**4. Goat products-manufacturing practices and ripening tools**

#### **4.1. Darfiyeh and Aricheh**

Darfiyeh is a semi-hard goat cheese, and the artisanal cheese-making technology originated in Northern Lebanese mountains for many centuries. It is one of the favourite goat cheeses that owe its strong character primarily to its ripening process, using the goatskin. Traditionally, it is manufactured using the raw goat's milk. Cheeses made under these conditions may not have minimal hygiene and sanitary standards needed to obtain consistent product quality [16].

Initially, Ref. [17] concentrated their attention on the hygienic aspects of its manufacture in order to obtain the original cheese with an improved quality. Due to the growing interest in characterization of traditional products, Serhan et al. [18] define the technological features of its production.

#### *4.1.1. Goatskin preparation*

Goatskins preparation was reported by Hosri and El Khoury [17]. After slaughtering of the goat, the carcass is fixed by any of its legs, and then the skin is gently removed. The goatskin, preserved in a fresh atmosphere, is subject to an internal salting during one week. After that, the remaining salt is eliminated. The legs are tied, leaving an opening through the neck.

#### *4.1.2. Darfiyeh cheese manufacturing*

In the full processing of Darfiyeh, no starter culture is added, nor CaCl<sup>2</sup> solution. The amount of the microbial rennet powder from *Mucor miehei* (Strength 1:150,000) used is variable, but it guarantees a firm coagulation within 60–90 min. Following coagulation, the curd is compacted for the first drainage of the whey, after which it is pressed by hand into the characteristic shape of a parallelepiped (12, 9 and 9 cm). Subsequently, the whey is boiled and raw goat milk is added to coagulate proteins, in order to get the whey cheese or Aricheh. For ripening, Darfiyeh and whey cheeses are introduced inside the goat's skin, which are stored in a natural cellar at 10–12°C [19] (**Figures 1**–**3**).

#### **4.2. Serdale**

Although goat milk is very nutritious and is considered as an acceptable food in several parts of the country, its production and handling remains a major problem limiting its consumption. The dispersed nature of production across the diversity of small farms, small volumes and seasonality of milk production, high ambient temperatures in the summer, poor handling systems, lack of cooling facilities in remote areas, lack of well-organized transportation and communication systems all create a considerable challenge to goat milk production [14]. One of the concerns regarding goat milk by the general public is the perception that goat milk or goat milk products have a 'goaty' flavour because of a long history of widespread negative popular misconception [15] against goats. Well-produced and well-handled goat milk is indistinguishable in taste and odour from good quality cow milk [15]. Milk in general and goat milk in particular have their unique characteristic flavour but not unacceptable smell or odour. Proper handling of milking goats and bucks by separation, good management and

hygiene can eliminate the poor attitude by consumers towards goat milk [15].

day on average compared to less than 1 kg/day average for Lebanese breeds [10].

**4. Goat products-manufacturing practices and ripening tools**

consists of daily feed supplements during the grazing period.

**4.1. Darfiyeh and Aricheh**

384 Goat Science

its production.

*4.1.1. Goatskin preparation*

An opportunity relies in mixing pure breed goats to increase milk production in their offspring. Breeding local goats with imported Shami breed from Cyprus can be an innovative strategy. Shami goats are special breed for milk production, producing an average of 4–5 kg/

Traditional grazing system with no supplements provided to the cattle is being threatened by the declining winter precipitation and the Syrian crisis [10]. The lack of foraging and limited access to traditional grazing is forcing herders to shift into a semi-intensive system, which

Darfiyeh is a semi-hard goat cheese, and the artisanal cheese-making technology originated in Northern Lebanese mountains for many centuries. It is one of the favourite goat cheeses that owe its strong character primarily to its ripening process, using the goatskin. Traditionally, it is manufactured using the raw goat's milk. Cheeses made under these conditions may not have minimal hygiene and sanitary standards needed to obtain consistent product quality [16]. Initially, Ref. [17] concentrated their attention on the hygienic aspects of its manufacture in order to obtain the original cheese with an improved quality. Due to the growing interest in characterization of traditional products, Serhan et al. [18] define the technological features of

Goatskins preparation was reported by Hosri and El Khoury [17]. After slaughtering of the goat, the carcass is fixed by any of its legs, and then the skin is gently removed. The goatskin, preserved in a fresh atmosphere, is subject to an internal salting during one week. After that, the remaining salt is eliminated. The legs are tied, leaving an opening through the neck.

It is a non-pasteurized goat cheese, known by many names: 'Serdale', 'Jebnet el Fokhara', or 'Ambariss'[3].

The traditional way to prepare is to introduce the raw goat milk in jars that have a 2 inches hole in the base and let it ferment for a year and the procedure consists of adding raw milk and salt; and removing the whey continually.

Till now, the same procedure is applied, but the milk is placed in big plastic gallons, for economic reasons.

According to the flow chart of production below, the production of 'Serdale' is done following these manufacturing steps:

The milk is collected from the farmers in the village as a first step. Jars are prepared by soaking them for 10–15 days in the whey of the milk so that the walls absorb whey well, and washing them with local olive oil soap known as 'Baladi soap'.

**Figure 1.** Flow diagram of production of *Darfiyeh* cheese balls [8].

**Figure 2.** Flow diagram of production of whey cheeses (*Aricheh)* [8].

For every 20 kg of milk, 500 g of salt must be introduced. It is distributed throughout the jar and added in separate amounts periodically. Every time there is appearance of moulds on the surface, it is removed and salt is added again. Total fermentation needs about 15 days to be done. After 15 days, the cap of the jar is removed and the whey is separated from the fermented milk from the whole jar, and raw milk is added again.

This process is repeated several times (about three times) and progressively, until the whey is removed completely by adding raw milk to coagulate the fermented milk.

Finally, the fermented milk is coagulated into small balls and placed in small textile bags to dry to completeness (**Figure 4**).

**4.3. Shankleesh**

**Figure 4.** Flow diagram of production of *Serdale* [5].

Shankleesh is the only mould-ripened cheese in the Middle East.

ies [4, 21, 22], little is known about Shankleesh.

Regarding its manufacturing, the precipitate obtained by heating defatted yoghurt is seasoned with salt and powdered with pepper and shaped into balls. The balls are sun-dried, placed in the jars and left to ripen for different intervals of time at ambient temperature.

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The mould-covered balls are washed with water, rolled in olive oil and finally covered with powdered thyme (*Thymus vulgaris*). The diversity of microbiota involved during ripening transform the coagulum into a highly flavoured product of unique textural properties.

Furthermore, the low levels of fat (5.6%) [20] coupled with the presumably low water activity of the system and the inhibitory effects of thyme on microbial metabolism confer stability on the product and allow safe storage for long period of time. Although Shankleesh is typically prepared from ewes' milk [20], bovine and caprine Shankleesh products are produced and marketed by local dairy processors, presumably due to seasonal fluctuations in milk supplies.

With reference to the literature available on processing and ripening of different cheese variet-

In this cheese, the coagulation is only lactic without adding rennet, hence there is a need to identify different types of lactic acid bacteria found in milk and goat cheeses and study their effects on fermentation characteristics and cheese.

**Figure 3.** Ripening tools and conditions [8].

**Figure 4.** Flow diagram of production of *Serdale* [5].

#### **4.3. Shankleesh**

For every 20 kg of milk, 500 g of salt must be introduced. It is distributed throughout the jar and added in separate amounts periodically. Every time there is appearance of moulds on the surface, it is removed and salt is added again. Total fermentation needs about 15 days to be done. After 15 days, the cap of the jar is removed and the whey is separated from the

This process is repeated several times (about three times) and progressively, until the whey is

Finally, the fermented milk is coagulated into small balls and placed in small textile bags to

In this cheese, the coagulation is only lactic without adding rennet, hence there is a need to identify different types of lactic acid bacteria found in milk and goat cheeses and study their

fermented milk from the whole jar, and raw milk is added again.

**Figure 2.** Flow diagram of production of whey cheeses (*Aricheh)* [8].

dry to completeness (**Figure 4**).

386 Goat Science

**Figure 3.** Ripening tools and conditions [8].

effects on fermentation characteristics and cheese.

removed completely by adding raw milk to coagulate the fermented milk.

Shankleesh is the only mould-ripened cheese in the Middle East.

Regarding its manufacturing, the precipitate obtained by heating defatted yoghurt is seasoned with salt and powdered with pepper and shaped into balls. The balls are sun-dried, placed in the jars and left to ripen for different intervals of time at ambient temperature.

The mould-covered balls are washed with water, rolled in olive oil and finally covered with powdered thyme (*Thymus vulgaris*). The diversity of microbiota involved during ripening transform the coagulum into a highly flavoured product of unique textural properties.

Furthermore, the low levels of fat (5.6%) [20] coupled with the presumably low water activity of the system and the inhibitory effects of thyme on microbial metabolism confer stability on the product and allow safe storage for long period of time. Although Shankleesh is typically prepared from ewes' milk [20], bovine and caprine Shankleesh products are produced and marketed by local dairy processors, presumably due to seasonal fluctuations in milk supplies.

With reference to the literature available on processing and ripening of different cheese varieties [4, 21, 22], little is known about Shankleesh.

Being coated with thyme, has demonstrated to show inhibitory effects against bacteria. Moreover, its storage in olive oil has made the medium anaerobic thus inhibiting the growth of pathogens. Regardless of the two important advantages, one of the crucial steps in the production of Shankleesh is drying in the open air. At this point, microbial contamination is likely to occur (Zouhairi et al., [23]).

Modern Labneh manufacturing methods used in industrial scale operations include centrifu-

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Popularity of Labneh has led to more interest in its structure and rheological properties [24]. Several methodologies have been utilized in the determination of shelf life of Labneh products by monitoring selected microbiological and physicochemical changes during storage [25, 26]. Preference mapping of commercial bovine Labneh products [27] as well as mapping determinants of purchase intent of Labneh [28] were specifically studied in the Lebanese market. Moreover, several research studies related to the characterization of bovine or caprine Labneh have been reported in the literature. While cow or goat milk cheeses are classically produced either from 100% of each type, investigations were made on cheeses produced from mixtures of cows' and goats' milk, in the aim of producing a better product under quality characteristics. Considering these aspects, [5] have assessed and evaluated the quality parameters and sensory acceptability of Labneh products made with goats' milk, cows' milk and their mixture, and have compared their quality characteristics with those of Labneh products manufactured with the milk from either cows or goats. The development of such products is an interesting opportunity to produce a goat dairy product that is considered satisfactory by

Kishk is a traditional fermented milk-cereal mixture, widely consumed in Lebanon. It is made from goat's milk, cow's milk or a mixture of both. The product may be manufactured by dairy

It is prepared from yogurt, parboiled cracked wheat (Burghol) (ratio of Burghol: yogurt is 1:4) and salt. The ingredients are kneaded daily for up to 6 days at 30–35°C in order to complete the fermentation and conditioning periods. Further to that, the dough is shaped into balls, placed on trays, and dried in the sun for up to 1 week. The dried mixture is milled at granaries. The final dried product is not hygroscopic and can be stored in an open jar for 2 years

Details of the many different traditional methods employed for the manufacture of Kishk in different countries in the Middle East have been reviewed by several authors. The figure below illustrates the traditional manufacturing stages of Kishk according to Tamime and

industries for supermarket retail chains, by granaries or may be made at home.

gation, recombination technology and ultrafiltration.

consumers (**Figure 6**).

without any spoilage.

Robinson [2] (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 6.** Flow diagram of production of *Labneh* [6].

**4.5. Kishk**

According to Toufeili et al. [4], moderate flavour intensity and well-balanced textural attributes were the salient features of caprine Shankleesh. This was in accordance with the high acceptability scores elicited by the sample, as compared with the bovine and ovine counterparts (**Figure 5**).

#### **4.4. Labneh**

Traditionally, Labneh is a fermented milk product widely appreciated and consumed as an important protein source. Different types of milk can be used in the production of Labneh; namely cow, sheep and goat milks, although cow and, to a lesser extent, goat are more common [2]. It has a short shelf life.

With reference to the Lebanese dairy production, Labneh is made from cow's milk (either full fat or skimmed) or from goat milk in more limited availability. It is produced by a traditional old practice by straining milk set yogurt in cloth bags for 12–18 h at refrigeration temperatures, until the desired total solid level is attained. *Streptococcus thermophilus* and *Lb. delbrueckii* sp. *bulgaricus* are the starter cultures used in its production.

**Figure 5.** Flow diagram of production of *Shankleesh* [4].

Modern Labneh manufacturing methods used in industrial scale operations include centrifugation, recombination technology and ultrafiltration.

Popularity of Labneh has led to more interest in its structure and rheological properties [24]. Several methodologies have been utilized in the determination of shelf life of Labneh products by monitoring selected microbiological and physicochemical changes during storage [25, 26]. Preference mapping of commercial bovine Labneh products [27] as well as mapping determinants of purchase intent of Labneh [28] were specifically studied in the Lebanese market.

Moreover, several research studies related to the characterization of bovine or caprine Labneh have been reported in the literature. While cow or goat milk cheeses are classically produced either from 100% of each type, investigations were made on cheeses produced from mixtures of cows' and goats' milk, in the aim of producing a better product under quality characteristics. Considering these aspects, [5] have assessed and evaluated the quality parameters and sensory acceptability of Labneh products made with goats' milk, cows' milk and their mixture, and have compared their quality characteristics with those of Labneh products manufactured with the milk from either cows or goats. The development of such products is an interesting opportunity to produce a goat dairy product that is considered satisfactory by consumers (**Figure 6**).

#### **4.5. Kishk**

Being coated with thyme, has demonstrated to show inhibitory effects against bacteria. Moreover, its storage in olive oil has made the medium anaerobic thus inhibiting the growth of pathogens. Regardless of the two important advantages, one of the crucial steps in the production of Shankleesh is drying in the open air. At this point, microbial contamination is

According to Toufeili et al. [4], moderate flavour intensity and well-balanced textural attributes were the salient features of caprine Shankleesh. This was in accordance with the high acceptability scores elicited by the sample, as compared with the bovine and ovine counter-

Traditionally, Labneh is a fermented milk product widely appreciated and consumed as an important protein source. Different types of milk can be used in the production of Labneh; namely cow, sheep and goat milks, although cow and, to a lesser extent, goat are more com-

With reference to the Lebanese dairy production, Labneh is made from cow's milk (either full fat or skimmed) or from goat milk in more limited availability. It is produced by a traditional old practice by straining milk set yogurt in cloth bags for 12–18 h at refrigeration temperatures, until the desired total solid level is attained. *Streptococcus thermophilus* and *Lb. delbrueckii*

likely to occur (Zouhairi et al., [23]).

mon [2]. It has a short shelf life.

sp. *bulgaricus* are the starter cultures used in its production.

**Figure 5.** Flow diagram of production of *Shankleesh* [4].

parts (**Figure 5**).

**4.4. Labneh**

388 Goat Science

Kishk is a traditional fermented milk-cereal mixture, widely consumed in Lebanon. It is made from goat's milk, cow's milk or a mixture of both. The product may be manufactured by dairy industries for supermarket retail chains, by granaries or may be made at home.

It is prepared from yogurt, parboiled cracked wheat (Burghol) (ratio of Burghol: yogurt is 1:4) and salt. The ingredients are kneaded daily for up to 6 days at 30–35°C in order to complete the fermentation and conditioning periods. Further to that, the dough is shaped into balls, placed on trays, and dried in the sun for up to 1 week. The dried mixture is milled at granaries. The final dried product is not hygroscopic and can be stored in an open jar for 2 years without any spoilage.

Details of the many different traditional methods employed for the manufacture of Kishk in different countries in the Middle East have been reviewed by several authors. The figure below illustrates the traditional manufacturing stages of Kishk according to Tamime and Robinson [2] (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 6.** Flow diagram of production of *Labneh* [6].

Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity (SFFD), an international movement founded in 1996

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The RMF had set a program to support the development of small farmers by providing technical assistance for local milk producers so they can improve the quality of Darfiyeh as well

In the European Union (EU), protected geographical indication (PGI), protected designation of origin (PDO) and traditional specialty guaranteed (TSG) seals are used to encourage and

According to the Agriculture and Rural Development, European commission, the following EU schemes encourage diverse agricultural production, protect product names from misuse and imitation and help consumers by giving them information concerning the specific char-

'PDO covers agricultural products and foodstuffs that are produced, processed and prepared

'PGI covers agricultural products and foodstuffs closely linked to the geographical area. At least one of the stages of production, processing or preparation takes place in the area'. 'TSG highlights traditional character, either in the composition or means of production'.

In 2008, a Swiss-Lebanese Project on geographical indication took place. It has a duration of 3 years. The project aimed at defining an adequate system for the protection of geographical indication in Lebanon, through (1) identifying the products originating from a territory or a region, (2) supporting technically the producers in drafting the legal documents for the registration of geographic indications at the Lebanese Ministry of Economy and Trade and (3) providing the necessary information and working with the supply chain actors on agricultural,

The Lebanese terroir is very rich in traditional food products. According to a UNDP study, 30% of Lebanese can be categorized as poor. About 10% of the people are rural. Agriculture's share of the gross national product is 6–8% and declining. This decline is negatively affecting the rural poor who still rely on farming for their livelihoods. Subsequently, supporting the implementation of geographical indications, may contribute to enhance the breakdown of traditional food production systems and to reduce the loss of precious indigenous knowledge

While it is obvious that the consumer expects the guarantee of high quality, consistent taste, function and the benefits of food safety of cheese, the cheese makers on the other hand want the old style feel to their cheese: all natural, full flavour, and simple packaging. This has

to protect the pleasures of the table from the homogenization of modern fast food.

as the production conditions, related mainly to hygiene.

protect the reputation for quality of agricultural products and food.

in a given geographical area using recognized know-how'.

organizational and economical aspects of geographical indications.

and the degradation of agro-biodiversity.

**6. Safety measures**

**5.3. Protected designation of origin (PDO)**

acter of the products:

**Figure 7.** Flow diagram of production of *Kish* (adopted from Tamime and Robinson [2]).
