**6. Meat quality**

#### **6.1. pH**

pH can be considered one of the most important and basic factors that can affect meat quality. Nevertheless, goat is a species in which alterations with low pH (PSE) or high pH (DFD) are not usual.

Several studies have reported differences in pH between **breeds** but probably more associated to differences in the management previous to the slaughter than to the own breed. Thus, Colomer-Rocher et al. and Ripoll et al. [24, 34] at same **weight** and **management** reported statistical differences between breeds. However, these differences can be considered insignificant (5.76–5.80). In Ref. [13], slight differences that are dependent on carcass weight, where pH was lower on heavier carcasses (8 kg—5.8 pH) respect to less mature animals (4 kg—5.9 pH), were reported. Gender usually does not modifies pH [27, 35].

yellowness (b\*) with values between 9.3 and 10.0. Differences in color are probably associated with the increment of myoglobin because the concentration of this pigment has been

**L\* a\* b\* H° C\* Breed Weight (kg) Reference**

55.2–52.9 11.7–9.3 20.9–14.5 62.1–54.4 23.6–18.0 5 Spanish kids meat apt. 7.4–8.0 SW [34] 53.4–48.3 13.8–9.2 19.3–12.9 59.9–44.3 22.0–17.7 5 Spanish kids meat apt. 10.9–12.3 SW [34] 49.0–43.6 13.8–9.4 10.0–9.3 46.4–35.1 16.8–13.6 Portuguese kid meat apt. 4–8 CCW [27]

dairy apt)

apt.

4.3–6.5 CCW [24]

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[37]

11.8–10.9 CCW

55.1–49.1 13.4–10.6 5.8–5.3 28.7–23.4 14.6–12.1 Spanish kids (meat and

43.6–37.7 12.4–10.3 8.1–6.7 35.4–31.2 14.5–12.4 6 crossbreeds different

Similar results were reported in [34], where heavy weight kids (11 kg live weight) presented almost 3–4 points lower luminosity than light weight kids (7.6 kg LW); however, redness was not modified and b\* decreased only in some meat breeds, without modification in other meat purpose breeds. Guerrero et al. [38] on meat breed Bermeya slaughtered at 7 kg or 10.5 kg CCW, only reported differences in redness and Chrome variables which increase with the **slaughter weight**. Then, in general terms, L\*, b\*, and H° diminished, and C\* and a\* increased their values

Related to productive **system and age**, Dhanda et al. [37] reported differences between meat purpose goats, from suckling kids and low slaughter weights (Capretto 6–12 kg) to older goats with carcass weight of 16–22 kg. Total pigment concentration in the *Longissimus* muscle was significantly higher in Chevon compared to Capretto carcasses, and a modification in color intensity is expected. However, only differences in b\* were reported in the cited study,

**Aging** is the most important factor that modifies meat texture and consequently eating quality, consumer acceptability, and satisfaction. The metabolic-biochemical reactions that happen after *rigor mortis* let a progressive tenderisation of the meat [41]. Tenderness can be evaluated instrumentally by texturometers or by sensory methodologies. In this section, only instrumental characteristics will be assessed. As happened in lamb, the period comprised from 3 to 8 days of aging seems to be enough to reach a desirable tenderness without damaging sensory perception [16, 22]. It is important to consider this factor (aging) and try to isolate it (using the same meat aging conditions on the comparisons) to understand the effect of other

demonstrated that increases with the animal age, increasing color intensity [27, 39].

As happened in pH, no differences in color have been associated to **gender** [27, 40].

with the increasing slaughter weight.

CCW, cold carcass weight; SW, slaughter live weight.

**Table 2.** Color attributes of goat's meat from different studies.

**6.3. Texture**

factors on texture variables.

explained as a difference of slaughter age (5 months).

#### **6.2. Color**

Color is an important attribute that affects consumer purchase and willingness to buy. Preferences for a specific color (paler or darker) depend on the type of consumer considered (usually conditioned by the nationality, cultural background and experience or consumptions habits [36]).

Some differences have been reported among **breeds** [37], due to the different aptitudes of the breeds or crossbreds compared: fiber, dairy, and meat. The highest luminosity (L\*) have been reported on crossbred meat x dairy genotype (Boer × Saanen) and the lowest redness (a\*) and yellowness (b\*) for meat and wild goat crossbred genotype (Boer × Feral).

In Ref. [34], differences in L\* between breeds on light weight animals were not reported. Obtained values and differences can be considered low and explained by the milk-based diet of young animals, since milk is not rich in iron which would darken the meat. However, [38] found differences between kids from dairy or meat aptitude, presenting dairy animals breed (Murciano Granadina) significant higher L\* and H° (almost 10 points) than those from meat aptitude (Bermeya), without differences on b\* between breeds.

In **Table 2,** some color variables of different studies are compiled, showing the variability on this parameter depending on the factors considered.

Related to **age** and **weight**, the results from Ref. [27] showed that color of *Longissimus* was statistically modified. Increasing CCW (4–8 kg) produces a progressive reduction of luminosity (L\*: 49.0–43.6), and an increment of redness (a\*: 9.4–13.8) without variation of


**Table 2.** Color attributes of goat's meat from different studies.

yellowness (b\*) with values between 9.3 and 10.0. Differences in color are probably associated with the increment of myoglobin because the concentration of this pigment has been demonstrated that increases with the animal age, increasing color intensity [27, 39].

Similar results were reported in [34], where heavy weight kids (11 kg live weight) presented almost 3–4 points lower luminosity than light weight kids (7.6 kg LW); however, redness was not modified and b\* decreased only in some meat breeds, without modification in other meat purpose breeds. Guerrero et al. [38] on meat breed Bermeya slaughtered at 7 kg or 10.5 kg CCW, only reported differences in redness and Chrome variables which increase with the **slaughter weight**. Then, in general terms, L\*, b\*, and H° diminished, and C\* and a\* increased their values with the increasing slaughter weight.

As happened in pH, no differences in color have been associated to **gender** [27, 40].

Related to productive **system and age**, Dhanda et al. [37] reported differences between meat purpose goats, from suckling kids and low slaughter weights (Capretto 6–12 kg) to older goats with carcass weight of 16–22 kg. Total pigment concentration in the *Longissimus* muscle was significantly higher in Chevon compared to Capretto carcasses, and a modification in color intensity is expected. However, only differences in b\* were reported in the cited study, explained as a difference of slaughter age (5 months).

#### **6.3. Texture**

In general, it could be said that goat carcasses are longilinear and, consequently, they have a poor conformation. Also, they have high muscle and bone percentages and low content of fat,

pH can be considered one of the most important and basic factors that can affect meat quality. Nevertheless, goat is a species in which alterations with low pH (PSE) or high pH (DFD) are

Several studies have reported differences in pH between **breeds** but probably more associated to differences in the management previous to the slaughter than to the own breed. Thus, Colomer-Rocher et al. and Ripoll et al. [24, 34] at same **weight** and **management** reported statistical differences between breeds. However, these differences can be considered insignificant (5.76–5.80). In Ref. [13], slight differences that are dependent on carcass weight, where pH was lower on heavier carcasses (8 kg—5.8 pH) respect to less mature animals (4 kg—5.9

Color is an important attribute that affects consumer purchase and willingness to buy. Preferences for a specific color (paler or darker) depend on the type of consumer considered (usually conditioned by the nationality, cultural background and experience or consumptions

Some differences have been reported among **breeds** [37], due to the different aptitudes of the breeds or crossbreds compared: fiber, dairy, and meat. The highest luminosity (L\*) have been reported on crossbred meat x dairy genotype (Boer × Saanen) and the lowest redness (a\*) and

In Ref. [34], differences in L\* between breeds on light weight animals were not reported. Obtained values and differences can be considered low and explained by the milk-based diet of young animals, since milk is not rich in iron which would darken the meat. However, [38] found differences between kids from dairy or meat aptitude, presenting dairy animals breed (Murciano Granadina) significant higher L\* and H° (almost 10 points) than those from meat

In **Table 2,** some color variables of different studies are compiled, showing the variability on

Related to **age** and **weight**, the results from Ref. [27] showed that color of *Longissimus* was statistically modified. Increasing CCW (4–8 kg) produces a progressive reduction of luminosity (L\*: 49.0–43.6), and an increment of redness (a\*: 9.4–13.8) without variation of

pH), were reported. Gender usually does not modifies pH [27, 35].

yellowness (b\*) for meat and wild goat crossbred genotype (Boer × Feral).

aptitude (Bermeya), without differences on b\* between breeds.

this parameter depending on the factors considered.

especially subcutaneous fat.

**6. Meat quality**

**6.1. pH**

274 Goat Science

not usual.

**6.2. Color**

habits [36]).

**Aging** is the most important factor that modifies meat texture and consequently eating quality, consumer acceptability, and satisfaction. The metabolic-biochemical reactions that happen after *rigor mortis* let a progressive tenderisation of the meat [41]. Tenderness can be evaluated instrumentally by texturometers or by sensory methodologies. In this section, only instrumental characteristics will be assessed. As happened in lamb, the period comprised from 3 to 8 days of aging seems to be enough to reach a desirable tenderness without damaging sensory perception [16, 22]. It is important to consider this factor (aging) and try to isolate it (using the same meat aging conditions on the comparisons) to understand the effect of other factors on texture variables.

Usually, as happens in other ruminant species, **breed** modifies texture parameters, especially when different aptitudes are compared. This happened in Ref. [37], where after 24 h of aging, a crossbred with a meat breed (Boer × Feral) presented significant lower shear force values (3.7 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> ) than a dairy crossbred (Saanen × Feral, 4.6 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> ).

In Ref. [34], it was reported that the three meat compression variables studied (C20%—related to myofibril component, C80%—related to connective component-collagen and the maximum compression ratio C100%—the force necessary for the total compression [12]), were affected by both **breed** and **slaughter weight** factors. Differences of almost 5 N/cm<sup>2</sup> were reported between different meat breeds at 20% of compression, 16 N/cm<sup>2</sup> at 80%, and 23 N/cm<sup>2</sup> at 100%, being the maximum values of 14.96, 79.74, and 101.70 N/cm<sup>2</sup> for C20, C80, and C100%, respectively.

In the cited study [34], aging of samples was 3 days. The higher myofibrillar toughness of light kids could be explained by a lower activity of muscle proteolytic systems, as well as a lower rate of post mortem tenderisation, or higher myofibrillar density due to the short age of light kids. As a general rule, by increasing the aging time, tenderness will increase [42]. Tenderizing is more intense in older animals due to the higher action of the proteases.

Results from Ref. [38] reported that breed was only a significant factor of variation at short aging periods (2 days) on C20% variable, where meat from a dairy breed was tougher than those from meat breed kids at both slaughter weights (light or heavy carcasses). However, at 4 days of aging, those differences between breeds disappeared, being most significant the effect of aging tenderizing than the effect of the breed purpose.

**Slaughter weight** also did not affect proximate composition [34], only fat percentage for the meat breed Pirenaica, which proportion decrease with the age of the animal from 2.05 to 1.37%. Those results from Ref. [34] agree with others [29, 45] were slaughter weight did not affect the chemical composition of the loin in young animals. Usually ash and fat content is low on kid meat, and main differences between breeds on chemical composition are associated to intramuscular fat. However, [38] reported small differences between slaughter weights on other chemical components, where animals from heavy carcass presented lower moisture percentage (75.7% vs. 77.8%) and higher protein content (18.8% vs. 17.1%) than light

*Source*: [43]: goat raw (Ref. 17168); lamb, New Zealand, imported, loin chop, separable lean only, raw (Ref. 17078). [44]:

**Table 3.** Basic composition characteristics of different ruminant species. Values per 100 g of an edible portion.

**Goat [43] Lamb [43] Kid [44] Lamb [44]**

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Water, g 75.84 71.40 64.50 64.10 Energy, kcal 109 142 225 242 Protein, g 20.60 19.98 17.11 15.60 Total lipids (fat), g 2.31 6.88 17.49 20.10

Calcium, mg 13.00 18.00 9.56 9.00 Iron, mg 2.83 1.52 0.57 2.60 Magnesium, mg — 23.00 15.82 16.00 Phosphorus, mg 180.00 189.00 156.77 170.00 Potassium, mg 385.00 327.00 248.93 320.00 Sodium, mg 82.00 77.00 64.06 75.00 Zinc, mg 4.00 2.69 2.24 2.20

**Gender** was unaffected by dry matter and fat percentage in kids with CCW of 4.5–5.0 kg; dry matter was reported as 24.1–23.8% in females and males, respectively, and the fat content

*Fatty acid composition* is an important attribute to be considered by their implication in human health. Also fat composition affects organic attributes, especially those related to flavor, and

In Ref. [46], the fatty acid profile of three different depots (intramuscular, subcutaneous, and kidney knob fat) from seven Spanish breeds from meat and dairy aptitude, in kids slaughtered at 7 kg live weight was analyzed. There were differences between **breeds** on all depots studied, and the differences being more evident between aptitudes (meat and dairy). A dairy breed (Malagueña) showed higher percentage of monounsaturated (MUFA) and conjugated

kids (which had 3.5 kg less of carcass weight).

milk kid ribs—Murciano-Granadina (raw); lamb ribs (raw).

**Minerals**

consequences of lipid oxidation (rancidity).

1.7–1.4% [40], similar to other breeds (meat aptitude).

According to Ref. [40], **gender** did not affect texture parameters also after 3 days of aging, in which medium values are between 8.3 and 8.4 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> on shear force.

#### **6.4. Proximate composition and fatty acid profile**

Goat meat can be considered as red meat, as those from other small ruminant species, according to its *proximate composition*. As some authors [20] have pointed before, meat from goat has a high nutritional value, contributing to an enjoyable and healthy human diet.

Goat meat compared to the other ruminant meats is characterized by a higher water content, lower energy contribution as well as lower fat content, with a similar proportion of minerals (**Table 3**). Values are dependent on the source consulted (USDA; BEDCA). The type of animal and the piece used in the determination of proximate composition explain the variations reflected in **Table 3**.

In Ref. [34] were not found differences between **breeds** on chemical composition neither on light or heavy kids, being comprised between 78.01 and 76.97% for moisture, 24.11 and 19.52% for crude protein, 1.11 and 1.03% for ash and 2.05 and1.09% for fat. However, the results from Ref. [38] showed that differences between aptitudes exist specially in fat percentage, where commercial dairy kids presented higher percentage (7.49% vs. 1.9–2.8%) than kids from meat aptitude even at lower carcass weight.


Usually, as happens in other ruminant species, **breed** modifies texture parameters, especially when different aptitudes are compared. This happened in Ref. [37], where after 24 h of aging, a crossbred with a meat breed (Boer × Feral) presented significant lower shear force values

In Ref. [34], it was reported that the three meat compression variables studied (C20%—related to myofibril component, C80%—related to connective component-collagen and the maximum compression ratio C100%—the force necessary for the total compression [12]), were affected

In the cited study [34], aging of samples was 3 days. The higher myofibrillar toughness of light kids could be explained by a lower activity of muscle proteolytic systems, as well as a lower rate of post mortem tenderisation, or higher myofibrillar density due to the short age of light kids. As a general rule, by increasing the aging time, tenderness will increase [42].

Results from Ref. [38] reported that breed was only a significant factor of variation at short aging periods (2 days) on C20% variable, where meat from a dairy breed was tougher than those from meat breed kids at both slaughter weights (light or heavy carcasses). However, at 4 days of aging, those differences between breeds disappeared, being most significant the

According to Ref. [40], **gender** did not affect texture parameters also after 3 days of aging, in

Goat meat can be considered as red meat, as those from other small ruminant species, according to its *proximate composition*. As some authors [20] have pointed before, meat from goat has

Goat meat compared to the other ruminant meats is characterized by a higher water content, lower energy contribution as well as lower fat content, with a similar proportion of minerals (**Table 3**). Values are dependent on the source consulted (USDA; BEDCA). The type of animal and the piece used in the determination of proximate composition explain the variations

In Ref. [34] were not found differences between **breeds** on chemical composition neither on light or heavy kids, being comprised between 78.01 and 76.97% for moisture, 24.11 and 19.52% for crude protein, 1.11 and 1.03% for ash and 2.05 and1.09% for fat. However, the results from Ref. [38] showed that differences between aptitudes exist specially in fat percentage, where commercial dairy kids presented higher percentage (7.49% vs. 1.9–2.8%) than kids from meat

a high nutritional value, contributing to an enjoyable and healthy human diet.

Tenderizing is more intense in older animals due to the higher action of the proteases.

).

on shear force.

were reported

at

at 80%, and 23 N/cm<sup>2</sup>

for C20, C80, and C100%,

) than a dairy crossbred (Saanen × Feral, 4.6 kg/cm<sup>2</sup>

by both **breed** and **slaughter weight** factors. Differences of almost 5 N/cm<sup>2</sup>

between different meat breeds at 20% of compression, 16 N/cm<sup>2</sup>

100%, being the maximum values of 14.96, 79.74, and 101.70 N/cm<sup>2</sup>

effect of aging tenderizing than the effect of the breed purpose.

which medium values are between 8.3 and 8.4 kg/cm<sup>2</sup>

**6.4. Proximate composition and fatty acid profile**

(3.7 kg/cm<sup>2</sup>

276 Goat Science

respectively.

reflected in **Table 3**.

aptitude even at lower carcass weight.

*Source*: [43]: goat raw (Ref. 17168); lamb, New Zealand, imported, loin chop, separable lean only, raw (Ref. 17078). [44]: milk kid ribs—Murciano-Granadina (raw); lamb ribs (raw).

**Table 3.** Basic composition characteristics of different ruminant species. Values per 100 g of an edible portion.

**Slaughter weight** also did not affect proximate composition [34], only fat percentage for the meat breed Pirenaica, which proportion decrease with the age of the animal from 2.05 to 1.37%. Those results from Ref. [34] agree with others [29, 45] were slaughter weight did not affect the chemical composition of the loin in young animals. Usually ash and fat content is low on kid meat, and main differences between breeds on chemical composition are associated to intramuscular fat. However, [38] reported small differences between slaughter weights on other chemical components, where animals from heavy carcass presented lower moisture percentage (75.7% vs. 77.8%) and higher protein content (18.8% vs. 17.1%) than light kids (which had 3.5 kg less of carcass weight).

**Gender** was unaffected by dry matter and fat percentage in kids with CCW of 4.5–5.0 kg; dry matter was reported as 24.1–23.8% in females and males, respectively, and the fat content 1.7–1.4% [40], similar to other breeds (meat aptitude).

*Fatty acid composition* is an important attribute to be considered by their implication in human health. Also fat composition affects organic attributes, especially those related to flavor, and consequences of lipid oxidation (rancidity).

In Ref. [46], the fatty acid profile of three different depots (intramuscular, subcutaneous, and kidney knob fat) from seven Spanish breeds from meat and dairy aptitude, in kids slaughtered at 7 kg live weight was analyzed. There were differences between **breeds** on all depots studied, and the differences being more evident between aptitudes (meat and dairy). A dairy breed (Malagueña) showed higher percentage of monounsaturated (MUFA) and conjugated linoleic (CLA) fatty acids than meat breeds. The highest percentages of saturated fatty acids appeared in meat breeds. Also, Horcada et al. [46] reported that it is possible to separate breeds and production system groups by discriminant analyses based on the differences between CLA and percentage of polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids *n*-6 and *n*-3 and its ratio, for both intramuscular and subcutaneous fats. Also, dairy breeds are clearly separate from the other breeds by the composition of long chain PUFA fatty acids (especially C18:3 *n*-3, C22:5 *n*-3 and C22:6 *n*-3) on kidney knob fat.

fibrousness. Sensory attributes were highly correlated with each other, being the breeds considered as most tenders also those that had the highest values on juiciness and lower fibrousness

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Also, no differences in flavor between different aptitude crossbreds have been reported in the other study [37], with a flavor intensity comprised between 6.3 and 6.1 on a 9-point scale, but there were differences in tenderness and juiciness. The most tender and juiciest breed (a crossbred from meat and wild aptitude) was the same breed that presented the lowest cook-

Differences between dairy and meat purpose kids have been reported on the intensity of species odor and flavor [38], which was slightly higher in dairy kids. Differences reported on tenderness and juiciness were affected by breed and **slaughter weight**. Kids from heavy meat purpose breeds had lower values on those variables than light kids, in which values were also similar to a dairy breed. There were no differences in other sensory variables such as fat odor,

Also, in [34], **slaughter weight** not only produced significant differences in kid and milk odors, but also in tenderness and juiciness. Applying a multivariate analysis, light kids presented a tenderer and juicier meat than heavy kids whose species and milk odors were more

Then, slaughter weight has a stronger effect in organoleptic characteristics than breed per se, as happened in lamb, because the volatile precursors of aroma formation [48, 49] and their contribution to species flavor increases with animal age, although it could be modified by the diet [50]. The differences between light and heavy carcasses in fat odor intensities (higher for heavy) can be associated with differences in the amount of adipose tissue, which imports the distinctive aromas in lamb [51], because fat traps aromatic compounds and enhances taste [52].

Analyzing the effect of the **breed** on *consumer acceptability*, consumers reported differences between breeds on flavor acceptability, tenderness acceptability, and overall acceptability [16]. Kids from dairy breeds presented higher scores than other meat purpose breeds, which may be associated with the precociousness of fat deposition in these breeds and its highest

When different **slaughter weights** are compared [38], heavy kids present lower tenderness acceptability scores, without differences in flavor acceptability and being the overall acceptability similar between heavy and light kids of meat purpose. This indicates that in spite of several intrinsic differences between those light or heavy kids, in general, the consumer do not perceive the final product as different, despite coming from different weights, ages or

However, kids from dairy breeds had the highest values of acceptability both in tenderness and in overall respect to any other types (light or heavy), which show that dairy kids are pre-

ing losses and lowest shear forcé, as it was expected [37].

production systems, with a suitable overall acceptability.

ferred respect to those from meat breeds.

intense than in younger animals [34].

fatness scores [16].

fibrousness, greasiness, or other flavors (metallic, fat, milk, acid, spicy).

values.

With those results, Horcada et al. [46] concluded that breeds, together with the **production system** (understood as feed system, type and duration of suckling, type of milk), are important factors that influence and modify the fatty acid profile. It is convenient to remark that in young suckling small ruminants, the fat composition is closely related to the composition of the milk consumed (especially short chain and saturated fatty acids, SFA) [38, 46]. Therefore, the possibility of using the fat composition as a tool to discriminate breeds and fattening diets of goat kids has been proposed [46, 47].

**Age** and **slaughter weight** also modify some fatty acid groups on intramuscular fat depot. In Ref. [38], it was reported that fat composition of the meat aptitude breed Bermeya slaughtered at two different weights (7 kg CCW vs. 10.5 kg CCW) was statistically different on the percentage of PUFA, *n*-6, *n*-3, and its ratio. Heavy animals presented lower percentage of PUFA (14.16% vs. 21.49%), *n*-6 (9.03% vs. 14.31%), *n-*3 (4.46% vs. 6.54%), and PUFA/SFA (0.32% vs. 0.58%) with respect to those from light weights (younger animals). In the same study, a dairy breed was analyzed (Murciano-Granadina, 5.6 kg CCW), and presented a fatty acid profile more similar to lamb (10 kg CCW) than to Bermeya light kids. There were no differences in SFA between the **type of animals**, with values comprised between 46.5 and 42.3%; dairy breed had a higher percentage of MUFA (40.49%) than meat animals in both weights, similar to *n*-6 PUFA than heavy kids (10.23% and 8.39%), and lower *n*-3 (1.12% vs. 4.46%) and higher *n*-6/*n*-3 (7.79% vs. 2.26%).

Comparing kid and lamb fatty acid profile, the fatty acid profile from lamb differs more from meat goats than from dairy goats [47].

In conclusion, the intramuscular fat from suckling kids has an appropriate nutritional lipid index, and a moderate consumption may contribute to an overall balanced human diet.

#### **6.5. Sensory analysis**

Sensory data can be obtained from a *trained taste panel*, which assesses the sensory profile and the intensity of the evaluated attributes or by a consumer test where acceptability scores of the hedonic perception about the evaluated meat samples are obtained.

A trained taste panel used in [34] described goat sensory profile with the following attributes: kid and milk odor and six different flavors such as kid, fat, milk, metallic, acid, and bitter. Odor or flavor intensity between studied meat purpose **breeds** was not different. However, there were significant differences among breeds in the texture attributes, as tenderness, juiciness, and fibrousness. Sensory attributes were highly correlated with each other, being the breeds considered as most tenders also those that had the highest values on juiciness and lower fibrousness values.

linoleic (CLA) fatty acids than meat breeds. The highest percentages of saturated fatty acids appeared in meat breeds. Also, Horcada et al. [46] reported that it is possible to separate breeds and production system groups by discriminant analyses based on the differences between CLA and percentage of polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids *n*-6 and *n*-3 and its ratio, for both intramuscular and subcutaneous fats. Also, dairy breeds are clearly separate from the other breeds by the composition of long chain PUFA fatty acids (especially C18:3 *n*-3, C22:5

With those results, Horcada et al. [46] concluded that breeds, together with the **production system** (understood as feed system, type and duration of suckling, type of milk), are important factors that influence and modify the fatty acid profile. It is convenient to remark that in young suckling small ruminants, the fat composition is closely related to the composition of the milk consumed (especially short chain and saturated fatty acids, SFA) [38, 46]. Therefore, the possibility of using the fat composition as a tool to discriminate breeds and fattening diets

**Age** and **slaughter weight** also modify some fatty acid groups on intramuscular fat depot. In Ref. [38], it was reported that fat composition of the meat aptitude breed Bermeya slaughtered at two different weights (7 kg CCW vs. 10.5 kg CCW) was statistically different on the percentage of PUFA, *n*-6, *n*-3, and its ratio. Heavy animals presented lower percentage of PUFA (14.16% vs. 21.49%), *n*-6 (9.03% vs. 14.31%), *n-*3 (4.46% vs. 6.54%), and PUFA/SFA (0.32% vs. 0.58%) with respect to those from light weights (younger animals). In the same study, a dairy breed was analyzed (Murciano-Granadina, 5.6 kg CCW), and presented a fatty acid profile more similar to lamb (10 kg CCW) than to Bermeya light kids. There were no differences in SFA between the **type of animals**, with values comprised between 46.5 and 42.3%; dairy breed had a higher percentage of MUFA (40.49%) than meat animals in both weights, similar to *n*-6 PUFA than heavy kids (10.23% and 8.39%), and lower *n*-3 (1.12% vs. 4.46%) and higher *n*-6/*n*-3

Comparing kid and lamb fatty acid profile, the fatty acid profile from lamb differs more from

In conclusion, the intramuscular fat from suckling kids has an appropriate nutritional lipid index, and a moderate consumption may contribute to an overall balanced human diet.

Sensory data can be obtained from a *trained taste panel*, which assesses the sensory profile and the intensity of the evaluated attributes or by a consumer test where acceptability scores of the

A trained taste panel used in [34] described goat sensory profile with the following attributes: kid and milk odor and six different flavors such as kid, fat, milk, metallic, acid, and bitter. Odor or flavor intensity between studied meat purpose **breeds** was not different. However, there were significant differences among breeds in the texture attributes, as tenderness, juiciness, and

hedonic perception about the evaluated meat samples are obtained.

*n*-3 and C22:6 *n*-3) on kidney knob fat.

278 Goat Science

of goat kids has been proposed [46, 47].

meat goats than from dairy goats [47].

(7.79% vs. 2.26%).

**6.5. Sensory analysis**

Also, no differences in flavor between different aptitude crossbreds have been reported in the other study [37], with a flavor intensity comprised between 6.3 and 6.1 on a 9-point scale, but there were differences in tenderness and juiciness. The most tender and juiciest breed (a crossbred from meat and wild aptitude) was the same breed that presented the lowest cooking losses and lowest shear forcé, as it was expected [37].

Differences between dairy and meat purpose kids have been reported on the intensity of species odor and flavor [38], which was slightly higher in dairy kids. Differences reported on tenderness and juiciness were affected by breed and **slaughter weight**. Kids from heavy meat purpose breeds had lower values on those variables than light kids, in which values were also similar to a dairy breed. There were no differences in other sensory variables such as fat odor, fibrousness, greasiness, or other flavors (metallic, fat, milk, acid, spicy).

Also, in [34], **slaughter weight** not only produced significant differences in kid and milk odors, but also in tenderness and juiciness. Applying a multivariate analysis, light kids presented a tenderer and juicier meat than heavy kids whose species and milk odors were more intense than in younger animals [34].

Then, slaughter weight has a stronger effect in organoleptic characteristics than breed per se, as happened in lamb, because the volatile precursors of aroma formation [48, 49] and their contribution to species flavor increases with animal age, although it could be modified by the diet [50].

The differences between light and heavy carcasses in fat odor intensities (higher for heavy) can be associated with differences in the amount of adipose tissue, which imports the distinctive aromas in lamb [51], because fat traps aromatic compounds and enhances taste [52].

Analyzing the effect of the **breed** on *consumer acceptability*, consumers reported differences between breeds on flavor acceptability, tenderness acceptability, and overall acceptability [16]. Kids from dairy breeds presented higher scores than other meat purpose breeds, which may be associated with the precociousness of fat deposition in these breeds and its highest fatness scores [16].

When different **slaughter weights** are compared [38], heavy kids present lower tenderness acceptability scores, without differences in flavor acceptability and being the overall acceptability similar between heavy and light kids of meat purpose. This indicates that in spite of several intrinsic differences between those light or heavy kids, in general, the consumer do not perceive the final product as different, despite coming from different weights, ages or production systems, with a suitable overall acceptability.

However, kids from dairy breeds had the highest values of acceptability both in tenderness and in overall respect to any other types (light or heavy), which show that dairy kids are preferred respect to those from meat breeds.

As it has been previously commented in the introduction, consumption of goat meat in Western countries is less common than lamb consumption, but there are no doubts about the specificity and own sensorial characteristics, attributes, and qualities of goat species. As Hungarian Sheep and Goat Breeders' Association have reported [20] "Goat meat is a very palatable food with several positive physiological effects and nutritional values. Generally we found in the market meat from young animals, mainly as a by-product of milk production." Animals are slaughtered young because consumers do not favor the strong taste and odor of older animals. Also the best meat yields are those from kids of 8–10 weeks old. Goat meat can be prepared in various ways, being the most usual fried or stuffed and roasted. Goat meat is slightly sweet, so it requires careful seasoning.

Usually tenderness is higher in lamb than in goats; The difference associated with differences in collagen content and other factors such as fat content or muscle fiber composition also affects tenderness. Small differences between breeds are reported only at short aging periods. Related to proximate composition, meat from goat is characterized by a higher water content, lower energetic contribution, and lower fat content than ovine species. Being, on kids, pos-

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Related to sensorial acceptability of meat from goat, there are differences between breeds and age of slaughter, being preferred young kids respect heavy or adults by presenting not so strong taste. Overall, milky to meat purpose kids mainly affected by a higher tenderness of

It is undeniable that goat meat has it own characteristics, which are different from other ruminant species; however, it presents a good acceptability comparable with lamb meat, a species whose consumption is more worldwide spread, especially when young and milk kids are considered; then, an adequate cultural development of goat meat characteristics could contribute to its consolidation by increasing its demand, because it has its own characteristics and

The authors thank the Goat Breeders' Associations that collaborate on the diverse projects developed and also authors thank the Animal Production personnel which contributes on the

Department of Animal Production and Food Science, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón

[1] Shrestha JNB, Fahmy MH. Breeding goats for meat production: A review. 1. Genetics resources, management and breed evaluation. Small Ruminant Research. 2005;**58**:93-106.

[2] FAO—Faoestat. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2017. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data. [Accessed: October 09, 2017]

Ana Guerrero\*, María del Mar Campo, José Luis Olleta and Carlos Sañudo

\*Address all correspondence to: guerrerobarrado@gmail.com

(IA2), Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA, Zaragoza, Spain

DOI: 10.1016/S0921-4488(03)00183-4

sible discriminate breeds (purpose) and fattening diets by their fat composition.

milky kids are also preferred.

singular high-quality attributes.

**Acknowledgements**

cited studies.

**Author details**

**References**

Comparing plain or seasoned products from goat or beef [53] showed that goat meat is always differentiated in a triangular test. However, acceptability scores are as high as those from beef, when goat products are served before beef products. It was hypothesized that the different order effect is affected by the familiarity or unfamiliarity that the consumer or panelist has with the product taste. When goat meat was served first, panelists had no comparison basis for their rating of the unfamiliar meat, and thus goat meat was scored better than when it served after a more familiar meat as beef.

In Ref. [54], it is shown how it is possible to differentiate and create a sensory map with 15 species by their own attributes. Excluding color, which was the main differentiating factor between species, the odor and flavor explained 66% of variation with texture representing 13%. Goat shows gamier, metallic and liver odor-flavor than lamb. Goat meat attributes were more related to beef and beaver meat than to lamb. In this sense, there are a few studies that compare kid and lamb meat, and results as those from [55, 56] reflect that lamb and goat differed mainly in aroma, tenderness, or fibrousness, but in very young animals, those differences decreases tending meat of both species to be similar. Nevertheless, [57] have not reported statistical differences in odor, juiciness or overall palatability between both species. And as reported in [16], consumers under different testing environments had some similar acceptability scores for lamb and kids.
