**5. Conclusions and future directions**

and might range from half day courses through to qualifications such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE), masters' degree and even undertaking a further PhD in the area of education for example, whilst undertaking full time academic duties (in the STEMM areas) are now viable CPD options. This vast range makes assessing their impact (especially where people undertake a variety of these options), very difficult, especially on a long-term basis. This makes the statistics on the male:female ratios and income more important as long-term differences might indicate whether equality schemes, which usually emphasise CPD, have an effect or not. The types of CPPD offered to men and women might also have an impact on the roles that they take within the work place and on promotion. A recent study of 5000 academics from 43 British institutions showed that women reported that were more likely to be offered training in teaching than men, but less likely to be offered training in leadership, grant application skills, management, postgraduate supervision, project or finance management, equality and diversity and unconscious bias [3]. Women were also more likely to report more obstacles in undertaking CPPD than men. These included barriers such as time, obstructive management, cost, lack of eligibility, caring responsibilities and training

An interesting, and somewhat aligned study on school teachers working towards or completing a Masters' degree in education showed that personal commitment, workplace culture and organisation of the course all had an impact on whether this predominantly female (83%) group completed their degree or not [58]. This directly feeds back into the fact that women were less likely to feel supported or mentored in the workplace than men [7]. An important feature that could potentially decrease gender inequality is that women scientists should acquire mentoring and in turn, be effective mentors. This could be achieved by CPD courses that focus on mentoring opportunities [4]. Research in Australia has shown that mentoring programmes can have beneficial effects for women including retention of staff, higher rates of promotion, grant and paper success [59, 60]. These results were mirrored in American institutions where females received mentoring but whole department educational sessions on gender bias were introduced. Improvements in pay equity, promotion and staff satisfaction were reported [39, 61, 62]. Flexibility was also more important to female academics than male academics [7], and it would appear that flexibility (on teaching, course duration and assignment deadlines) was highlighted as something that helped participants to complete the educational

The work and home life balance was highlighted as possibly affecting female academics more than males [35], and this was also supported by another study evaluating predominantly female attended CPD courses [63]. The latter study carried out a questionnaire survey on 45 students to measure the impact of CPD on their private lives as well as their professional lives. The results showed that the females' response was much more positive (69% yes definitely, 29% some and 0% no, not really) than males (50% said yes, definitely, 40% some and 10% no, not really) regarding the impact of their training on their practise [63]. This showed that CPD had a much larger effect on females in their professional lives than males. Conversely, only half of their participants responded that carrying out CPD had 'little or no effect on their family life, relationships with partners or relationships with others' and 47% felt that their stress levels had been negatively affected due to time commitment,

not being relevant to position or offered within their institution [3].

260 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

masters' course too [58].

This review chapter has drawn together research from many areas, both quantitative and qualitative to show that gender inequality is still an issue within scientific academia around the world. Large differences in pay, promotion, expectations, and requirements exist despite numerous laws and programmes being implemented, however it does appear small advances are being observed throughout academia, but at a slower rate in science, engineering and technology disciplines [5]. This chapter has also explored some possible reasons for, and solutions to, the gender inequality in STEMM – including CPD as a possible 'equality gap closing mechanism'. As with many CPD issues, understanding the links between effective and useful CPD and its effects on career progression are very difficult to determine.

Further research is needed in order to explore the effects of CPD methods and the relationship between learning styles and gender [56]. Ideally long-term studies need to be carried out to observe whether CPD, and indeed which type of CPD, is useful in assisting with career progression. This type of research teamed up with large-scale quantitative and qualitative research understanding (such as the HEFCE research discussed) will help to understand the needs of both academics and the institutions. The type of CPD offered is also important as individuals prefer modes of learning which suit the way they process information (due to different needs and wishes of the individuals involved). Some women have expressed that they do not like 'women only' programmes, whereas these programmes are attended by other women in universities throughout the UK.

Alongside CPD, a number of other factors might be influencing career progression including equality law, economics (CPD usually has a cost attributed to it), institutional aims and objectives, and indeed the wishes of the academics themselves. A key point to remember is that CPD can assist in redressing the gender imbalance, if appropriately designed courses are available to academics. Evidence has shown that CPD can increase confidence (a lack of which has been suggested as a reason for lack of progression among female academics [40]) and it is likely that CPD also affects many other important areas too. Within this context, it should also be important to reflect that CPD is not only essential for the academics involved, but also where research is a consideration there might be large areas of society affected in addition to the students that they teach, researchers within their group, their colleagues, school and ultimately their higher education institute.

Even though such listings of barriers exist that affect women's options and achievements, more research on systems by which social expectations and beliefs contribute to women's professional behaviour is required. It would not only increase the understanding of women's career development, but would also help in the design of systematic programs of intervention which are capable of increasing women's statuses within their professional careers [17]. Although this was stated in 1981, it is still largely true now.

**Conflict of interest**

**Author details**

**References**

UK: Unit EC; 2017

2006;**4**(4):494-496

2001;**39**:153-174

Medical Education. 2007;**41**:909-914

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Aziza Alibhai, Mariam Moiz Saigar, Emilia Harding and Catrin Sian Rutland\*

School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

[1] Anderson J, Connolly S. Equal Measures: Investigating University Science Pay and Opportunities for Success. Research Briefing. UK Resource Centre for Women in Science, Engineering and Technology. The Athena Project. 2006. Available from: http://ensembleseu.metoffice.com/Gender\_Action\_Plan/UKRC\_Research\_Briefing\_Leaflet\_Athena.pdf

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[2] Equality Challenge Unit. Equality of Higher Education Statistical Report. UK: Unit EC; 2010

[3] Equality Challenge Unit. ASSET 2016: Experiences of Gender Equality in STEMM Academia and their Intersections with Ethnicity, Sexual Orientation, Disability and Age.

[4] Neugebauer KM. Keeping tabs on the women: Life scientists in Europe. PLoS Biology.

[5] Hague H. 9.2% of professors are women. Times Higher Education Supplement. 1999 May 28

[7] British Medical Association. Women in Academic Medicine: Developing Equality in Governance and Management for Career Progression. UK: British Medical Association; 2008

[8] Sandhu B, Margerison C, Holdcroft A. Women in the UK medical academic workforce.

[9] Graham JW, Smith SA. Gender differences in employment and earnings in science and

[10] Ash AS, Carr PL, Goldstein R, Friedman RH. Compensation and advancement of women in academic medicine: Is there equity? Annals of Internal Medicine. 2004;**141**(3):205-212

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[6] European Commission. SHE Figures 2015. Belgium: Innovation D-GfRa; 2015

\*Address all correspondence to: catrin.rutland@nottingham.ac.uk

In conclusion, gender inequality does not only originate in beliefs, self-confidence and values, but also in obstructions derived from the social cultures that educate scientists themselves. To reduce gender inequality in science, it is not only important to change women's attitudes and aspirations, but there is also a need for actions that would change the structural systems that are still in favour of the male scientists [67]. It is necessary to determine what it is about structural systems that make them well-suited to men's lives. So far, many university strategies have failed to assist in the combined roles of family life and work. Male-dominated leadership in academic institutions often fail to consider women-friendly policies and practises and women are expected to adjust to the norms which do not accommodate their differences [34]. On average only 28% of research performing organisations within the EU in 2015 had gender equality plans for example [6]. The more modern view is that in fact institutions should become more work-life balance and more understanding of the needs of their academics whether male or female. Changes in many societies mean that roles outside of the workplace are also changing. The differing roles expected from males and females undertaking the same job descriptions are also very complex and might put women at a disadvantage in relation to promotion and career advancement. Work towards recognising the differing roles and rewarding them appropriately, or giving the same opportunities for men and women need to be fostered by not only the universities but also grant funding agencies, journals and similar organisations that ultimately impact upon careers and esteem factors.

Looking across the decades, views have changed radically. An interesting progression is the awareness that there has been a gender gap in the STEMM subjects and that this needs to be rectified via a number of different routes. Both small and large scale studies are being carried out in differing countries to see where the differences lie. Transparency is being encouraged and in many cases equality is being rewarded or simply an expected part of processes such as academic roles, peer review, pay and when hiring staff.

CPPD plays an important role in addressing some of the challenges observed. Whether it is educational courses directed at both men and women such as equality training and management courses, or CPPD directed at women, getting the right balance of CPPD is essential. Undertaking too much or inappropriate CPPD in lieu of achieving grants and publications might inadvertently slow career advancement. By contrast, not being able to access appropriate CPPD might also deter progression. The ASSET report highlighted the need to make appropriate mentors, supportive and career progressive networks, and CPPD available for all staff [3]. Recent research suggested that female only programmes may in fact support stereotypes and care must be taken when developing programmes in STEM [68]. Pedagogical techniques, availability of training and education for academics and those in related roles are all essential in helping to close gender gaps across the board and in changing perceptions of STEMM academic roles.
