**2. Rationale for the chapter**

elective units during their education, the inclusion of material drawn from elective courses, and Student Select Units (SSUs) in medical schools is often missed in medical education text, as such, I will provide examples of pedagogies from these areas as well, in an attempt to

One can find texts that connect pedagogy to different clinical areas, for example, nursing [1, 2], which has had a focus on narrative pedagogical strategies [3, 4], but also has been approached from feminist, postmodern, and phenomenological perspective, see Ironside [5]. Equally one can find texts in dentistry that address matters of pedagogy [6], including works in sub-specialities like paediatric dentistry [7, 8]. Other clinical areas that have papers connecting them to pedagogy include social work [9], podiatry [10], and paramedic care [11] amongst others. Across the spectrum of medical subjects, one can find publications connected to pedagogy, which are taught as elective modules like the medical humanities [12] or more quintessentially 'medical' areas such as anatomy [13]. As well as specific techniques used within medical edu-

However, one format in which only a few key publications exist, which connects pedagogy with clinical education is the production of textbooks or monographs. This is significant because books provide in-depth and multiple author platforms to debate issues of pedagogy in a way that the length of an academic paper does not permit. Secondly, while research should be encouraged, it is not always obvious how to translate it directly into the actual practices of medical education. Therefore, while there are many research papers that one can read, there is a lack of practically-minded, in-depth monographs that connect clinical areas to pedagogy. Of the texts that exist I would specifically point to the recent work on nursing by Dyson [15]. However, there are also more specialised text like Sataloff [16] who connects

Despite the fact that research about pedagogy in clinical areas is not as prevalent an area of academic activity as perhaps it might be (even though works do exist), there are still some reasons to be optimistic about its future. For example, currently the timing and situation is fortuitous, as the regulator of doctors, and nurses, the General Medical Council (GMC) and Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) respectively (circa 2017), mandate that doctors and nurses actively participate in CPD activities in order to retain their licences to practice medicine/nursing [17, 18]. Meaning that, presently, there is an imperative for clinical professionals to engage in learning that did not previously exist and this opens up a new opportunity for

Also, from 2016 the British government has announced a 25% increase in the number undergraduate medical school places [19]. As such, there is currently a need for clinical tutors and academics to revise and reconsider their curriculums and approaches to pedagogy to accommodate 25% more students. More widely, I was felt that this chapter will be of interest to anyone involved in the development of healthcare professions. Primarily because most education and regulatory developments in other allied healthcare professions are predicated on issues

For the sake of brevity, in this chapter, we will specifically look at some emerging themes and subjects in medical education, including Public and Patient Involvement (PPI), public health

showcase the different roles pedagogy plays.

270 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

cation such as simulated learning [14].

pedagogy to the medicine of professional voice care.

the subject of clinical pedagogy to gain some relevance.

that first occur in medicine.

While there are several monograph series that draw upon both theoretical and practical issues in medical education [21, 22], the literature on pedagogy is almost exclusively confined to papers in academic journals; there are few book series dedicated to pedagogy in medicine or other clinical areas. Consequently, the author felt that there is a clear need for a book chapter to examine current issues and evidence related to pedagogy in medicine from a more practical standpoint. In this chapter, then, I aim to present the works of those who have attempted to construct evidence-based pedagogies in clinical areas. Also, to present some of the literature as it exists for readers and to signpost them to particular areas of interest. I collected this body of literature by drawing from purposive sampling techniques. According to Sparkes and Smith ([23]: p. 70) "sampling in qualitative research is best described as purposive or purposeful in which an attempt is made to gain as much knowledge as possible". Purposeful sampling involves the selection of data "from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the inquiry" ([24]: p. 230).

The need to develop pedagogy within medical education to facilitate changes in the way medicine is taught has been clearly identified. For example, the Lancet Commission in their report on medical education opined that medical school curricula were currently not fit to meet societal demands, and were "outdated and static" [25]. Developments in the pedagogy of clinical subjects can help to create the medical schools (and so curricula) fit for the twentyfirst century [26], through the dissemination of evidence-based pedagogies for instruction, for which there is clearly a demand both in terms of societal pressure and but also regulatory requirement. One of the key features of pedagogy's function within clinical subjects is that they can be co-produced with patient partners or with input from the public perspective, or from other clinical professionals [27–29]. However, medical educators perpetually have to be cognizant that their work and its content adheres to the stipulations of the General Medical Council, Medical Schools Council, the Anatomical Society and the College of Paramedics etc. who have a role in determining what the clinical students are taught. It is important in medicine and allied healthcare professions that pedagogies be developed in a highly inclusive manner and that are representative of a variety of stakeholders in medical and health professions education [30]. I hope to shine some light on these points in this chapter.
