wider economic valorization, adding new biotechnological applications to the traditional activities. In this way, the consolidation of the knowledge transfer from the perspective of maximizing the exploitation of a value chain around cardoon production will be achieved.
