**3. Types of pedagogy in clinical education**

There are essentially two different investigative positions one can employ to analyse pedagogy in relation to curriculum design and teaching methodologies within the environments of medical schools. That is to say, we can look at the variance of pedagogical strategies between subjects, or within subjects themselves. In a very basic manner, one can simplify these areas down to the following binary set:

Moreover, there is scope for research about clinical pedagogy to provide a focus on new teaching pedagogies that are present across different areas of medicine, and or other clinical subjects combined, such as simulation [34]. There is also scope for subjects that simply address the use of pedagogical techniques that are less used in medicine, such as the flipped classroom models of teaching [35]. In addition, other cross-curriculum themes that cannot be ignored include: the connection of pedagogy to assessment format within medical schools, the role of reflection, feeding back and feeding forward [36]. In the next section, we will look at some specific examples of how pedagogies have been developed in clinical subjects both in

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As a discipline public health is concerned with influencing and understanding health and wellbeing at the level of populations [37]. Given the wide reaching nature of public health practice, it involves more clinical staff than simply doctors, with undergraduate and postgraduate programs producing a multidisciplinary workforce including nurses, dentists, car-

Literature exists that gives an overview of population health such as Young [38], however like many, Young investigates the subject from a quantitative, epidemiological perspective. There is a distinct lack of literature that connects the qualitative aspect of education (including pedagogy) to public health, primarily qualitative works on public health are based in a social science approach [39], that contextualise populations health issue in relation to a societal issue,

In recent years, the subject discipline has risen to prominence, but there has not been a concurrent increase in the teaching of the subject within medical schools. Therefore, it remains under-researched in terms of developing an evidence-based pedagogic strategy for teaching the subject. In addition, the teachers of the subject can be under-resourced in terms of the

One of the most practical ways to expose medical students to public and population health is to engage them with community health initiatives, especially disadvantaged or marginalised communities. I recognise, however, that public engagement happens across a spectrum, as

**1.** "Community-based medical education that takes place in traditional academic settings.

**2.** Public health engagement that involves teaching in community settings, but does not in-

**3.** Community-based public health education that directly involves directly members of a community in the design, conduct, and evaluation of engagement, and meets the needs of

ers, aid workers, biostatisticians and epidemiologists amongst others.

literature from which they can draw to successfully engage students.

volve the community in its design or any other activity.

the community as well as the students"

for example, *Public Health and Social Justice* by Donohoe [40].

terms of individual subjects but also in thematic areas.

**4. Emerging pedagogical perspectives**

**4.1. Pedagogies in population health**

Ellaway et al. [41] has highlighted:

	- **a.** Example: Pedagogies for Teaching Anatomy
	- **a.** Example: Pedagogies for teaching gendered issues in medicine

Included within these two categories are both the traditional subjects that students will have to learn which will typically draw upon standard pedagogical formats, lectures, group work etc. However, this dyad also reflects subjects that medical schools are currently adapting to incorporate. I.e. the themes are driven by innovations in medical schools to produce the doctors of the future [26]. For example, the increasing role of patient centred medicine, the increasing use of technology in the teaching of MOOCs, or other online/distant teaching platforms, in addition to mobile applications and E-health, i.e. health technology methodologies. This is why the division between subject and theme when providing an overview of a discipline is useful, as it shows not just what exists but also the struggle institutions face in adapting to new disruptive technologies [31] and so societal pressures.

#### **3.1. Individual subjects**

A variety of medical education texts exist that cover both generic subject areas, such as Understanding Medical Education—Evidence, Theory and Practice [21] or the Routledge International Handbook of Medical Education by Bin Abdulrahman, Mennin [32]. However, fewer books exist on subject-specific areas of medicine, for example, *Medical Physiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine* by Rhoades and Bell [33]. While a useful repository of medical knowledge for trainee or practising doctors about physiology, it does not offer new methods for teaching the subject or development of new material from within the subject itself. Consequently, as already iterated, while there are many papers on individual subjects there does seem to be space to explore new and innovative areas of medical pedagogy in book-format.

#### **3.2. Thematic texts**

In addition to pedagogical strategies that focus on individual areas of the curriculum, one could focus on themes that might emerge in several areas across a curriculum. For example, introducing social justice concerns, ethics or gender-related issues in medicine. Given the political and social environment within which medicine and medical education function, it is to be expected that there is a significant scope for the development of pedagogical strategies across thematic areas.

Moreover, there is scope for research about clinical pedagogy to provide a focus on new teaching pedagogies that are present across different areas of medicine, and or other clinical subjects combined, such as simulation [34]. There is also scope for subjects that simply address the use of pedagogical techniques that are less used in medicine, such as the flipped classroom models of teaching [35]. In addition, other cross-curriculum themes that cannot be ignored include: the connection of pedagogy to assessment format within medical schools, the role of reflection, feeding back and feeding forward [36]. In the next section, we will look at some specific examples of how pedagogies have been developed in clinical subjects both in terms of individual subjects but also in thematic areas.
