**2. Scope**

This chapter studies the traceability of intra- and interpersonal skills demanded by labor market from educational stages, investigating how project management by competencies approach can help to correct the gaps detected through continuous formation programs, ready to success into the labor market in a dynamic and changing context.

The research is focused on the Latin America countries, Portugal, and Spain, from their regulatory frameworks to practical research studies.

#### **2.1. Objectives**

The main objective is to establish a traceable sequence of every intra- and interpersonal skill demanded by the workplace, checking if it is legally collected during learning phases, developed in training and properly applied to working life, like **Figure 1** shows. Likewise, other goals are:


#### **2.2. Methodology**

The methodology consists of the critical review of the competency frameworks established by scientific literature, from three points of view: education, project management, and workplace.

Traceability of Intra- and Interpersonal Skills: From Education to Labor Market http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.71275 89

**Figure 1.** Research framework.

For Sliter [2], economic, demographic, and technological changes have ushered in a revolution of globalization and rapid innovation, needing a method of describing requirements to

Besides, as Neubert et al. hold [3], in modern organizational work environments, the classic career approach has broadly been replaced by new paradigms that minimize organizational factors and stress the importance of an individual set of skills, including trans-

In this environment, as Rodriguez et al. argue [4], competency modeling's inherent adaptability allows it to easily adapt complex, changeable positions, and the nonroutine and interactive tasks required therein. For Bonilla [5], the competence-based education (CBE) has multiple applications for the development of people, organizations, and society, as a whole, highlight-

Education programs aim to prepare students for the workplace, as Rainsbury et al. conclude [6], by developing generic and specific competencies useful to students and employers.

This chapter studies the traceability of intra- and interpersonal skills demanded by labor market from educational stages, investigating how project management by competencies approach can help to correct the gaps detected through continuous formation programs,

The research is focused on the Latin America countries, Portugal, and Spain, from their regu-

The main objective is to establish a traceable sequence of every intra- and interpersonal skill demanded by the workplace, checking if it is legally collected during learning phases, developed in training and properly applied to working life, like **Figure 1** shows. Likewise, other

• To contrast that focusing on competency project management approaches is an effective method to implement transversal skills in students and new employees, improving their

• To establish a theoretical framework of intra- and interpersonal skills, which should be taken into account in order to currently succeed into the labor market, ready to be collated,

The methodology consists of the critical review of the competency frameworks established by scientific literature, from three points of view: education, project management, and workplace.

ready to success into the labor market in a dynamic and changing context.

accommodate this unpredictability.

88 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

ing the link between education and labor.

latory frameworks to practical research studies.

satisfaction, productivity, and efficiency

by statistical study and/or case study in future research.

versal ones.

**2. Scope**

**2.1. Objectives**

goals are:

**2.2. Methodology**

In educational stages, Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) Project of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), during the preuniversity period, and the Tuning project for the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and América Latina Formación Académica (ALFA), at the university stage, offer and develop the legal framework in which stakeholders have to act. These approaches will be compared and contrasted to topic researches.

Project management by competencies, in this investigation, has a double meaning. On the one hand, it is an emerging profession and, on the other, thanks to its intrinsic transverse and humanistic condition, it covers management requirements in any sector. From the analysis of standards, baselines, knowledge bodies, and frameworks of the two oldest organizations in project management, both the International Project Management Association (IPMA) and the Project Management Institute (PMI), intra- and interpersonal skills and competences are collected and prioritized according to topic researches.

Based on the reports of the most prestigious consulting firms, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), Ernst & Young (EY), and KPMG, the intra- and interpersonal skills most demanded by labor market are filtered and endorsed by topic researches.

With this method, inconsistencies between educational and professional stages are detected, so that improvement actions can be proposed from project management.

#### **3. State of the art**

Cleary et al. define employability skills as generic capabilities, key skills which play a significant role in contributing an individual's effective and successful participation in the workplace [7]. In this context, for Gibb [8], generic skills are essential for employment and personal development, fulfillment, community life, and active citizenship. These skills must own, in order to be useful, these characteristics:


#### **3.1. Concept of intra- and interpersonal skills**

Hard skills can be defined as the specific knowledge and abilities required for a job. However, soft skills are much more difficult to define and measure. They are the interpersonal (people, social) skills that help oneself to successfully interact with others in the workplace, and interpersonal (human, individual) skills that allow oneself to know, understand, and manage own cognition and emotions. In **Table 1**, some definitions from literature are presented:

In summary, soft skills are social abilities and individual attributes, which can also be called as twenty-first century skills by many authors, such as Kraiger [14], Gibb [8], Nealy [15], Gewertz [16], Ziegenfuss [17], Hodge and Lear [18], Suto [19], Soland et al. [20], Hayes [21], Davis [22], Neubert et al. [3], Su et al. [13], Schooner et al. [23], or Ali et al. [24].

For the Oxford Dictionary, Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and harmoniously with other people.

For Rainsbury et al. Behavioral skills required for the application of hard skills and knowledge in organizations.

For Perreault,

Personal qualities, attributes, or the level of commitment that allow an individual to distinguish from others who may have similar skills and experience.

For James and James,

Set of abilities or talents that an individual can bring to the workplace.

For Bonilla,

Application of practical knowledge through physical and intellectual skills and abilities, with respect to criteria or standards of expected performance.

For Su, Golubovich, and Robbins,

Group of constructs that are used to refer to important predictors of readiness and success in the workplace across multiple domains of individual differences and beyond the knowledge acquired in formal education.

Extract of [5, 6, 9–13].

**Table 1.** Definition of soft skills.

For the Collins English Dictionary,

Desirable qualities for certain forms of employment that do not depend on acquired knowledge, among are included the common sense, the ability to deal with people, and a positive flexible attitude.

#### **3.2. Soft skills in educational stages**

In this context, for Gibb [8], generic skills are essential for employment and personal development, fulfillment, community life, and active citizenship. These skills must own, in order to be

Hard skills can be defined as the specific knowledge and abilities required for a job. However, soft skills are much more difficult to define and measure. They are the interpersonal (people, social) skills that help oneself to successfully interact with others in the workplace, and interpersonal (human, individual) skills that allow oneself to know, understand, and manage own

In summary, soft skills are social abilities and individual attributes, which can also be called as twenty-first century skills by many authors, such as Kraiger [14], Gibb [8], Nealy [15], Gewertz [16], Ziegenfuss [17], Hodge and Lear [18], Suto [19], Soland et al. [20], Hayes [21],

cognition and emotions. In **Table 1**, some definitions from literature are presented:

Davis [22], Neubert et al. [3], Su et al. [13], Schooner et al. [23], or Ali et al. [24].

Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and harmoniously with other people.

included the common sense, the ability to deal with people, and a positive flexible attitude.

Behavioral skills required for the application of hard skills and knowledge in organizations.

Set of abilities or talents that an individual can bring to the workplace.

Desirable qualities for certain forms of employment that do not depend on acquired knowledge, among are

Personal qualities, attributes, or the level of commitment that allow an individual to distinguish from others who

Application of practical knowledge through physical and intellectual skills and abilities, with respect to criteria or

Group of constructs that are used to refer to important predictors of readiness and success in the workplace across

multiple domains of individual differences and beyond the knowledge acquired in formal education.

• Emerging at entry levels within industry, thanks to be generic

• Equipping individuals to participate effectively in workplaces and adult life

useful, these characteristics: • Preparing for employment

• Being able to be learned

For the Collins English Dictionary,

may have similar skills and experience.

standards of expected performance. For Su, Golubovich, and Robbins,

For the Oxford Dictionary,

For Rainsbury et al.

For James and James,

Extract of [5, 6, 9–13].

**Table 1.** Definition of soft skills.

For Perreault,

For Bonilla,

• Being amenable to credible assessment

90 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

**3.1. Concept of intra- and interpersonal skills**

In the educational context, Cullen defines competence as complex integrated capacities, in different degrees, in which education must train individuals so that they can operate as responsible subjects in different situations and contexts of their social and personal life, knowing how to see, do, act, and enjoy properly, assessing alternatives, choosing appropriate strategies, and taking responsibility for the decisions taken [25].

Besides, as Ali et al. highlight [24], education requires the integration of relevant content, skills, and instructional support to enhance knowledge processes in line with twenty-first century employability requirements. However, authors, such as Gewertz [16], Bronson [26], Klaus [27], Mitchell et al. [28], or Tan et al. [29], among others, conclude that current students (future employees) do not have the set of soft skills they need to be successful in workplace.

In fact, the lack of soft skills may truncate promising careers with technical abilities and professional expertise but with no human qualities like Klaus affirms [27]. Likewise, as Nabi and Bagley expose [30], recent graduates tend to rate the importance of generic transferable skills more highly than their own ability in those ones.

Even the International Youth Foundation (IYF) publishes the gap among students' characteristics and employers' demands is increasing, due to the lack of soft skills, which is avoiding the achievement and success of the majority of entry-level candidates [31].

Soft-skills education has been overshadowed by the quantitative focus in most educative programs, despite the weak relationship found between curricula and career success, as Laud and Johnson asseverate [32]. Likewise, as Hassan et al. conclude [33], soft skills have been very difficult to embed in teaching and learning courses.

However, as Low et al., Vázquez and Liesa discuss [34, 35], through a review of academic programs, it is possible to improve the acquisition of these transversal skills students are going to need in their professional and personal lives. In this regard, Tito and Serrano remark the importance that universities prepare students in soft skills and graduate with tools that add a differentiating advantage that allows them to compete in the labor market and generally maintain a high sense of well-being with themselves [36].

#### *3.2.1. DeSeCo project for preuniversity stage*

The DeSeCo project of the OECD defines competencies as the abilities to successfully meet complex demands in a particular context, implying the mobilization of knowledge, cognitive, and practical skills, as well as social and behavior components such as attitudes, emotions, and values and motivations [37].

In a holistic notion, according to the conceptual framework of DeSeCo, if competency is not reduced to its cognitive dimension, it has a broader meaning than a skill.

Key competencies shown in **Table 2**, as OECD remarks [37], are not determined by arbitrary decisions about what personal qualities and cognitive skills are desirable, but by a careful consideration of the factors required for a successful life and a well-functioning society.


**Table 2.** Key competencies of DeSeCo project.

DeSeCo also sets a conceptual context for assessment by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), considering their criticity according to three criteria:


In the Latin America, Portugal, and Spain contexts, only Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Spain, and Portugal are members of the OECD, being Brazil a partner and Costa Rica a guest. However, an OECD regional initiative covers the whole Latin American region.

In **Table 3**, OECD PISA 2015 results are shown [38]. It´s observed a level of performance and resilience below the average, which contradicts with the levels of motivation, interest, and enjoyment.

#### *3.2.2. Tuning project for university stage*

Tuning project defines a competence, into an integrated approach, as the capability to execute the degree of preparation, sufficiency, and/or responsibility for certain tasks [39]. Also defines it as a dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding, skills, abilities and values [40] and as the capacities that all humans need to resolve the situations that arise in their lives effectively and autonomously [41]. To understand this concept of competence properly, it is necessary to include knowing how to:


EHEA and ALFA Tuning projects propose a methodology [40, 41], whose framework is designed to understand and compare the curricula, based on these five approaches:


DeSeCo also sets a conceptual context for assessment by the Programme for International

In the Latin America, Portugal, and Spain contexts, only Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Spain, and Portugal are members of the OECD, being Brazil a partner and Costa Rica a guest. However,

In **Table 3**, OECD PISA 2015 results are shown [38]. It´s observed a level of performance and resilience below the average, which contradicts with the levels of motivation, interest,

Tuning project defines a competence, into an integrated approach, as the capability to execute the degree of preparation, sufficiency, and/or responsibility for certain tasks [39]. Also defines it as a dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding, skills, abilities and values [40] and as the capacities that all humans need to resolve the situations that arise in their lives effectively and autonomously [41]. To understand this concept of competence properly, it is

Student Assessment (PISA), considering their criticity according to three criteria:

• Contribution to highly valued outcomes at an individual and societal level • Instrumentation for meeting important, complex demands and challenges

**Use tools interactively Interact in heterogeneous groups Act autonomously** Use communication skills effectively Be empathetic Understand patterns Access adequate information sources Manage emotions Have an idea of the system Evaluate the value of information Present ideas and listen to others Identify action consequences Organize knowledge and information Understand debate Choose among available options Use technology Construct tactical alliances Define projects and set goals — Negotiate Evaluate necessary resources — Make decisions Balance resources to meet goals

— Analyze issues and interests Learn from past actions — Identify areas of agreement Monitor progress

— Reframe the problem Understand own interests — Prioritize needs and goals Know rules and principles — — Construct arguments

— — Suggest alternative solutions

an OECD regional initiative covers the whole Latin American region.

• Importance for all individuals, not just for specialists

and enjoyment.

Extract of [37].

*3.2.2. Tuning project for university stage*

**Table 2.** Key competencies of DeSeCo project.

92 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

necessary to include knowing how to:


Within this context, Tuning classifies generic competences, as **Table 4** shows into three groups:



**Table 3.** OECD PISA 2015 results.


**Table 4.** EHEA and ALFA tuning project competences.

Tuning EHEA includes Portugal and Spain and Tuning ALFA counts with the participation of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

#### **3.3. Soft skills in project management**

Projects, as Jensen et al. affirm [42], have become omnipresent not only in economy but also in society. In fact, both DeSeCo in the preuniversity stage (defining projects and setting goals) and Tuning in the university stage (designing and managing projects) include projects in all students' curricula.

The importance of both hard skills (relating to processes) and soft skills (dealing with people) is widely recognized in project management (PM), as Azim et al. and Ahern et al. explain [43, 44], being managers, individually, responsible for balancing and optimizing their application. Chipulu et al., in the context of PM, extract six dimensions for them [45]:


For Ojiako et al. [46, 47], to learn properly about social and behavioral skills is critical in order to complete the role transformation from technicians to managers. Azim et al. advice that project managers and senior executives have to realize the significance of managing people [43]. In this context, soft skills are increasing their influence, being not only required but also important to manage teams. Pant and Baroudi identify soft skills as the missing link critical for achieving project success and advice the lack of emphasis placed on this within the context of university education [48]. Strang concludes that managing projects requires a series of skills, including interpersonal abilities, technical competencies, cognitive aptitudes, the capability to understand both context and people, and the integration of leadership behaviors [49]. Posner argues that rather than technical skills, intrapersonal and interpersonal competences are the most critical to solve problems in project management [50]. Likewise, for Chipulu et al., both managerial skills and personal traits are critical to manage complex environments characterized by rapid changes and uncertainty [45].

In summary, in the context of project management, there are a lot of studies that highlight the impact of soft skills on project success, as Strang [49], Pant and Baroudi [48], Awan et al. [51], López et al. [52], Kandelousi et al. [53], Cousillas et al. [54], Koutsikouri et al. [55], Camilleri [56], Davis [22], or Carmona-Chaves [57], among others, expose.

#### *3.3.1. IPMA approach*

Tuning EHEA includes Portugal and Spain and Tuning ALFA counts with the participation of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay,

Projects, as Jensen et al. affirm [42], have become omnipresent not only in economy but also in society. In fact, both DeSeCo in the preuniversity stage (defining projects and setting goals) and Tuning in the university stage (designing and managing projects) include projects in all students' curricula. The importance of both hard skills (relating to processes) and soft skills (dealing with people) is widely recognized in project management (PM), as Azim et al. and Ahern et al. explain [43, 44], being managers, individually, responsible for balancing and optimizing their application. Chipulu

**1.** Industry-specific and generic skills over project management knowledge/expertise

**5.** Project management methodology experience and professional qualifications

and Venezuela.

Extract of [39].

**3.3. Soft skills in project management**

**Table 4.** EHEA and ALFA tuning project competences.

94 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

**3.** Managerial (senior) skills **4.** Personal (positive) traits

**6.** Risk management over a project life cycle

et al., in the context of PM, extract six dimensions for them [45]:

**Instrumental Interpersonal Systemic**

Organization and planning Teamwork Research Basic general knowledge Interaction with technical experts Learning

Elementary computing Appreciation of diversity Creativity Information management Working in international context Leadership

Analysis and synthesis Criticism and self-criticism Applying knowledge in practice

Communication Working in heterogeneous teams Adaptation to new situations

Problem solving Ethical commitment Judgment of cultures and customs

— Cooperation Project design and management — — Initiative and entrepreneurial spirit

Decision making Motivation Working autonomously

— — Concern for quality — — Will to succeed

**2.** PM knowledge/expertise over industry-specific and generic skills

IPMA is the World's first project management association (in particular, a federation of 68 national PM associations), founded in 1965, that offers unique, role-specific competence development guidelines, for improved project success.

IPMA competence baseline (ICB) is a global standard that defines the competences required by individuals working in the field of PM, to train (and certify) future professionals, who will probably work in distributed environments with overlapping and conflicting stakeholder interests, shaped by real-time data and performance management tools, challenged with too much information and not enough communication, and judged by their ability to deliver outcomes that align with shortand long-term strategies [58]. IPMA organizes the profession into three competence areas:


**Table 5** shows people competences, as well as skills related to them.

#### *3.3.2. PMI approach*

PMI is the world's leading professional membership association for PM, founded in 1969, with over half a million members and certification holders in 185 countries. The guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK) provides guidelines for managing individual projects and defines PM-related concepts, as methods, processes, and practices [59].


**Table 5.** IPMA ICB People competences and skills related.

However, understanding and applying tools and techniques recognized as good practice are not enough to be effective. In addition to specific skills and general management proficiencies required for a project, it is necessary to domain the three competency dimensions, as PMI proposes in the project manager competency development framework (PMCDF) [60]:


**Table 6** Shows interpersonal skills (from PMBOK) and personal competences (from PMCDF).

#### **3.4. Soft skills in workplace**

Employability includes an array of technical and nontechnical skills, as well as knowledge, management, and experience, in order to ensure that a student is able to put them into practice, reason why they should be included into the educational stages, as Sangwan and Garg hold [61]. In the same way, Robles states that executives consider soft skills a very important attribute in job applicants [62]. According to Sutton, soft skills are extremely important for job hires in many occupations [63]. Besides, Truong et al. reveal that major employers value the potential role that soft skills can play in maximizing business success [64].


**Table 6.** PMI PMBOK and PMCDF interpersonal skills and personal competences.

However, understanding and applying tools and techniques recognized as good practice are not enough to be effective. In addition to specific skills and general management proficiencies required for a project, it is necessary to domain the three competency dimensions, as PMI proposes in the project manager competency development frame-

**Table 6** Shows interpersonal skills (from PMBOK) and personal competences (from PMCDF).

Employability includes an array of technical and nontechnical skills, as well as knowledge, management, and experience, in order to ensure that a student is able to put them into practice, reason why they should be included into the educational stages, as Sangwan and Garg hold [61]. In the same way, Robles states that executives consider soft skills a very important attribute in job applicants [62]. According to Sutton, soft skills are extremely important for job hires in many occupations [63]. Besides, Truong et al. reveal that major employers value the

work (PMCDF) [60]:

Self-reflection & self-management

Extract of [58].

• Knowledge: Knowing about PM

**Table 5.** IPMA ICB People competences and skills related.

**People competences Skills related**

96 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

Communication Facilitation, empathy, moderation, promotion Conflict and crisis Creativity, moderation, persuasiveness, prevention

trustworthiness

resilience

Negotiation Assertiveness, empathy, patience, persuasion, attitude

productivity, sensitivity

Integrity and reliability Confidence, consistency, equity, ethics, professionalism, responsibility,

Leadership Awareness, coaching, commitment, decision making, empowerment, flexibility,

Relations and engagement Commitment, confidence, diversity, empathy, encouragement, engagement,

Results orientation Balance, delegation, effectiveness, efficiency, entrepreneurship, organization,

organization, prioritization, relaxation, responsibility Teamwork Cooperation, delegation, empowerment, facilitation, networking, organization, recruitment, time management, team building

Resourcefulness Critical thinking, decision making, creativity, facilitation, innovation, problem solving,

influence, learning, managing, mentoring, proactivity, team building

facilitation, intuition, motivation, networking, resistance, team building

Awareness, confidence, delegation, effectiveness, focusing on goals, motivation,

**3.4. Soft skills in workplace**

• Performance: Accomplishing while applying PM knowledge

• Personal: Behaving when performing the project or related activities

potential role that soft skills can play in maximizing business success [64].

For Mitchell et al. [28], in the twenty-first century, organizations seek versatile individuals, even for entry-level jobs. The integration of soft skills into students' curriculum also promotes their hiring in today's workforce, and their proficiency is important to potential employers. Lindsey and Rice recapitulate that successful graduates should possess a high ratio of emotional-social intelligence against book smarts [65]. In fact, as many authors as Saravanan [66], Ramlall and Ramlall [67] or Alismail and McGuire [68], among others, resume, employers are increasingly demanding a greater range of soft skills. In fact, as Robles holds [62], candidates, who add value with their soft skills, have the ability to make the difference in obtaining and retaining the jobs for which they have been prepared.

Pittenger et al. or Nealy consider soft skills a factor of equal importance to hard skills in career success [69, 15]. Other authors, as Wats and Wats or Klaus, claim that soft skills account for individual success more than hard skills [70, 27]. It is incontestable that soft skills play an integral role in success, as Bennett [71], Gibb [8], Schultz [72], Weber et al. [73], Sheikhy and Shafiee [74], Truong et al. [64], Tito Maya and Serrano Orellana [36], Holtzman and Kraft [75], or Nusrat [76], among others, remark.

From the studies published by Deloitte, EY, KPMG, and PwC, also known as the Big Four because they are the largest professional networks that offer their services in management consulting to majority of public and private companies all around the world, a compilation of the most demanded soft skills in the labor market is made.

Once the assemblage is collected, then only those that are repeated are transferred to **Table 7**, discarding other soft skills for employability, such as assertiveness, balance, coaching, commitment, compliance, confidence, conflict resolution, empowerment, encouragement, endurance, engagement, esteem, facilitation, honesty, illusionment, inclusiveness, judgment, monitoring, participation, perceptiveness, positive attitude, reasoning, recruitment, responsiveness, sociability, technology, and training.



**Table 7.** Essential skills for labor market demands by Big Four.

### **4. Comparative analysis**

**Table 8** Summarizes the whole collection of soft skills from the literature review, but those skills that have only appeared on a single occasion have been eliminated, such as agility, appearance, authority, balance, citizenship, coaching, cooperation, coordination, directiveness, independence, investigation, loyalty, marketing, opportunity, patience, persistence, persuasion, proactivity, reliability, sensibility, and training.

### **5. Discussion**

Once the assemblage is collected, then only those that are repeated are transferred to **Table 7**, discarding other soft skills for employability, such as assertiveness, balance, coaching, commitment, compliance, confidence, conflict resolution, empowerment, encouragement, endurance, engagement, esteem, facilitation, honesty, illusionment, inclusiveness, judgment, monitoring, participation, perceptiveness, positive attitude, reasoning, recruitment, responsiveness, socia-

Adaptability X X X

Collaboration X X Communication X X X X

Coordination X X Creativity X X Critical thinking X X X Customer service X X X Decision making X X X Diversity X X

Influence X X

Innovation X X Integrity X X Leadership X X X X

Motivation X X Negotiation X X X X Networking X X X

Appreciation X X Awareness X X

Control X X Cooperation X X

Ethics X X X Flexibility X X X

Initiative X X

Learning X X Management X X X

Organization X X

Mentoring X X

**Deloitte EY KPMG PwC**

bility, technology, and training.

98 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

**Skills Labor market demands**

Comparative analysis from literature review made in **Table 8** has to be contrasted against Big Four's compilation. Then, once the most demanding skills have been selected, it is necessary to check if PM frameworks chosen incorporate them, in order to establish a model of practical implementation during the formative stages, especially the university.

Firstly, there are soft skills that are highlighted almost unanimously: communication, teamwork, problem solving and/or conflict resolution, critical thinking, self-reflexion and selfmanagement, and leadership.

Secondly, other soft skills are emphasized by the majority of authors, educators, trainers, practitioners, consultants, and employers: ethics and/or integrity, creativity, active learning, motivation, attention to diversity, and professionalism and/or reliability.

Thirdly, it is convenient to accentuate other soft skills that are very present among consultants, PM frameworks, and educational projects, which have hardly been studied, in general, by authors and researchers: decision making, result orientation, influence and/or persuasion, coaching and mentoring, negotiation, and coordination and/or cooperation.



**Skills**

**Educational stages**

**[30] [6] [72] [17] [32] [34] [21] [64] [50] [83] [43] [19] [46] [51] [75] [1] [7]**

Adaptability

Awareness

Collaboration

Commitment

Communication

Confidence

Courtesy

Creativity

Critical thinking

Customer service

Decision making

Delegation

Development

Diversity

Empathy

Entrepreneurship

Enthusiasm

Ethics

Flexibility

Honesty

Influence

Initiative

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

100 Human Capital and Competences in Project Management

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

**Project management**

X

X

X

**Workplace**

**[73] [28] [18] [31] [67] [62] [76]**

Later, it is opportune to rescue other soft skills whose interest grows over time, finding more and more references in recent literature: competitiveness, customer service, initiative and/or entrepreneurship, marketing and publicity, and sustainability.

To conclude, from the compilation of the soft skills developed, it is opportune to discuss how these skills can be grouped, for which how the authors have organized them is analyzed.

Cheng, Dainty and Moore, and Le Deist and Winterton, in the context of human resources management, classify competences into three groups [84, 85]:


In the same vein, Binkley et al. organize twenty-first century skills into three groups [83]:


Similarly, Onisk classifies generic soft skills into three broad categories [86]:


According to classifications studied, selected skills are organized in **Table 9**.


**Table 9.** Traceability of intra- and interpersonal skills from education to labor market.
