3. Orality in the preschool curriculum

#### 3.1. Key principles and objectives

Regarding the systematic research of talk, two models of communication have been proposed. The Transmission Model of Communication views oral discourse as a medium for the transmission of information between a sender and a receiver. Although this model is held in high regard in educational practice, it fails to penetrate the complexity of oral discourse [9]. The second model, the Dialogic Model [10] draws on Piaget and Vygotsky and their constructive process of discourse. According to the Dialogic Model, understanding between interlocutors is constructed through dialog and is shaped by the social and cultural context. Hence, talk is a

The dialogic model is connected to Volosinov and Bakhtin, according to whom utterances and responses constitute a chain of interlinked verbal events [9]. "Bakhtin suggests that dialogues are set up within utterances by our taking on and reproducing other people's voices either directly through speaking their words as if they were our own, or through the use of reported speech". Notwithstanding this appropriation of other people's voices, subjects retain responsibility for their choices [11]. Miller identifies nonlinguistic knowledge, as opposed to linguistic rules, as the main medium for understanding utterances. Furthermore, for effective communication to occur, it is vital that interlocutors wish to be understood. Understanding another person's utterances is a problem-solving process. Lack of cooperation in identifying and

According to Volosinov, words are ideological signs that emerge from the social contact between individual consciousnesses. They are the purest and the most sensitive means of social contact. Their main property is that, despite their interindividual nature, they are produced with the means possessed by the individual organism. Therefore, words constitute the semiotic content of individual consciousness. At the same time, words cannot be isolated from the specific social conditions in which they developed; in other words, they cannot exist as pure natural constructs.

By the same standards, comprehension is viewed as the result of interaction between a speaker and a listener. The nature of true understanding is dialogic. Meaning does not belong to a word itself, nor does it reside in either the speaker's or the listener's psyche. Rather, it is the result of a speaker-listener interaction produced through the content of a particular complex of phones. Like an electric spark, which can only be generated when two opposite poles come into contact, the electricity of verbal contact provides the word with the light of meaning [13]. For Vygotsky, Bakhtin, and Volosinov, language is socially and culturally shaped, and its use

Conversation is the principal day-to-day linguistic behavior. The conversation analysis method was developed in 1970 in order to explore how ordinary daily behavior is perceived. Recognizing the fluid nature of conversation, conversation analysts study the way in which interlocutors perceive structure and coordinate their behavior so that effective verbal exchange can exist.

The key concepts of conversation analysis are coordination and collaboration. The operation of these concepts resembles that of nonverbal communication. For example, when one person wishes to give an object to another person, the outcome of the action is dependent on the two persons' collaboration. Participants in verbal communication behave in a similar way. Their behavior is familiar and predictable in its structure so that a communicatively successful

solving problems would render language a worthless communication tool [12].

complete system of cooperative understanding.

234 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

bears particular value judgments and commitments.

outcome can be achieved.

Primary education curricula on language explicitly acknowledge that effective verbal communication can be stimulated by implementing appropriate strategies. The main objective is to enable students to use situation-appropriate language and to build critical awareness of linguistic uses and functions. The key principles of the cross-thematic curriculum are childcenteredness, active learning, exploratory learning, group work involving action and talk, and the teacher's role as co-explorer or mentor.

The Greek kindergarten curriculum on language focuses on the gradual acquisition of language and knowledge by encouraging the exchange of messages. Communication permeates all the learning domains of the curriculum, facilitating an interactive and multi-sensory learning process. A holistic approach to language is adopted which views language as an integrated whole comprising of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. This approach is based on continuity theories, according to which oral and written speech exist on a continuum [14]. Curriculum designers examined language curricula from other European countries and took into account research findings [15–17]. According to these, kindergarten can play a crucial role in preventing school failure, which, for young learners, is mainly associated with unfamiliarity with linguistic aspects of written discourse, as is often the case with children from unprivileged educational and social backgrounds. Furthermore, the curriculum drew on the Nuffield Science and Humanities Curriculum projects implemented by the British Schools Council in the 1960s and 1970s [8].

Admission to kindergarten inevitably means that new demands are made on the verbal communication the child has developed within the family and the wider social context. At this stage, family literacy plays a decisive role. According to the Greek Interdisciplinary Curriculum Framework [18], diverse communicative situations are created in the kindergarten classroom to encourage children to talk in order to:


Verbal communication in kindergarten does not exhaust itself in intentional pre-planned activities. Rather, it is a universal, unscheduled process of child-to-teacher and child-to-child interaction, which occurs during all curricular activities. Through oral communication, children learn to adhere to adult conventions [19]. They are taught to participate in discussions, taking turns as speakers and listeners. They learn to listen without interrupting their interlocutors and to speak at the right moment taking into account what has been said. Listening refers to the child's ability to follow spoken stimuli. It is an active, systematic, and productive activity. According to Stasinos [20], active listening is regarded as critical to the development of all linguistic skills.

tool for approaching the other school subjects. Humanities and educational visits to cultural sites provide opportunities for children to understand the world around them. According to Wyse et al., there is factual evidence that historical understanding develops as a direct result of speaking, through immediate discussion and observation. In order to build a class which includes a variety of speaking and listening activities related to different kinds of discourse, one must admit that there are different kinds of knowledge, teaching, and learning [23].

Oral Communication Skills and Pedagogy http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70831 237

Children's avid interest in knowing the world around them is a major incentive to learn in early childhood. Learning presupposes the existence of: (a) a safe environment, which is rich in stimuli, and in which children become active, explore, develop ideas, and construct knowledge and (b) forms of interaction with peers and adults (scaffolding), which influence children's

International education bodies stress that priority must be given to active, experiential, and collaborative learning. Teaching language differs significantly from teaching other subjects. Nevertheless, since language is directly related to human thought, it permeates all learning domains. For this reason, the implementation of the communicative methodology for teaching language can help produce positive learning outcomes. The two axes that constitute language, vocabulary (concepts-meanings-words), and the organization of vocabulary into meaningful combinations by means of grammatical and syntactic structures, should be

The influence of sociolinguistics and applied linguistics on teaching methodology has led to the connection of language as a school subject with the concepts of communication and communication situation. The linguistic system is part of a socio-cultural theory, which defines the parameters that affect linguistic use on different occasions: participants, social context, topic, and function [24]. The sociolinguistic background of each learner in the classroom plays a crucial role in the learning process. Language variation is associated with diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and it is identified, analyzed, interpreted, and exploited [25]. The communicative method is adopted in language teaching. According to it, all parameters of language teaching start with learners using the language and are aimed at improving linguistic competence. Children should be able to gain an insight into the mechanism of linguistic function and to practice its diversified use so that they can achieve the desired communicative outcome in each communication situation [26]. According to the communicative approach, superior or inferior linguistic forms do not exist. Indeed, linguistic superiority is a fallacy, which is not based on scientific findings. It is also a misconception, which can have pedagogically disastrous effects by promoting linguistic and social inequality in the

Language is the main tool in the learning process. Especially for preschool children, verbal communication and play are the chief modes of expression and the tools that help them learn and develop. During play, children talk to themselves and their peers. Language becomes a means of making friends and sharing the imaginary worlds that children create. Play itself is enriched through language. Its scope extends, making it more complex, and diverse. Nonnative

3.2. The educator's role in curriculum implementation

linguistic and mental abilities.

taught communicatively.

school context.

A major skill which should be developed is active listening, which constitutes a complex parameter of communication rather than a natural effortless hearing process. According to the Speech Communication Association, listening is the process of receiving and assimilating ideas and information from spoken messages. Effective listening encompasses both the literal and the critical understanding of information and ideas, which are conveyed through oral communication [21]. Listening is an active process. It is a conscious choice and it can be learnt. Listening culture can improve through memory improvement exercises, knowledge acquisition, and deliberate listening actions. At the same time, the listening process can be hindered by the listening subjects themselves. This is often the case with listeners who do not really listen but pretend to do so, selective listeners, and self-centered listeners who consider themselves the center of each and every transaction or activity [21]. Preschool children fall into the last category: their mode of thinking is typically self-centered [22], and pedagogues are called upon to handle this tendency.

Listening is probably the most important dimension of effective verbal communication. Its pedagogical value lies in the fact that in the early stages of learning, children tend to understand more easily by listening than by reading. Through listening, learners are exposed to a broad spectrum of experiences, which help them develop their linguistic potential. Active listening skills promote information collection, evaluation of situations, empathy, acceptance of persons and ideas. In addition, listening can provide pleasure. Nonetheless, despite its key role in communication, listening remains the least taught of all basic skills.

Preschool education and care provides ample opportunity for children to develop oral communication. Various activities are implemented to this end, such as:


The aim of the language curriculum is twofold. On the one hand, the curriculum focuses on the development of language as a distinct learning domain. On the other, it views language as a tool for approaching the other school subjects. Humanities and educational visits to cultural sites provide opportunities for children to understand the world around them. According to Wyse et al., there is factual evidence that historical understanding develops as a direct result of speaking, through immediate discussion and observation. In order to build a class which includes a variety of speaking and listening activities related to different kinds of discourse, one must admit that there are different kinds of knowledge, teaching, and learning [23].

#### 3.2. The educator's role in curriculum implementation

activity. According to Stasinos [20], active listening is regarded as critical to the development of

236 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

A major skill which should be developed is active listening, which constitutes a complex parameter of communication rather than a natural effortless hearing process. According to the Speech Communication Association, listening is the process of receiving and assimilating ideas and information from spoken messages. Effective listening encompasses both the literal and the critical understanding of information and ideas, which are conveyed through oral communication [21]. Listening is an active process. It is a conscious choice and it can be learnt. Listening culture can improve through memory improvement exercises, knowledge acquisition, and deliberate listening actions. At the same time, the listening process can be hindered by the listening subjects themselves. This is often the case with listeners who do not really listen but pretend to do so, selective listeners, and self-centered listeners who consider themselves the center of each and every transaction or activity [21]. Preschool children fall into the last category: their mode of thinking is typically self-centered [22], and pedagogues are called upon to handle this tendency. Listening is probably the most important dimension of effective verbal communication. Its pedagogical value lies in the fact that in the early stages of learning, children tend to understand more easily by listening than by reading. Through listening, learners are exposed to a broad spectrum of experiences, which help them develop their linguistic potential. Active listening skills promote information collection, evaluation of situations, empathy, acceptance of persons and ideas. In addition, listening can provide pleasure. Nonetheless, despite its key

role in communication, listening remains the least taught of all basic skills.

munication. Various activities are implemented to this end, such as:

• Free announcements and discussions during circle time.

• Routine teacher-student interactions.

• Reading and narrating stories. • Elaborating on various topics.

• Describing pictures and posters. • Describing objects and events.

• Instructions and rules.

• Role-play. • Interviews.

• Reciting poems.

Preschool education and care provides ample opportunity for children to develop oral com-

• Describing fictional or real portraits, for example, Ms. Owl; Maria's grandmother.

The aim of the language curriculum is twofold. On the one hand, the curriculum focuses on the development of language as a distinct learning domain. On the other, it views language as a

all linguistic skills.

Children's avid interest in knowing the world around them is a major incentive to learn in early childhood. Learning presupposes the existence of: (a) a safe environment, which is rich in stimuli, and in which children become active, explore, develop ideas, and construct knowledge and (b) forms of interaction with peers and adults (scaffolding), which influence children's linguistic and mental abilities.

International education bodies stress that priority must be given to active, experiential, and collaborative learning. Teaching language differs significantly from teaching other subjects. Nevertheless, since language is directly related to human thought, it permeates all learning domains. For this reason, the implementation of the communicative methodology for teaching language can help produce positive learning outcomes. The two axes that constitute language, vocabulary (concepts-meanings-words), and the organization of vocabulary into meaningful combinations by means of grammatical and syntactic structures, should be taught communicatively.

The influence of sociolinguistics and applied linguistics on teaching methodology has led to the connection of language as a school subject with the concepts of communication and communication situation. The linguistic system is part of a socio-cultural theory, which defines the parameters that affect linguistic use on different occasions: participants, social context, topic, and function [24]. The sociolinguistic background of each learner in the classroom plays a crucial role in the learning process. Language variation is associated with diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and it is identified, analyzed, interpreted, and exploited [25]. The communicative method is adopted in language teaching. According to it, all parameters of language teaching start with learners using the language and are aimed at improving linguistic competence. Children should be able to gain an insight into the mechanism of linguistic function and to practice its diversified use so that they can achieve the desired communicative outcome in each communication situation [26]. According to the communicative approach, superior or inferior linguistic forms do not exist. Indeed, linguistic superiority is a fallacy, which is not based on scientific findings. It is also a misconception, which can have pedagogically disastrous effects by promoting linguistic and social inequality in the school context.

Language is the main tool in the learning process. Especially for preschool children, verbal communication and play are the chief modes of expression and the tools that help them learn and develop. During play, children talk to themselves and their peers. Language becomes a means of making friends and sharing the imaginary worlds that children create. Play itself is enriched through language. Its scope extends, making it more complex, and diverse. Nonnative children try to speak their friends' language so that play can occur. On the whole, during play, children build their linguistic skills [27].

selected kindergarten classrooms in Athens, Greece. Due to the size of the sample, the results

Oral Communication Skills and Pedagogy http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70831 239

The teaching aid used was the 1995 UNESCO poster entitled the United Nations Year for Tolerance (see Appendix A). Selected to introduce children to the concept of diversity and engage them in discussion, the poster is a conceptual representation of tolerance and appreciation of social and cultural diversity. Persons and their facial characteristics are represented by colored shapes, elements which preschool learners are already familiar with. Building on this pre-existing knowledge, the educator aims to communicate the central idea: that, besides differences, there are also similarities between people, and that the latter carry greater significance and are related to universal values. With their teacher's assistance, students are asked to observe, think about and present their ideas on the topic. The analysis of the recorded discussions is presented below, highlighting the communication strategies employed by teachers in

• Which specific strategies result in children being more productive in oral discourse?

order to meet curricular goals (For transcripts of the discussions see Appendix B).

The first educational practice involves the educator presenting the poster and asking the students to observe it. Clear short questions and exclamatory utterances are used to encourage students to actively participate in the learning process: "Which ones are round? Come and show us", "Ah! What's this round thing here?", "Wow! That's a little round nose". The prompt "Come and show us too" results in children's involvement and active participation in the learning process. Children respond, observe, and express themselves, while the teacher reconstructs their responses, communicating the intended meaning: "Although different, they're all little mouths, aren't' they?", "So, kids, we can see that all these little people are different but they're all little people, aren't they? The same way that children are different, as we said, but they're all children". This is an effective educational practice in that learners become actively involved in the process, express themselves, and become acquainted with the concept of respecting diversity. The second educational practice involves a different educational event. The teacher makes a rather abrupt introduction, which fails to offer additional input and create a positive learning setting. The educator asks: "What can you see in this poster?". The students respond each in turn and often repeat each other's response. S1: "I can see funny faces", S2: "I can see funny faces", S3: "I can see funny masks", S4: "I can see funny masks". The teacher goes on by asking: "Who can tell me how this masks are made, what do these funny faces have, what do these faces have, and can you imagine how they're made?" This is a long, complex question with ambiguous subjects and multiple desiderata. As a result, children respond hesitantly, uttering one-word responses and copying one another. The teacher's next question contradicts a previous statement: "…to begin with, have we all agreed they're faces?" This causes uncertainty and perplexes students, who do not respond at all. The teacher continues to perplex children by posing an unclear, rather vague question: "What makes you think these are faces and not something else?" Then, she proceeds from the description of the shapes to that of real children, in an unclear manner, further confusing her students: "Kids, guys, REAL kids" and once again she resorts to a double question: "Real kids, what do they have in common and what don't they?". The students fail to respond. Evidently, subjecting preschool children to

cannot be extrapolated. The analysis focuses on two questions:

• Which communication models are implemented by educators?

The adoption of specific teaching practices is an important issue, given that pedagogues, both as former students and as teachers, come from a text-centered system of developing and teaching language. According to research, classroom time occupied by students' oral discourse is extremely little. Classroom observation and analysis leads to Flanders' [28] law of 2/3, according to which 2/3 of school time are occupied by someone speaking, 2/3 of this time is occupied by teachers speaking, 2/3 of this speaking is a monolog, etc. Educators are role models for oral communication behavior both as listeners and speakers. It does not follow, however, that the teacher's discourse should be the dominant voice in the school classroom.

According to Montessori, a good kindergarten teacher remains silent, giving children ample time in order to develop their own thinking and talk. A good teacher knows how to stand in the wings, allowing students to develop their verbal communication with them, and most importantly, with their peers. He or she provides scaffolding to promote learning, gradually passing power, knowledge, and autonomy from themselves to the students [29]. The purpose is to encourage children to build a community and develop communication relationships, rather than participate in teacher-learner communication based on question-response sequences. Educators and other adults in the school environment can serve a significant role in students developing orality.

In this respect, teacher effectiveness is associated with the teacher's use of language. In addition, it is related to the educator planning discussions, respecting students' language, and helping them to realize the value of conversation. For any student to express themselves, it is imperative that the school invite them to a learning community through diverse communicative situations. The existence of scenarios is instrumental in engaging students in conversation. In order to express themselves, preschool children must have something to say; they must feel welcome to participate in conversation and be adequately supported by the teacher.

Being a role model for students, the educator plays a crucial part in the process of communication and dialog. As Friedrich notes, educators can obstruct dialog with their actions. This usually occurs when the educator commands, threatens, preaches, criticizes, makes negative comments, advises too much, swears, ridicules, insults, or forbids. In contrast, the teacher can promote dialog when he knows how to listen and observe, identify and understand emotions, make clear, comprehensible and reasoned announcements, conduct symmetrical dialog with students, and when he or she is genuine in the communication process [30]. According to Fairclough, "the development of children's language capabilities should proceed through bringing together their existing abilities and experiences, their growing critical awareness of language, and their growing capacity to engage in purposeful discourse" [31].
