**Conflict of interest**

Even though such listings of barriers exist that affect women's options and achievements, more research on systems by which social expectations and beliefs contribute to women's professional behaviour is required. It would not only increase the understanding of women's career development, but would also help in the design of systematic programs of intervention which are capable of increasing women's statuses within their professional careers [17].

In conclusion, gender inequality does not only originate in beliefs, self-confidence and values, but also in obstructions derived from the social cultures that educate scientists themselves. To reduce gender inequality in science, it is not only important to change women's attitudes and aspirations, but there is also a need for actions that would change the structural systems that are still in favour of the male scientists [67]. It is necessary to determine what it is about structural systems that make them well-suited to men's lives. So far, many university strategies have failed to assist in the combined roles of family life and work. Male-dominated leadership in academic institutions often fail to consider women-friendly policies and practises and women are expected to adjust to the norms which do not accommodate their differences [34]. On average only 28% of research performing organisations within the EU in 2015 had gender equality plans for example [6]. The more modern view is that in fact institutions should become more work-life balance and more understanding of the needs of their academics whether male or female. Changes in many societies mean that roles outside of the workplace are also changing. The differing roles expected from males and females undertaking the same job descriptions are also very complex and might put women at a disadvantage in relation to promotion and career advancement. Work towards recognising the differing roles and rewarding them appropriately, or giving the same opportunities for men and women need to be fostered by not only the universities but also grant funding agencies, journals and similar

Looking across the decades, views have changed radically. An interesting progression is the awareness that there has been a gender gap in the STEMM subjects and that this needs to be rectified via a number of different routes. Both small and large scale studies are being carried out in differing countries to see where the differences lie. Transparency is being encouraged and in many cases equality is being rewarded or simply an expected part of processes such as

CPPD plays an important role in addressing some of the challenges observed. Whether it is educational courses directed at both men and women such as equality training and management courses, or CPPD directed at women, getting the right balance of CPPD is essential. Undertaking too much or inappropriate CPPD in lieu of achieving grants and publications might inadvertently slow career advancement. By contrast, not being able to access appropriate CPPD might also deter progression. The ASSET report highlighted the need to make appropriate mentors, supportive and career progressive networks, and CPPD available for all staff [3]. Recent research suggested that female only programmes may in fact support stereotypes and care must be taken when developing programmes in STEM [68]. Pedagogical techniques, availability of training and education for academics and those in related roles are all essential in helping to close gender gaps across the board and in changing perceptions of

Although this was stated in 1981, it is still largely true now.

262 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

organisations that ultimately impact upon careers and esteem factors.

academic roles, peer review, pay and when hiring staff.

STEMM academic roles.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
