**3. Criteria for action in large courses**

Between April 2016 and July 2017, 15 universities throughout Chile were contacted to participate in the study, identifying and convening the best teachers of each institution. Each university selected their representing teachers using two key criteria. The first criterion is that teachers had the recognition of quality and excellence in teaching through different mechanisms, such as the evaluation of students, recognition among peers, and awards given to the best teachers at the institutional level. The second criterion of selection was related to the number of students in the course and the teacher or teaching team. In this sense, it was considered as selection criteria that the number of students per teacher doubled the overall average of the institution. This last criterion was adopted in this way, because the available evidence is not conclusive about what "large courses" mean, ranging from 50 to 1000 students, or under the criteria of "low visual contact" between the teacher and the students [10].

monitoring that teachers develop in different modalities and situations, ranging from the use of clickers through one-minute papers to brief quizzes, are key actions. Some representative quotes were "*…I am permanently concerned about student learning. I ask them a lot in class. And when I see what they are not understanding, I change the teaching strategy…*"; "*…in all classes I try to use clickers or brief questions … with these results, I start the next class. When I realize that the answers are not what I expect, I modify the class to try to get my students to learn*"; "*With the results of the partial assessments, I have sometimes had to adjust the syllabus…it is essential that my students learn*"; "*For several years until now I have been trying to invest more time on the essentials of the course content, to generate spaces of time to reinforce what students cannot learn…*"; *and* "*After I finish each class, I send a small online survey with the topics that were reviewed. I ask them two things: what you learned most strongly and what you have the most doubts…at the beginning of each class, I start with a brief synthesis with those weakest elements detected…when problems persists, I organize an activity especially to strengthen those points…*". Not all the teaching work will be determined from the beginning; probably during the development of the course, adjustments must be made from the feedback received by the students.

Large Courses at Universities: Criteria for Teacher Action http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72674 165

This aspect should always be considered within the administration of any class.

**3.3. The use of examples or analogies originated from reality is able to link** 

Not always the topics of the course are liked by all students, especially in areas that may be more abstract and less motivating. A relevant fact is how teachers select and use examples and situations of contingency in order to promote motivation, linkage, and meaningfulness with the content or learning that is being intended in students. The above not only at an intellectual level but also at an emotional or empathic level with the situation being exemplified and its intrinsic link with learning. Some representative quotes were "*…in the day-to-day I am always looking for examples to use in my course. For me it is key to choose good examples not only able to cover the content that I am delivering, but also to engage students to learn*"; "*Students respond not just because they want to learn. They need to know how knowledge can be used in everyday life…*"; "*My students are not alien to reality and to the contingency…of what is happening around them. In one way or another, it affects their lives…so choosing good examples of reality will help them understand their environment and make learning meaningful…*"; "*When I start the course I realize that students are not able to relate contents to reality…it is as if they lived in parallel realities. When I gradually explain using everyday examples, they discover a new world and commit to the course. Hence, the importance I give in selecting good examples…*"; *and* "*Several years ago, in the evaluations that I applied in the course, rather than asking the students to answer questions, I gave them topics that they should exemplify, relate and analyze with facts of national and international contingency…it has given me very good results…*". This represents better communication skills not only over the average of teachers but also in the effective and relevant selection of examples capable of linking students' motivation with

**3.4. Promotion in the generation of networks of support and collaboration intra- and extracurricular (both between students and teachers) favors the quality of learning**

Teachers use the positive effect of collaborative networks, both in and out of the course. Within the course, there are multiple actions, but some stand out, such as peer instruction, collaborative

**cognitively and emotionally more effectively**

the contents and learning of the course.

Under these criteria, 32 teachers were identified who taught classes in large courses comprising between 62 and 246 students. Interviews were scheduled, informed consent validated by the faculty ethics committee, and interviews conducted according to the predefined protocol for this purpose. Interviews were recorded in audio files, and field notes were generated. Then, each interview and field notes were analyzed and codified, identifying and relating effective self-reported teaching practices, using the ATLAS.ti® software. Then, codes were integrated and optimized, generating five large groups of codes. Finally, a process of conceptualization or theorization of the categories with greater concurrence began.

The qualitative methodology described above [40–42] allowed the identification of the five criteria that teachers frequently use—consciously or unconsciously—within their teaching practice in large university courses. The criteria identified in their totality are methodological/ pedagogical and are presented from the highest degree of concurrence (22) to the minor (8). Each of the criteria was then reviewed and conceptualized.

#### **3.1. The ubiquitous interaction between student-teacher-student propitiates a better environment for learning**

Communication seems to be a relevant factor in the learning experience of large courses. This communication, however, has a particularity. It is present at all times, everywhere and in various formats or devices. Teachers use various ways to be "always connected" with their students. In other words, it is to offer an "always available" training experience through various media and formats, beyond the formal classroom spaces. Some representative quotes were "*…I have a special mobile phone for my courses. There, I set up a Whatsapp®-volunteer group with my students from the beginning of the course. They ask me questions and I respond at any time of the day, wherever I am*"; "*Since I discovered Facebook® a few years ago, I set up a closed group where my students participate in a very natural way. It was a good experience. It is relevant to observe how students interact, often responding to their doubts among themselves*"; and "*…in my strategic communication course, I use a lot Twitter®, because it allows me to exemplify with everyday cases the contents of the course…the students participate by commenting, allowing me to make corrections about certain errors that they may be making in their analyses*".

The use of communication technologies and social networks seems to be a great strategy to improve the interaction between teachers and their students. In this sense, the use of social media or Web 2.0 has become an interesting resource for student learning.

#### **3.2. Dynamic decision-making based on student learning achievement throughout the process should be the north in classroom management**

Size is not a sufficient justification for teachers to not orient their practice toward student learning outcomes. Most interviewees stated that they take short- and long-term measures when they do not achieve the syllabus objectives or in a particular activity or generation of evidence. In a way they empathize and take responsibility for the results that their students achieve, but above all, they manage to reorient their actions. In this context, the processes of feedback and monitoring that teachers develop in different modalities and situations, ranging from the use of clickers through one-minute papers to brief quizzes, are key actions. Some representative quotes were "*…I am permanently concerned about student learning. I ask them a lot in class. And when I see what they are not understanding, I change the teaching strategy…*"; "*…in all classes I try to use clickers or brief questions … with these results, I start the next class. When I realize that the answers are not what I expect, I modify the class to try to get my students to learn*"; "*With the results of the partial assessments, I have sometimes had to adjust the syllabus…it is essential that my students learn*"; "*For several years until now I have been trying to invest more time on the essentials of the course content, to generate spaces of time to reinforce what students cannot learn…*"; *and* "*After I finish each class, I send a small online survey with the topics that were reviewed. I ask them two things: what you learned most strongly and what you have the most doubts…at the beginning of each class, I start with a brief synthesis with those weakest elements detected…when problems persists, I organize an activity especially to strengthen those points…*".

Not all the teaching work will be determined from the beginning; probably during the development of the course, adjustments must be made from the feedback received by the students. This aspect should always be considered within the administration of any class.

#### **3.3. The use of examples or analogies originated from reality is able to link cognitively and emotionally more effectively**

as selection criteria that the number of students per teacher doubled the overall average of the institution. This last criterion was adopted in this way, because the available evidence is not conclusive about what "large courses" mean, ranging from 50 to 1000 students, or under the

Under these criteria, 32 teachers were identified who taught classes in large courses comprising between 62 and 246 students. Interviews were scheduled, informed consent validated by the faculty ethics committee, and interviews conducted according to the predefined protocol for this purpose. Interviews were recorded in audio files, and field notes were generated. Then, each interview and field notes were analyzed and codified, identifying and relating effective self-reported teaching practices, using the ATLAS.ti® software. Then, codes were integrated and optimized, generating five large groups of codes. Finally, a process of concep-

The qualitative methodology described above [40–42] allowed the identification of the five criteria that teachers frequently use—consciously or unconsciously—within their teaching practice in large university courses. The criteria identified in their totality are methodological/ pedagogical and are presented from the highest degree of concurrence (22) to the minor (8).

**3.1. The ubiquitous interaction between student-teacher-student propitiates a better** 

Communication seems to be a relevant factor in the learning experience of large courses. This communication, however, has a particularity. It is present at all times, everywhere and in various formats or devices. Teachers use various ways to be "always connected" with their students. In other words, it is to offer an "always available" training experience through various media and formats, beyond the formal classroom spaces. Some representative quotes were "*…I have a special mobile phone for my courses. There, I set up a Whatsapp®-volunteer group with my students from the beginning of the course. They ask me questions and I respond at any time of the day, wherever I am*"; "*Since I discovered Facebook® a few years ago, I set up a closed group where my students participate in a very natural way. It was a good experience. It is relevant to observe how students interact, often responding to their doubts among themselves*"; and "*…in my strategic communication course, I use a lot Twitter®, because it allows me to exemplify with everyday cases the contents of the course…the students participate by commenting, allowing me to make corrections about certain errors that they may be making in their analyses*". The use of communication technologies and social networks seems to be a great strategy to improve the interaction between teachers and their students. In this sense, the use of social

criteria of "low visual contact" between the teacher and the students [10].

164 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

tualization or theorization of the categories with greater concurrence began.

media or Web 2.0 has become an interesting resource for student learning.

**the process should be the north in classroom management**

**3.2. Dynamic decision-making based on student learning achievement throughout** 

Size is not a sufficient justification for teachers to not orient their practice toward student learning outcomes. Most interviewees stated that they take short- and long-term measures when they do not achieve the syllabus objectives or in a particular activity or generation of evidence. In a way they empathize and take responsibility for the results that their students achieve, but above all, they manage to reorient their actions. In this context, the processes of feedback and

Each of the criteria was then reviewed and conceptualized.

**environment for learning**

Not always the topics of the course are liked by all students, especially in areas that may be more abstract and less motivating. A relevant fact is how teachers select and use examples and situations of contingency in order to promote motivation, linkage, and meaningfulness with the content or learning that is being intended in students. The above not only at an intellectual level but also at an emotional or empathic level with the situation being exemplified and its intrinsic link with learning. Some representative quotes were "*…in the day-to-day I am always looking for examples to use in my course. For me it is key to choose good examples not only able to cover the content that I am delivering, but also to engage students to learn*"; "*Students respond not just because they want to learn. They need to know how knowledge can be used in everyday life…*"; "*My students are not alien to reality and to the contingency…of what is happening around them. In one way or another, it affects their lives…so choosing good examples of reality will help them understand their environment and make learning meaningful…*"; "*When I start the course I realize that students are not able to relate contents to reality…it is as if they lived in parallel realities. When I gradually explain using everyday examples, they discover a new world and commit to the course. Hence, the importance I give in selecting good examples…*"; *and* "*Several years ago, in the evaluations that I applied in the course, rather than asking the students to answer questions, I gave them topics that they should exemplify, relate and analyze with facts of national and international contingency…it has given me very good results…*".

This represents better communication skills not only over the average of teachers but also in the effective and relevant selection of examples capable of linking students' motivation with the contents and learning of the course.

#### **3.4. Promotion in the generation of networks of support and collaboration intra- and extracurricular (both between students and teachers) favors the quality of learning**

Teachers use the positive effect of collaborative networks, both in and out of the course. Within the course, there are multiple actions, but some stand out, such as peer instruction, collaborative work, and projects, among other initiatives. In the case of courses that have more than one teacher, they generate actions of reciprocal collaboration with students in smaller groups, especially in learning experiences where they demand the resolution of professional challenges. Outside the course, teachers commonly promote collaboration with former students of the course or simple contact with professionals of the same or other disciplines, with the purpose of broadening the look beyond the course and the generation of networks that facilitate the initial labor insertion. Some representative quotes were "*The work done by the students through collaboration, both inside and outside the classroom, has been vital … I notice it when interacting in the social media of the course and when jointly solving the work that I request. I usually organize groups randomly and reconfigure them two or three times during the course. This way I assure they generate networks, collaborate and are able to cope with the course…*"; "*My class is in a large auditorium…and although it seems difficult, what I do most is instruction between peers. Even on some occasions, I have placed themselves in different positions inside the auditorium so that they rotate the work-groups … I see how students' motivation, engagement and achievement increases…*"; "*…at the end of each topic, I ask students to interview professionals from their own discipline to compare the contents of the course and to generate professional links that promote understanding of how to insert themselves in the professional context…this helps the students to be responsible with their own learning and collect experiences or situations to be shared during the class*"; *and* "*When my students understand and realize that we are a learning community during the course, there are really significant changes in their performance…it is interesting to see how their behavior changes and how they take more responsibility for learning, especially in moments that I make them interact with key stakeholders outside the course…*".

Active learning must be one of the central pillars in class planning in large courses. To make

Large Courses at Universities: Criteria for Teacher Action http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72674 167

All the criteria that have been identified in this chapter are possible to apply in small courses and are not exclusive to large group activities. So, what must be especially considered in

It seems to us that the relevance lies in when, where, and how the teaching and learning process is implemented and managed. Consequently, the problem is not in size, but in the choice of strategies to use and how they are managed in the classroom to raise the quality of learning

Another issue to be considered is related to the use of technologies and its usefulness to tackle large courses. Above all, the use of everyday applications or those easy to access—such as social media—can cause significant differences when developing environments that promote effective learning. It should be noted that technologies do not solve all the challenges that come with large courses, but they manage to solve a significant group of them, such as interaction, communication, and individual monitoring that can be developed with these tools.

First, it should be remembered that large courses are common in institutions of higher education. Therefore, before continuing to renege on the disadvantages and drawbacks of this real-

However, the role of educational research is vital, especially in the understanding of how to make these kinds of classes more effective, considering the current and future cultural characteristics of students who will enter higher education. Increasingly, the demands for quality education and teaching encourage us to have better and greater tools to meet this challenge. Finally, it is the task of the whole university community to face the challenge of making the classroom, the teaching, and the learning processes of the twenty-first century more meaningful in higher education. The problem is not the size of classes, but how we are supporting the current and future generation of students who attend our universities for a training that effectively prepares them to face their professional future and the challenges of society.

This work was supported by the National Commission for Science and Technology (CONICYT)

of the Chilean Ministry of Education, under Grant FONDECYT No. 11150794.

ity, it is necessary to innovate on how it is possible to better assume this challenge.

learning happen, the student must do more than just listen to the teacher.

classes where the size becomes more of a problem than a challenge to be faced?

**4. Conclusions**

in the vast majority of students.

**5. Final thoughts**

**Acknowledgements**

As part of any course, the interaction between students, through various methodologies or extracurricular activities, must be planned and strengthened, in order to positively impact their learning.

#### **3.5. Promotion of permanent cognitive participation of students during class improves achievement in learning**

Beyond the course size, these teachers permanently ask their students' involvement and not just to attend as passive listeners. Usually, they ask students small but permanent actions that imply them to respond, think, propose, or elaborate, which is manifested in some type of evidence or learning product. These actions are permanently generated within the same class session and throughout the period in which the course is dictated. This is based on the perception of these teachers in maintaining students' attention as long as possible, which leads to better results. Some representative quotes were "*…or via clickers or One Minute Paper session-by-session, I have my students constantly mobilizing what we review in class, otherwise, what purpose has that they just sit and listen?…*"; "*In several sessions I use Flipped Classroom. Therefore, they already know that they must come to classes to apply or to solve exercises that will be part of their assessment. Many times I also do it to integrate several contents. The idea is that they are in constantly aware and attentive to learn…*"; *and* "*The traditional idea of going to class to sit and listen simply does not respond to the current needs in the development of skills. By having a large group of courses, I want to involve the vast majority of students, and not everyone can speak at the same time. That's why I integrate activities where they have to connect with what I expose in classes…*".

Active learning must be one of the central pillars in class planning in large courses. To make learning happen, the student must do more than just listen to the teacher.
