**4. Understanding the potential roles of CPPD and the workplace in developing equality**

The differences between the roles, opportunities and perceptions of success were explored in the first half of this chapter. These are essential as studies have shown that they are key factors in academic STEMM subjects in career progression and equality.

There are several reasons that contribute to the gender inequality in academia and it has been suggested that these reasons go as far back as elementary school where boys naturally had more interest in studying science than girls. The study on 6th grade students from the United States 42% of girls enjoyed science compared with 63% of boys [43]. It was suggested that this could be one explanation as to why there are fewer females entering the scientific departments, and therefore fewer females possess higher positions within the department [43]. However, by contrast, the numbers show that women are entering STEM subjects in increasing numbers. Whilst there were large disparities in bachelor's degree and PhD level attainments between the sexes up until the 1960s, for many disciplines these disparities were reduced and in many disciplines the numbers of females achieving bachelor's degrees and PhDs had outnumbered the males by the 1980s and 1990s [44]. Therefore with the exception of a few subject areas (computer science, engineering and physical science), the numbers of women entering STEMM subjects are either equal or higher than males. This indicates that retention of females within STEMM subjects is the leading factor in the reduced number of women in academia, and not that females are not entering into STEMM subjects at school, degree, PhD or post-doctoral level.

to a depressed economy and therefore failing women's networks [49]. In addition, it has been suggested that 'evaluation must look at the desired result rather than simply participant satisfaction or opinion of professional development experiences' [50], and this is certainly the case for CPD relating to women in academia, but is also more difficult to assess than participant satisfaction. The third suggestion is that women might prefer to side-step the issue of a male dominated career and opt for freelance or consultancy instead [49]. The 'Athena Project' was set up in the UK and similar other programmes are in place worldwide to try and promote good practice within the medical and scientific field, as so many of the inequalities discussed above had been observed throughout scientific subjects within universities [7]. These projects use many methods to try and establish whether inequalities exist (often not just between the genders but also in a number of other factors) and to encourage equal opportunities and to

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A major aspect to be taken into account when planning the intervention is the time allocated to CPPD. One study showed that academics (lecturer through to professor) spent an average of 50.4 hours working per week split down into teaching 17.8 hours, research 15.9 hours, administration 10.2 hours, external work 1.7 hours, other work 3 hours and only 1.8 hours on professional development [45]. This average time allocation must either be taken into consideration when planning CPD courses, or institutes have to provide and expect a larger time allocation, otherwise only participants willing to give their 'free' time can participate in longer courses. In addition, academics might be required to undertake several different types of CPD within this time allocation, for example with the Royal College, many health care professions and for veterinary professionals, formal CPPD in teaching, research and/or management is required [51]. Professional CPD schemes often require a particular number of credits or hours in order to complete the annual requirement, this in turn might impact on the part/time worker (as explored above, this effect is more likely to be a female [2]) as more time is devoted to CPD and less to writing papers or gaining grants which, as was previously

reviewed, are perceived to be more important for career progression [18, 52].

conferences and (iii) self-directed learning [56].

The type of CPD is an important factor to consider. Riding and Agrell [53], suggested that learning preferences, such as the cognitive style, are mediated by gender. The link between gender and learning preferences has attracted attention and can be analysed by looking at approaches to studying. Some experiments concluded that there were no statistically significant differences between men and women and the types of learning orientations [54]. Conversely, others suggested from their studies that when it comes to information processing, men process more rapidly than women depending on the learning systems used [55]. Hence it is important when organising CPD, to use learning processes that appeal to both men and women [56]. It has also been suggested that the methods available are; (i) work based activities such as being a member of a team and resolving tasks, (ii) seminars, courses and

However, it has been suggested that a lack of CPD is not the reason for women not progressing through the system. It has been reported that more women took up CPD opportunities than men, despite lower numbers of women in academia [57]. There is also the compounding difficulty that a large variety of CPD activities are available in many different subject areas

recognise good practice.

The types of roles, such as teaching versus research, and their outcomes and time allocated to these activities are important. As are life balance and the opportunities afforded to each academic. The 5000 person strong academic survey indicated that the following three factors were ranked the highest in relation to influencing academic careers: (i) being involved in wellregarded projects, (ii) successfully applying for grants and (iii) having substantive research output [3]. By contrast, the highest markers for a less successful career were stated as (i) having a heavy administrative load, (ii) having a heavy teaching load and (iii) taking a career break. This knowledge is essential as ultimately, during the promotions and employment processes, it is academics making the decisions based on their perceptions and requirements for the role. Understanding of both the statistics and current situations for female academics, understanding of male and female perspectives and reflections regarding promotion and working conditions have helped to signpost the types of interventions and training opportunities required. These include CPPD to empower and enable women to advance through their careers in a manner appropriate to their working and personal conditions and needs [45]. Health professionals are kept updated to meet the needs of the health service, the patients and their own professional development by continuing professional development. It involves continuous attainment of new skills, knowledge and approaches to assist in quality performance [46].

#### **4.1. Exploring possible CPPD interventions and their success rates**

In the UK, the Equality Challenge Unit published reports from 2004 to 2010 [2, 47] and the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) also started an Equality Scheme in 2007 which is updated biannually [48], both with the aims of researching, highlighting and supporting good practice in higher education via women's networks, mentoring and career development. It would be unfair, however, to suggest that CPPD directives for women were not in place by 2004. A management development programme for women run by Strathclyde and Edinburgh Universities, which commenced in 1989, and reviewed female CPD initiatives run in the 1980s and 1990s describing that despite the work carried out, high satisfaction levels from participants and a high uptake of the courses, little perceptible change in the number of women at senior levels was observed [49]. One discussion point within the paper was that many women feel that single sex training is unfair to men and patronising to women, they also suggest that women might have less energy to pursue problems such as unequal pay due to a depressed economy and therefore failing women's networks [49]. In addition, it has been suggested that 'evaluation must look at the desired result rather than simply participant satisfaction or opinion of professional development experiences' [50], and this is certainly the case for CPD relating to women in academia, but is also more difficult to assess than participant satisfaction. The third suggestion is that women might prefer to side-step the issue of a male dominated career and opt for freelance or consultancy instead [49]. The 'Athena Project' was set up in the UK and similar other programmes are in place worldwide to try and promote good practice within the medical and scientific field, as so many of the inequalities discussed above had been observed throughout scientific subjects within universities [7]. These projects use many methods to try and establish whether inequalities exist (often not just between the genders but also in a number of other factors) and to encourage equal opportunities and to recognise good practice.

contrast, the numbers show that women are entering STEM subjects in increasing numbers. Whilst there were large disparities in bachelor's degree and PhD level attainments between the sexes up until the 1960s, for many disciplines these disparities were reduced and in many disciplines the numbers of females achieving bachelor's degrees and PhDs had outnumbered the males by the 1980s and 1990s [44]. Therefore with the exception of a few subject areas (computer science, engineering and physical science), the numbers of women entering STEMM subjects are either equal or higher than males. This indicates that retention of females within STEMM subjects is the leading factor in the reduced number of women in academia, and not that females are not entering into STEMM subjects at school, degree, PhD or post-doctoral

258 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

The types of roles, such as teaching versus research, and their outcomes and time allocated to these activities are important. As are life balance and the opportunities afforded to each academic. The 5000 person strong academic survey indicated that the following three factors were ranked the highest in relation to influencing academic careers: (i) being involved in wellregarded projects, (ii) successfully applying for grants and (iii) having substantive research output [3]. By contrast, the highest markers for a less successful career were stated as (i) having a heavy administrative load, (ii) having a heavy teaching load and (iii) taking a career break. This knowledge is essential as ultimately, during the promotions and employment processes, it is academics making the decisions based on their perceptions and requirements for the role. Understanding of both the statistics and current situations for female academics, understanding of male and female perspectives and reflections regarding promotion and working conditions have helped to signpost the types of interventions and training opportunities required. These include CPPD to empower and enable women to advance through their careers in a manner appropriate to their working and personal conditions and needs [45]. Health professionals are kept updated to meet the needs of the health service, the patients and their own professional development by continuing professional development. It involves continuous attainment of new skills, knowledge and approaches to assist in quality perfor-

In the UK, the Equality Challenge Unit published reports from 2004 to 2010 [2, 47] and the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) also started an Equality Scheme in 2007 which is updated biannually [48], both with the aims of researching, highlighting and supporting good practice in higher education via women's networks, mentoring and career development. It would be unfair, however, to suggest that CPPD directives for women were not in place by 2004. A management development programme for women run by Strathclyde and Edinburgh Universities, which commenced in 1989, and reviewed female CPD initiatives run in the 1980s and 1990s describing that despite the work carried out, high satisfaction levels from participants and a high uptake of the courses, little perceptible change in the number of women at senior levels was observed [49]. One discussion point within the paper was that many women feel that single sex training is unfair to men and patronising to women, they also suggest that women might have less energy to pursue problems such as unequal pay due

**4.1. Exploring possible CPPD interventions and their success rates**

level.

mance [46].

A major aspect to be taken into account when planning the intervention is the time allocated to CPPD. One study showed that academics (lecturer through to professor) spent an average of 50.4 hours working per week split down into teaching 17.8 hours, research 15.9 hours, administration 10.2 hours, external work 1.7 hours, other work 3 hours and only 1.8 hours on professional development [45]. This average time allocation must either be taken into consideration when planning CPD courses, or institutes have to provide and expect a larger time allocation, otherwise only participants willing to give their 'free' time can participate in longer courses. In addition, academics might be required to undertake several different types of CPD within this time allocation, for example with the Royal College, many health care professions and for veterinary professionals, formal CPPD in teaching, research and/or management is required [51]. Professional CPD schemes often require a particular number of credits or hours in order to complete the annual requirement, this in turn might impact on the part/time worker (as explored above, this effect is more likely to be a female [2]) as more time is devoted to CPD and less to writing papers or gaining grants which, as was previously reviewed, are perceived to be more important for career progression [18, 52].

The type of CPD is an important factor to consider. Riding and Agrell [53], suggested that learning preferences, such as the cognitive style, are mediated by gender. The link between gender and learning preferences has attracted attention and can be analysed by looking at approaches to studying. Some experiments concluded that there were no statistically significant differences between men and women and the types of learning orientations [54]. Conversely, others suggested from their studies that when it comes to information processing, men process more rapidly than women depending on the learning systems used [55]. Hence it is important when organising CPD, to use learning processes that appeal to both men and women [56]. It has also been suggested that the methods available are; (i) work based activities such as being a member of a team and resolving tasks, (ii) seminars, courses and conferences and (iii) self-directed learning [56].

However, it has been suggested that a lack of CPD is not the reason for women not progressing through the system. It has been reported that more women took up CPD opportunities than men, despite lower numbers of women in academia [57]. There is also the compounding difficulty that a large variety of CPD activities are available in many different subject areas and might range from half day courses through to qualifications such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE), masters' degree and even undertaking a further PhD in the area of education for example, whilst undertaking full time academic duties (in the STEMM areas) are now viable CPD options. This vast range makes assessing their impact (especially where people undertake a variety of these options), very difficult, especially on a long-term basis. This makes the statistics on the male:female ratios and income more important as long-term differences might indicate whether equality schemes, which usually emphasise CPD, have an effect or not. The types of CPPD offered to men and women might also have an impact on the roles that they take within the work place and on promotion. A recent study of 5000 academics from 43 British institutions showed that women reported that were more likely to be offered training in teaching than men, but less likely to be offered training in leadership, grant application skills, management, postgraduate supervision, project or finance management, equality and diversity and unconscious bias [3]. Women were also more likely to report more obstacles in undertaking CPPD than men. These included barriers such as time, obstructive management, cost, lack of eligibility, caring responsibilities and training not being relevant to position or offered within their institution [3].

time away from home and workload. Despite these more negative effects, 84% reported an increase in confidence [63]. A similar study looking at the PGCHE undertaken by university lecturers (and is increasingly a compulsory element for all new lecturers [64] as suggested by the Dearing Report [65] suggested that participants confidence levels were boosted [66] and that meeting people from throughout the university was also useful. Even this outcome might, in part, help towards the decreased confidence levels and potential reduction in networking abilities (from less attendance at international conferences) observed in previous

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This review chapter has drawn together research from many areas, both quantitative and qualitative to show that gender inequality is still an issue within scientific academia around the world. Large differences in pay, promotion, expectations, and requirements exist despite numerous laws and programmes being implemented, however it does appear small advances are being observed throughout academia, but at a slower rate in science, engineering and technology disciplines [5]. This chapter has also explored some possible reasons for, and solutions to, the gender inequality in STEMM – including CPD as a possible 'equality gap closing mechanism'. As with many CPD issues, understanding the links between effective and useful CPD and its effects on career progression are very difficult to

Further research is needed in order to explore the effects of CPD methods and the relationship between learning styles and gender [56]. Ideally long-term studies need to be carried out to observe whether CPD, and indeed which type of CPD, is useful in assisting with career progression. This type of research teamed up with large-scale quantitative and qualitative research understanding (such as the HEFCE research discussed) will help to understand the needs of both academics and the institutions. The type of CPD offered is also important as individuals prefer modes of learning which suit the way they process information (due to different needs and wishes of the individuals involved). Some women have expressed that they do not like 'women only' programmes, whereas these programmes are attended by other

Alongside CPD, a number of other factors might be influencing career progression including equality law, economics (CPD usually has a cost attributed to it), institutional aims and objectives, and indeed the wishes of the academics themselves. A key point to remember is that CPD can assist in redressing the gender imbalance, if appropriately designed courses are available to academics. Evidence has shown that CPD can increase confidence (a lack of which has been suggested as a reason for lack of progression among female academics [40]) and it is likely that CPD also affects many other important areas too. Within this context, it should also be important to reflect that CPD is not only essential for the academics involved, but also where research is a consideration there might be large areas of society affected in addition to the students that they teach, researchers within their group, their colleagues, school and

studies [7, 35, 40].

determine.

**5. Conclusions and future directions**

women in universities throughout the UK.

ultimately their higher education institute.

An interesting, and somewhat aligned study on school teachers working towards or completing a Masters' degree in education showed that personal commitment, workplace culture and organisation of the course all had an impact on whether this predominantly female (83%) group completed their degree or not [58]. This directly feeds back into the fact that women were less likely to feel supported or mentored in the workplace than men [7]. An important feature that could potentially decrease gender inequality is that women scientists should acquire mentoring and in turn, be effective mentors. This could be achieved by CPD courses that focus on mentoring opportunities [4]. Research in Australia has shown that mentoring programmes can have beneficial effects for women including retention of staff, higher rates of promotion, grant and paper success [59, 60]. These results were mirrored in American institutions where females received mentoring but whole department educational sessions on gender bias were introduced. Improvements in pay equity, promotion and staff satisfaction were reported [39, 61, 62]. Flexibility was also more important to female academics than male academics [7], and it would appear that flexibility (on teaching, course duration and assignment deadlines) was highlighted as something that helped participants to complete the educational masters' course too [58].

The work and home life balance was highlighted as possibly affecting female academics more than males [35], and this was also supported by another study evaluating predominantly female attended CPD courses [63]. The latter study carried out a questionnaire survey on 45 students to measure the impact of CPD on their private lives as well as their professional lives. The results showed that the females' response was much more positive (69% yes definitely, 29% some and 0% no, not really) than males (50% said yes, definitely, 40% some and 10% no, not really) regarding the impact of their training on their practise [63]. This showed that CPD had a much larger effect on females in their professional lives than males. Conversely, only half of their participants responded that carrying out CPD had 'little or no effect on their family life, relationships with partners or relationships with others' and 47% felt that their stress levels had been negatively affected due to time commitment, time away from home and workload. Despite these more negative effects, 84% reported an increase in confidence [63]. A similar study looking at the PGCHE undertaken by university lecturers (and is increasingly a compulsory element for all new lecturers [64] as suggested by the Dearing Report [65] suggested that participants confidence levels were boosted [66] and that meeting people from throughout the university was also useful. Even this outcome might, in part, help towards the decreased confidence levels and potential reduction in networking abilities (from less attendance at international conferences) observed in previous studies [7, 35, 40].
