**4. Research on teaching knowledge and the perspective of those who learn**

In the research done by [19], which concerns the meanings that students associate to the terms *Good Teachers and Bad Teachers*, using the technique of natural semantic networks, the authors highlight implicitly diverse categories of teaching knowledge contained in the everyday work of good teachers. These categories are synthesized by a distinctive feature expressed by a key word in the natural semantic network: knowledge, preparation, responsibility, intelligence, organization, committed, punctuality, trained, communicator, and emphatic; in the same way, the absence of teaching knowledge is expressed in the categories such as irresponsible, unpunctual, ignorant, lazy, disorganized, arrogant, unprepared, boring, and unjust. It can be established that, in every category belonging to a good teacher, teaching knowledge is constructed in the procedural order and is presented as a "know how" in the teaching of students.

In the same line of research, [23] describes expert teaching knowledge, being almost a form of art, which is described by Don Finkel in his proposal: Teach with the mouth closed. This work considers the subject of the genius teaching knowledge, on the part of a great teacher, *to teach with the mouth closed*; genius teaching knowledge entails according to this work, the avoidance of mere oral transmission, opting for innovating teaching methods. Hence, in this text, teaching knowledge emerges: "Let the great books speak" and "employ puzzles, paradoxes, and parables," because these methods lead to active and creative thinking, solving problems in the

Categorizing Teaching Knowledge from the Perspective of Students: Narratives...

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In contrast to the research already mentioned in [25], using the technique of observation carried out research on the teaching practices of those considered "the best evaluated teachers" at the Universidad de Vigo. The authors found that even among the best teachers there are some teaching practices which can be considered traditional, as they are focused on the contents or on the teacher. This might entail that any orthodox and strict proposal will convey teachers that even when considered to be good are also fallible and forcibly pushing the con-

According to [26], in school environments, linger unpredictability, multidimensionality, immediacy, uncertainty, and weak institutional frameworks concern what a teacher should know and do in the classroom; this conveys the need to question teaching knowledge and review current strategies so as to undergo a renovation of professional work. Furthermore, the authors state that the complexity and requirements that are currently demanded from teachers by school authorities result in greater workloads, provoking feelings of impossibility and frustration on their part, which make it harder to generate knowledge and school achievements. On the other hand, as stated by [27], teachers, in relation to their teaching knowledge, are facing difficulties. Every day they face a variety of difficulties, and with the help of this knowledge, they will arrive to possible solutions, not as a result of fast calculations or eliminations, but as the outcome of the analysis and reflection on problems of teaching and the most appropriate ways to solve them. Likewise, [28] adds to the discussion with the idea that teachers face multiple problems related to "how to teach," which arise suddenly and unexpectedly; when facing these situations, teachers possess a so-called practical knowledge, which is constituted of a series of mental images responding to these problems, and from these, teachers choose what they consider the most appropriate manner to respond and apply it to the said problem or unexpected issue. Following this same line of research, [17] proposes what he calls "pedagogical knowledge by default" which is a teaching knowledge "that has problems when facing the current conditions where teaching work is produced" (p. 28) and, adding to this, above all, at the moment when determining the possible alternatives to the difficulties of

In [29], the issue of the value of teaching work and the problems and frustrations related to it are addressed. This descriptive taken on this subject is first concerned with the teaching

classroom and transforming an oral class to an imaginative and alive class [24].

tent of their disciplines, giving the privilege to the teacher.

**5. The problem of teaching knowledge in schools**

teaching work.

Along the same lines, [20] present us with a portrait of a good university professor from the point of view of the students in Tunes, using the technique of the focus group; in this "portrait" behind the features of the said profile, some teaching knowledge traits are also delineated. The authors propose a research question: What qualities, both human and technical-professional, should have a university professor? The answers point toward three categories. *Personality features*: sympathetic, honest, patient, tolerant, kind, and flexible; *their relationship with the students*: good communicator, motivational, respectful, widely noting students, adopting a participative style, and accepts different learning rhythms; and *their relationship with their discipline and knowledge*: competent, expert in the language of the discipline, pedagogic strategies, cultivated, disciplined, etc.

Again, the point of view of the students is taken into account, this time in a categorization of the teaching knowledge in an investigation about those who are considered to be good university professors; concerning this, [21], using the same technique as [19] of natural networks, finds three groups of answers or categories in their networks. First group: respectful/ responsible; second group: sympathetic, emphatic, punctual, intelligent, and kind; and third group: precise, organized, and motivating. This research from [21] establishes that the teaching knowledge, which is part of the features of a good professor, is not present in clear-cut categories that are perfectly compartmentalized, but on the contrary are all intertwined; for example, the teaching and didactic knowledge from the third group unite with motivational skills and didactic attitudes, which are proper to the personality of the teacher.

Also in this topic, [22] researched on the proposals of what is considered a "good professor" at the Universidad de Sevilla, in order to maximize learning by their students; they found motivational strategies, reinforcement of student's progress, monitoring of partial achievements, organization strategies, and systematization of classes to highlight relevant content of orientation toward students. One of the key questions made for this research with an ethnographic approach, was: What do teachers and professors offer to facilitate learning of their discipline? This question linked teaching knowledge to the diverse teaching strategies and proposals of what are considered "good professors," aimed to improving academic performance.

In the same line of research, [23] describes expert teaching knowledge, being almost a form of art, which is described by Don Finkel in his proposal: Teach with the mouth closed. This work considers the subject of the genius teaching knowledge, on the part of a great teacher, *to teach with the mouth closed*; genius teaching knowledge entails according to this work, the avoidance of mere oral transmission, opting for innovating teaching methods. Hence, in this text, teaching knowledge emerges: "Let the great books speak" and "employ puzzles, paradoxes, and parables," because these methods lead to active and creative thinking, solving problems in the classroom and transforming an oral class to an imaginative and alive class [24].

In contrast to the research already mentioned in [25], using the technique of observation carried out research on the teaching practices of those considered "the best evaluated teachers" at the Universidad de Vigo. The authors found that even among the best teachers there are some teaching practices which can be considered traditional, as they are focused on the contents or on the teacher. This might entail that any orthodox and strict proposal will convey teachers that even when considered to be good are also fallible and forcibly pushing the content of their disciplines, giving the privilege to the teacher.
