**5. Strategies for securing wildlife dispersal corridors in the KAZA TFCA**

To mitigate threats to the biodiversity and facilitate permeability of wildlife through the KAZA TFCA fragmented landscape, a combination of strategies would be essential to address these threats, as well as create the enabling incentives for the local communities to participate in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors. The following strategies (not necessarily listed according to importance) should be considered in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors in the KAZA TFCA.

#### **5.1. Restoring ecological processes**

The purpose of restoring the ecological process is to enable free movement of wildlife based on the natural factors, such as local population conditions (e.g. crowding and food availability), stochasticity (e.g. weather, species interactions/intra- and interspecific competition), phenology of the forage species, social systems and climate variability. These natural systems should be re-established by abating threats to the wildlife species and their habitats, through:

### *5.1.1. Strengthening transboundary law enforcement to effectively reduce poaching and illegal offtake of timber*

The anthropogenic threats discussed above fragment wildlife habitats and constrain free transboundary movement of wildlife. The most affected species in this regard is the African elephant, whose 65% of the total population of approximately 199,031 is concentrated in the Botswana component of the KAZA TFCA, primarily due to better law enforcement by the government of Botswana, which uses the military to protect the country's wildlife resources, and the human population is generally low, enabling the elephants to roam quite freely with-

The presence of large elephant population in the Botswana component of KAZA TFCA is however ecologically of great concern, more especially as most of them are concentrated in

in the riverfront of this park. Since elephants employ strategies such as bark stripping, breaking major branches and uprooting trees and shrubs when browsing [10, 11], there is concern that at high densities elephants will negatively affect plant community structure, function and

High numbers of elephants in the savannah ecosystems, such as those common in Botswana, have been implicated in the mortality of trees due to intensive forage and fire [14], reduction of seedling recruitment and promotion of grass production where trees are removed, as well as altering vegetation structure and nutrient cycling [15-17]. The disappearance of *Acacia* woodlands in the Chobe National Park, Botswana, is suspected to be due to the elephants' pressure in conjunction with other species, such as impala (*Aepyceros melampus*), which may

In view of the high concentration of elephants in Botswana, one of the ecological benefits of the KAZA TFCA is the re-establishment of the seasonal migration routes of the elephant to relinquish pressure in Botswana, alongside the other wide-ranging wildlife species (e.g. zebra, wildebeest, buffalo, etc.). The strategies discussed in the ensuing sections of this chapter are aimed at mitigating the anthropogenic threats to restore the ecological processes in the KAZA TFCA and enhance the socioeconomic well-being of the local communities who bear

To mitigate threats to the biodiversity and facilitate permeability of wildlife through the KAZA TFCA fragmented landscape, a combination of strategies would be essential to address these threats, as well as create the enabling incentives for the local communities to participate in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors. The following strategies (not necessarily listed according to importance) should be considered in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors in the KAZA TFCA.

The purpose of restoring the ecological process is to enable free movement of wildlife based on the natural factors, such as local population conditions (e.g. crowding and food availability),

especially

the Chobe National Park, resulting in local densities of about four animals per km<sup>2</sup>

prevent woodland regeneration and growth of seedlings due to foraging.

**5. Strategies for securing wildlife dispersal corridors in the** 

the opportunity cost of interacting with wildlife in this TFCA.

out significant conflicts with the human socioeconomic interests.

species richness [12, 13].

190 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

**KAZA TFCA**

**5.1. Restoring ecological processes**

In view of the high incidents of poaching, especially of high-value wild animals, such as elephant for their ivory, and offtake of hardwood timber, joint law enforcement operations in the KAZA TFCA should be a priority, focused on, among other, tactics:


fication of species targeted for illegal trade; collection, collation and analysis of information relevant to criminal exploitation of flora and fauna; and dissemination of this information to focal points in each partner country in a timely manner so that appropriate action can be taken to counteract illicit activities.

The Namibia Nature Conservancy has mapped and initiated the process of establishing the fishing protected zones in the Zambezi Region of Namibia (Denis Tweddle, *Pers com*), while the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) has mapped potential Fishing Protected Zones on Zambian side (Stratum V: Sesheke-Mambova Rapids) of the Zambezi River [20], within the

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As deforestation due to charcoal production is a major problem, especially on the Zambia side of the Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) WDC, promotion of efficient and

(i) Reducing dependence on wood fuel and ensuring sustainable provision of affordable and reliable modern sources, such as solar, biogas, photo-thermal applications, wind

(ii) Encouraging the establishment of forest plantations/woodlots in critically wood-deficit

• Training of charcoal producers in better organisation and management of charcoal pro-

• Developing stoves that are efficient and convenient to users and which produce mini-

• Ensuring that information on carbon emission levels and efficiency of stoves is dissemi-

• Facilitating participation of various stakeholders such as non-governmental organisations, industry, researchers and government departments responsible for energy in stove

The impact of veterinary fences should be reduced by adoption of the commodity-based trade (CBT) standards in the production of beef for the export market in the KAZA TFCA. CTB is based on the premise that deboned and properly matured beef from which visible lymph nodes have been removed is considered to present a 'very low' risk of transmitting foot-andmouth disease (FMD) and several other infectious agents [21, 22]. To ensure sanitary safety of the meat produced under CBT, a variety of proven risk amelioration methodologies should be

**b.** Veterinary authorities should require an international veterinary *certificate* attesting that

Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) wildlife dispersal corridor.

(iii) Improving the technology of charcoal production and utilisation by:

*5.1.4. Reduction of the impact of veterinary fences on the dispersing wildlife*

employed in the management of risk along the value chains, including:

**a.** Compulsory systematic vaccination of cattle for fresh meat of cattle.

the entire consignment of *meat* comes from animals that:

sustainable energy production should be done through:

energy and mini- and micro-hydropower

duction using the traditional kilns

nated to promote public awareness

development and dissemination

mum carbon emissions

areas

*5.1.3. Reduction of deforestation and habitat degradation in the wildlife dispersal corridors*


#### *5.1.2. Establishment of 'stepping stones' for the dispersing wildlife*

Stepping stone as used in this context denotes one or more separate patches of habitat in the intervening space between ecological isolates (such as protected areas) that provide resources and refuge to assist animals to move through the fragmented landscape [18]. Establishment of new 'stepping stones'/unfenced conservancies should be guided by objective assessment to determine the optimality for biodiversity conservation, using the following equation [2, 19]:

$$\text{BCOP} = \{ \text{BC-CC-(BA-CA)} \} \ge 0 \tag{1}$$

where, BCOP is the biodiversity conservation option, BC is the benefits of biodiversity conservation (e.g. estimated potential income from ecotourism; sustainable game meat production through ranching; payment for ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration/ estimated value of carbon credits; etc.), CC is the direct costs of conservation/management of the conservancies (e.g. surveillance, monitoring, etc.), BA is the benefits of alternative land use (e.g. pastoralism, commercial agriculture, subsistence agriculture, etc.) and CA is the costs of alternative land uses (pastoralism, agriculture, etc.)

Examples of stepping stones exist in the KAZA TFCA, such as the Game Management Areas in Zambia—managed in partnership between the local communities and the state—fenced Simalaha Community Conservancy in Zambia, unfenced Sekute Community Conservancy in Zambia and Community Conservancies in the Zambezi Region of Namibia. Besides these, there is potential for establishing fishing protected zones on the major rivers, such as the Zambezi, Chobe and Kafue rivers, which would serve the dual purpose of providing safety to the breeding fish and the wildlife crossing these river systems.

The Namibia Nature Conservancy has mapped and initiated the process of establishing the fishing protected zones in the Zambezi Region of Namibia (Denis Tweddle, *Pers com*), while the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) has mapped potential Fishing Protected Zones on Zambian side (Stratum V: Sesheke-Mambova Rapids) of the Zambezi River [20], within the Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) wildlife dispersal corridor.

#### *5.1.3. Reduction of deforestation and habitat degradation in the wildlife dispersal corridors*

fication of species targeted for illegal trade; collection, collation and analysis of information relevant to criminal exploitation of flora and fauna; and dissemination of this information to focal points in each partner country in a timely manner so that

(xiv) Ensuring sufficient and well-trained wildlife crime investigators are in place and able

(xv) Standardising research-based investigative and forensic procedures to successfully

(xvi) Usage of remote cameras that beam images in real time to law enforcement headquarters, with a whole suite of sophisticated devices to reduce the chance of them being

(xvii) Standardising integration of the military to augment the wildlife law enforcement as a

(xviii) Establishing a KAZA TFCA-wide covert network of informants to assist tracking and apprehending poachers and smugglers of wildlife trophies and timber. This should be linked to standardised and robust incentive framework/bonus system to ensure sus-

Stepping stone as used in this context denotes one or more separate patches of habitat in the intervening space between ecological isolates (such as protected areas) that provide resources and refuge to assist animals to move through the fragmented landscape [18]. Establishment of new 'stepping stones'/unfenced conservancies should be guided by objective assessment to determine the optimality for biodiversity conservation, using the following equation [2, 19]:

BCOP = [BC‐CC‐(BA‐CA)] > 0 (1)

where, BCOP is the biodiversity conservation option, BC is the benefits of biodiversity conservation (e.g. estimated potential income from ecotourism; sustainable game meat production through ranching; payment for ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration/ estimated value of carbon credits; etc.), CC is the direct costs of conservation/management of the conservancies (e.g. surveillance, monitoring, etc.), BA is the benefits of alternative land use (e.g. pastoralism, commercial agriculture, subsistence agriculture, etc.) and CA is the

Examples of stepping stones exist in the KAZA TFCA, such as the Game Management Areas in Zambia—managed in partnership between the local communities and the state—fenced Simalaha Community Conservancy in Zambia, unfenced Sekute Community Conservancy in Zambia and Community Conservancies in the Zambezi Region of Namibia. Besides these, there is potential for establishing fishing protected zones on the major rivers, such as the Zambezi, Chobe and Kafue rivers, which would serve the dual purpose of providing safety to

means of effectively protecting wildlife resources in the KAZA TFCA.

to handle wildlife crime scenes and cases appropriately and effectively.

appropriate action can be taken to counteract illicit activities.

curb contrabands in wildlife trophies and timber resources.

stolen or destroyed.

192 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

tainability of the informant system.

*5.1.2. Establishment of 'stepping stones' for the dispersing wildlife*

costs of alternative land uses (pastoralism, agriculture, etc.)

the breeding fish and the wildlife crossing these river systems.

As deforestation due to charcoal production is a major problem, especially on the Zambia side of the Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) WDC, promotion of efficient and sustainable energy production should be done through:

	- Training of charcoal producers in better organisation and management of charcoal production using the traditional kilns
	- Developing stoves that are efficient and convenient to users and which produce minimum carbon emissions
	- Ensuring that information on carbon emission levels and efficiency of stoves is disseminated to promote public awareness
	- Facilitating participation of various stakeholders such as non-governmental organisations, industry, researchers and government departments responsible for energy in stove development and dissemination

#### *5.1.4. Reduction of the impact of veterinary fences on the dispersing wildlife*

The impact of veterinary fences should be reduced by adoption of the commodity-based trade (CBT) standards in the production of beef for the export market in the KAZA TFCA. CTB is based on the premise that deboned and properly matured beef from which visible lymph nodes have been removed is considered to present a 'very low' risk of transmitting foot-andmouth disease (FMD) and several other infectious agents [21, 22]. To ensure sanitary safety of the meat produced under CBT, a variety of proven risk amelioration methodologies should be employed in the management of risk along the value chains, including:


yields per unit area of land and, hence, decreasing the likelihood of cutting down forested areas to plant new agriculture fields. CA if properly designed and implemented can restrain encroachment into the wildlife dispersal corridors. Implementation of CA should be done by competent agriculture development agencies. In addition, the agriculture researchers, under the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) umbrella, should be encouraged to provide advice on the most agro-ecologically suitable crop cultivars that should be promoted under CA in the KAZA TFCA. The CA success to contribute to agriculture intensification, food security and biodiversity conservation will depend on:

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**a. Design**: in designing the CA farming practices, a number of factors should be considered in an integrated manner, including crop management/husbandry, livestock husbandry,

**b. Sustainability strategy**: the CA farming programme in the KAZA TFCA should be based on 'smart subsidies', with implementable exit strategies, which put a time limit on the support provided to the smallholder farmers, in terms of farming inputs and extension services. The smart subsidies should be provided to help smallholder farmers to accumulate productive and financial assets and enable them to finance full-priced inputs from their own savings after termination of the subsidy support (e.g. 2–3 years), and this should be the basis for building sustainability and capacity of the smallholder farmers to continue

**c. Capacity building of smallholder farmers to participate in the tourism supply chain**: for the smallholder farmers to accumulate sufficient productive and financial assets to enable them to finance full-priced inputs, they need access to markets for high-value farm produce, such as vegetables, fruits and animal products, such as meat, milk and eggs. The tourism sector offers great opportunity for the farmers to participate in the supply chain. Promoters of CA farming in the KAZA TFCA should jointly assist smallholder farmers in

• Dialoguing with lodge owners on the products in demand, in terms of quantities, quality

• Establishing and administering trust accounts into which part of profits made from sales of agricultural produce could be deposited for reinvestment in CA farming practices

soil and water management, agroforestry and integrated food and energy systems.

with CA farming without external support in the KAZA TFCA.

forming associations, which should play important roles in:

• Facilitate farmers' access to grants, credit and agricultural markets

mance of CA farming practices, based on standardised:

• Negotiating partnership arrangements with the private sector where required

• Promoting collectiveness in the adoption of technological innovations in CA farming Promoters of CA should also train smallholder farmers in producing high-value products, including packaging and transportation to the markets, as well as brokering contractual agreements between the lodges and the farmers for the supply of agriculture produce.

**d. Monitoring and evaluation**: the KAZA TFCA should standardise monitoring the perfor-

and supply frequency

	- From which the major lymphatic nodes have been removed
	- Which, prior to deboning, have been submitted to maturation at a temperature above + 2°C for a minimum period of 24 h following slaughter and in which the pH value was below 6<sup>0</sup> C when tested in the middle of both the *longissimus dorsi*.

The Zambezi Region/Namibia part of KAZA TFCA has piloted CBT of beef [24]; therefore, lessons can be derived from Namibia for replication in the KAZA TFCA as a strategy to reduce dependence on fencing to control zoonotic transboundary animal diseases.

#### *5.1.5. Reduction of fire-induced degradation of habitats*

The strategy for fire management in the KAZA TFCA should be nested within the early-season prescribed burning around all the sensitive biomes to protect them from the destructive late dry season fires. This strategy, if diligently executed and timed properly in its implementation (e.g. burning a month after end of the rainy season), can reduce the risk and impact of the late dry season bushfires on the valuable ecosystems.

#### *5.1.6. Reduction of encroachment into the wildlife dispersal corridors through adoption of conservation agriculture*

Conservation agriculture (CA), which embraces many sustainable farming approaches (e.g. organic farming, climate-smart agriculture, etc.), should be promoted in the KAZA TFCA as a tool for improving land husbandry, intensification of agriculture, improving crop yields per unit area of land and, hence, decreasing the likelihood of cutting down forested areas to plant new agriculture fields. CA if properly designed and implemented can restrain encroachment into the wildlife dispersal corridors. Implementation of CA should be done by competent agriculture development agencies. In addition, the agriculture researchers, under the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) umbrella, should be encouraged to provide advice on the most agro-ecologically suitable crop cultivars that should be promoted under CA in the KAZA TFCA. The CA success to contribute to agriculture intensification, food security and biodiversity conservation will depend on:

• Have remained in the *exporting country* for at least 3 months prior to *slaughter*

vaccinated against FMD and where official controls are in operation

out before *slaughter* and the shipment for export has been dispatched

and not less than 1 month prior to slaughter

export

194 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

below 6<sup>0</sup>

*conservation agriculture*

a 10-km radius of the establishment during that period

able results within 24 h before and after slaughter

• From which the major lymphatic nodes have been removed

**c.** Ensuring that meat comes from deboned carcasses:

*5.1.5. Reduction of fire-induced degradation of habitats*

the late dry season bushfires on the valuable ecosystems.

• Have remained, during this period, in a part of the country where cattle are regularly

• Have been vaccinated at least twice with the last vaccination not more than 12 months

• Were kept for the past 30 days in an establishment and that FMD has not occurred within

• Have been transported, in a vehicle which was cleansed and disinfected before the cattle were loaded, directly from the establishment of origin to the approved abattoir without coming into contact with other animals which do not fulfil the required conditions for

• Have been slaughtered in an approved abattoir which is officially designated for export, in which no FMD has been detected during the period between the last *disinfection* carried

• Have been subjected to ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections for FMD with favour-

• Which, prior to deboning, have been submitted to maturation at a temperature above + 2°C for a minimum period of 24 h following slaughter and in which the pH value was

The Zambezi Region/Namibia part of KAZA TFCA has piloted CBT of beef [24]; therefore, lessons can be derived from Namibia for replication in the KAZA TFCA as a strategy to reduce

The strategy for fire management in the KAZA TFCA should be nested within the early-season prescribed burning around all the sensitive biomes to protect them from the destructive late dry season fires. This strategy, if diligently executed and timed properly in its implementation (e.g. burning a month after end of the rainy season), can reduce the risk and impact of

Conservation agriculture (CA), which embraces many sustainable farming approaches (e.g. organic farming, climate-smart agriculture, etc.), should be promoted in the KAZA TFCA as a tool for improving land husbandry, intensification of agriculture, improving crop

C when tested in the middle of both the *longissimus dorsi*.

*5.1.6. Reduction of encroachment into the wildlife dispersal corridors through adoption of* 

dependence on fencing to control zoonotic transboundary animal diseases.

	- Dialoguing with lodge owners on the products in demand, in terms of quantities, quality and supply frequency
	- Establishing and administering trust accounts into which part of profits made from sales of agricultural produce could be deposited for reinvestment in CA farming practices
	- Facilitate farmers' access to grants, credit and agricultural markets
	- Negotiating partnership arrangements with the private sector where required
	- Promoting collectiveness in the adoption of technological innovations in CA farming

Promoters of CA should also train smallholder farmers in producing high-value products, including packaging and transportation to the markets, as well as brokering contractual agreements between the lodges and the farmers for the supply of agriculture produce.

**d. Monitoring and evaluation**: the KAZA TFCA should standardise monitoring the performance of CA farming practices, based on standardised:


**5.2. Support for socioeconomic development of the communities that interact with the** 

*5.2.1. Wildlife economy in agriculturally marginal areas and WDCs*

The long-term sustenance of the WDCs in the KAZA TFCA depends on the local communities' appreciation and support to their security and management. To encourage community participation in securing and managing the WDCs, the following should be promoted:

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The KAZA TFCA is well endowed with aesthetically appealing features, such as the Victoria Falls, large rivers (Zambezi, Kafue and Chobe), rich and diverse wildlife species, including the avifauna, and diverse cultures, including the relic cultural artefacts, which offer opportunities for investments in ecotourism. Ecotourism offers the highest hope for rural communities living in agriculturally marginal areas, and its prominence becomes even higher as agriculture production is constrained by poor soils which in the KAZA TFCA landscape are dominated by the Kalahari sands, and productivity is further aggravated by the frequency of natural episodic events (such as drought) and increasing agricultural production costs, in terms of input. Although the tourism sector in the KAZA TFCA is currently dominated by the private sector, local communities can also tap into ecotourism businesses by entering into partnerships with the private sector—formalised by contractual agreement between the community (usually represented by a Community Development Trust or Association) and the private investor. The main driving force for community-private partnerships stems from the fact that while some communities have valuable tourism assets, such as wildlife traversing through their areas, or in the community conservancies, they do not have the capital and expertise to set up profitable ecotourism enterprises on their own, hence the need for private partners to leverage

capital and technical expertise. For this arrangement to function, there is need for the:

as trusts or associations, which should represent the community's interests in:

• Consolidating their rights to land and biodiversity assets

natural resources and tourism development

would have a stake in ecotourism development

and ecotourism development

**a.** Establishment of the community collective natural resource governance institutions, such

• Negotiating partnership arrangements with private investors in the management of land,

• Promoting collectiveness in harnessing equitable sharing of benefits from ecotourism in the wildlife dispersal corridors, as well as other protected areas, where the communities

**b.** KAZA partner countries to proactively provide harmonised policy and legal enabling environment for communities to use their customary land and wildlife as collateral in securing partnerships with the private investors in biodiversity conservation programmes

**dispersing wildlife**

*5.2.1.1. Ecotourism*

This should be done through:

#### *5.1.7. Supporting voluntary adjustment of settlement away from the wildlife dispersal corridors*

Some local communities in the KAZA TFCA seasonally move between floodplains and uplands—as an adaptive, transhumant strategy for meeting their subsistence needs. These movements interfere with the free movement of the dispersing wildlife. To obviate this problem, many local community members, especially residents in conservancies in the Zambezi Region of Namibia are volunteering to adjust their seasonal movements within the Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NP WDC to enable free passage of wildlife. This unprecedented positive gesture by the communities should be fully harnessed through provision of social amenities, such as water for domestic, livestock, small-scale irrigation/conservation agriculture and fish ranching. The Climate Resilience Infrastructure Development Facility (CRIDF) has supported some of the local communities that have volunteered to adjust their seasonal movement. The KAZA Secretariat should mobilise further donor support to continue with this important initiative, which should be integrated into the biodiversity stewardship programme proposed in Section 2 below.

#### *5.1.8. Reduction of the impact of climate variability on wildlife*

Provision of water, incorporating climate-smart technologies (e.g. solar energy), especially in the Hwange-Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan; Hwange-Kazuma-Chobe; and Khaudum-Ngamiland WDCs, where water is currently scarce and likely to worsen with the changing climate, is recommended. Provision of artificial water has been implicated in habitat degradation due to animal concentration around waterholes. Therefore, there is a need for careful consideration, guided by environmental assessment in spatial allocation of artificial waterholes for wildlife in the drier parts of the KAZA TFCA.

#### **5.2. Support for socioeconomic development of the communities that interact with the dispersing wildlife**

The long-term sustenance of the WDCs in the KAZA TFCA depends on the local communities' appreciation and support to their security and management. To encourage community participation in securing and managing the WDCs, the following should be promoted:

#### *5.2.1. Wildlife economy in agriculturally marginal areas and WDCs*

This should be done through:

#### *5.2.1.1. Ecotourism*

• Indicators for assessing the impact

196 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

researchers, farmers, donors, etc.

• Annual targets/benchmarks for each indicator

**e. Learning framework**: dissemination of information on CA farming practices' performance and their impacts on food security, biodiversity conservation and household income should be a necessary precursor to adoption of these farming systems in the KAZA TFCA. Promoters of these farming systems should be compelled to incorporate information dissemination as a medium for providing 'proofs-of-concept' examples of successful CA practices' contribution to improved agricultural intensification, productivity, biodiversity conservation and human well-being. A web-based platform should be established for the KAZA TFCA to provide space where promoters of CA farming practices should share their knowledge and experiences on these farming systems and engage in processes of mutual learning and store information, tools and methodologies for assessing the performance and impacts of these farming systems and store material from workshops, publications, etc.—to be accessed by agricultural practitioners, KAZA TFCA partner countries,

*5.1.7. Supporting voluntary adjustment of settlement away from the wildlife dispersal corridors*

integrated into the biodiversity stewardship programme proposed in Section 2 below.

Provision of water, incorporating climate-smart technologies (e.g. solar energy), especially in the Hwange-Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan; Hwange-Kazuma-Chobe; and Khaudum-Ngamiland WDCs, where water is currently scarce and likely to worsen with the changing climate, is recommended. Provision of artificial water has been implicated in habitat degradation due to animal concentration around waterholes. Therefore, there is a need for careful consideration, guided by environmental assessment in spatial allocation of artificial waterholes for wildlife

*5.1.8. Reduction of the impact of climate variability on wildlife*

in the drier parts of the KAZA TFCA.

Some local communities in the KAZA TFCA seasonally move between floodplains and uplands—as an adaptive, transhumant strategy for meeting their subsistence needs. These movements interfere with the free movement of the dispersing wildlife. To obviate this problem, many local community members, especially residents in conservancies in the Zambezi Region of Namibia are volunteering to adjust their seasonal movements within the Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NP WDC to enable free passage of wildlife. This unprecedented positive gesture by the communities should be fully harnessed through provision of social amenities, such as water for domestic, livestock, small-scale irrigation/conservation agriculture and fish ranching. The Climate Resilience Infrastructure Development Facility (CRIDF) has supported some of the local communities that have volunteered to adjust their seasonal movement. The KAZA Secretariat should mobilise further donor support to continue with this important initiative, which should be

• Instruments for gathering data and analysis • Frequency of reporting on the performance

> The KAZA TFCA is well endowed with aesthetically appealing features, such as the Victoria Falls, large rivers (Zambezi, Kafue and Chobe), rich and diverse wildlife species, including the avifauna, and diverse cultures, including the relic cultural artefacts, which offer opportunities for investments in ecotourism. Ecotourism offers the highest hope for rural communities living in agriculturally marginal areas, and its prominence becomes even higher as agriculture production is constrained by poor soils which in the KAZA TFCA landscape are dominated by the Kalahari sands, and productivity is further aggravated by the frequency of natural episodic events (such as drought) and increasing agricultural production costs, in terms of input.

> Although the tourism sector in the KAZA TFCA is currently dominated by the private sector, local communities can also tap into ecotourism businesses by entering into partnerships with the private sector—formalised by contractual agreement between the community (usually represented by a Community Development Trust or Association) and the private investor. The main driving force for community-private partnerships stems from the fact that while some communities have valuable tourism assets, such as wildlife traversing through their areas, or in the community conservancies, they do not have the capital and expertise to set up profitable ecotourism enterprises on their own, hence the need for private partners to leverage capital and technical expertise. For this arrangement to function, there is need for the:

	- Consolidating their rights to land and biodiversity assets
	- Negotiating partnership arrangements with private investors in the management of land, natural resources and tourism development
	- Promoting collectiveness in harnessing equitable sharing of benefits from ecotourism in the wildlife dispersal corridors, as well as other protected areas, where the communities would have a stake in ecotourism development

**c.** Communities to guarantee commitment of their land to biodiversity conservation and contribute to the management inputs and processes through provision of human capital and indigenous knowledge of the local resources

the local communities. Community borrowers, therefore, would address performance mea-

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• Benefits to community members from business ownership and auxiliary enterprises and

The KAZA TFCA, through its governance structure/committee of ministers could identify and negotiate with one of the commercial banks operating in the KAZA TFCA partner countries to manage the RLF. The bank could do this as a social responsibility, and the governments would also consider rewarding such a bank with some recognition, such as waiving of some taxes. Ministers responsible for the development of the KAZA TFCA could serve as the Board of Directors, responsible for reviewing loan proposals from eligible community entrepreneurs and contracting a local bank for the loan fund's portfolio management responsibili-

Biodiversity stewardship is 'the wise use, management and protection of the biodiversity that has been entrusted into the landowners [23]. Through the biodiversity stewardship, the critical wildlife dispersal corridors that traverse the communal lands would be managed by the local communities, through defined protocols (e.g. the allowable use of land in the WDCs), with some benefits to the landowners/communities. The communal landowners would commit land towards the free movement of wildlife by means of formal agreements entered between the communities and the KAZA TFCA governance structure. The agreements would state the conditions on allowable land uses in the WDCs that do not constrain free transboundary wildlife movements in the TFCA.

• Ensure that communal areas that provide passage for the dispersing wildlife receive secure conservation status to enable them to effectively link the network of protected

• Ensure that the WDCs are well managed according to good biodiversity management

• Ensure that landowners/local communities, who commit their land to the biodiversity

• Allow for conservation compatible land uses to continue, in a sustainable way, in the WDCs. Communal landowners who would participate in the stewardship programme would access a suite of possible incentives and benefits to offset the opportunity costs of allocating their

stewardship option, will enjoy tangible benefits for their conservation actions.

sures, which should be developed by the KAZA TFCA Secretariat, such as:

• Increase in tax revenue

*5.2.1.1.2. Administration and governance of the RLF*

ties, as well as appointing firms to annually audit the RLF.

The purpose of the proposed biodiversity stewardship is to:

*5.2.2. Promote biodiversity stewardship*

areas in the KAZA TFCA.

practices.

land to the WDCs, such as:

job opportunities

• Number and type of jobs created or retained in the established enterprises

**d.** NGOs to contribute to local institutional capacity building, conflict resolution in natural resource use—ensuring equitable sharing of benefits between the communities and private investors from ecotourism and biodiversity conservation—and contribute to management inputs through fundraising and investments in the management processes of community conservancies and monitoring their performance against their management objectives, inputs and outputs (e.g. biodiversity threat abatement and contribution to sustainable rural livelihoods).

To build the community investment capacity, mechanisms for providing capital and business assistance should be developed, such as through establishing:

#### *5.2.1.1.1. Revolving loan fund*

The revolving loan fund (RLF) could be used for the development and/or expansion of community enterprises. The fund could be a self-replenishing pool of money, utilising interest and principal payments on old loans to issue new ones. Establishment of a RLF would provide access to a flexible source of capital, more especially as local communities are generally unable to access loans from commercial banks due to lack of collateral. The RLF should be built on sound interest rate practices and not perceived as free or easy sources of financing. The RLF should be able to generate enough interest rate return to replenish the fund for future loan allocations. Eligible uses for RLF loans would include investment and operational capital for the development of conservation agriculture, participation in the supply chain, ecotourism enterprises and auxiliary businesses (e.g. curio production, beekeeping, aquaculture, transport services for tourists, etc.). The loan duration would range from 3 to 6 years, depending on the loan amount taken by the community investors.

Initial capitalisation of a revolving loan fund could come as grants to the fund, from a combination of public sources (e.g. tourism levies, state lottery, visa fees, etc.), donors, private sector and philanthropic organisations. The RLFs would be invested in projects with above average risks, which most commercial banks would not consider funding. It is therefore critical that the borrowers are held to standard financial requirements in loan security. Before a loan is issued, the following requirements would be satisfied:


As a public investment instrument, the RLF is expected to result in public goods, namely, locally developed enterprises that sustainably contribute to socioeconomic development of the local communities. Community borrowers, therefore, would address performance measures, which should be developed by the KAZA TFCA Secretariat, such as:


**c.** Communities to guarantee commitment of their land to biodiversity conservation and contribute to the management inputs and processes through provision of human capital and

**d.** NGOs to contribute to local institutional capacity building, conflict resolution in natural resource use—ensuring equitable sharing of benefits between the communities and private investors from ecotourism and biodiversity conservation—and contribute to management inputs through fundraising and investments in the management processes of community conservancies and monitoring their performance against their management objectives, inputs and outputs (e.g. biodiversity threat abatement and contribution to sus-

To build the community investment capacity, mechanisms for providing capital and business

The revolving loan fund (RLF) could be used for the development and/or expansion of community enterprises. The fund could be a self-replenishing pool of money, utilising interest and principal payments on old loans to issue new ones. Establishment of a RLF would provide access to a flexible source of capital, more especially as local communities are generally unable to access loans from commercial banks due to lack of collateral. The RLF should be built on sound interest rate practices and not perceived as free or easy sources of financing. The RLF should be able to generate enough interest rate return to replenish the fund for future loan allocations. Eligible uses for RLF loans would include investment and operational capital for the development of conservation agriculture, participation in the supply chain, ecotourism enterprises and auxiliary businesses (e.g. curio production, beekeeping, aquaculture, transport services for tourists, etc.). The loan duration would range from 3 to 6 years,

Initial capitalisation of a revolving loan fund could come as grants to the fund, from a combination of public sources (e.g. tourism levies, state lottery, visa fees, etc.), donors, private sector and philanthropic organisations. The RLFs would be invested in projects with above average risks, which most commercial banks would not consider funding. It is therefore critical that the borrowers are held to standard financial requirements in loan security. Before a loan is

• Sufficient collateral/signed guarantee to refrain from encroachment into the WDAs and

As a public investment instrument, the RLF is expected to result in public goods, namely, locally developed enterprises that sustainably contribute to socioeconomic development of

• Credit history and financial statements (in the case of business expansion)

indigenous knowledge of the local resources

assistance should be developed, such as through establishing:

depending on the loan amount taken by the community investors.

issued, the following requirements would be satisfied: • Business plan, including cash-flow projections

• Business experience and management information

poaching and any unsustainable land-use practices

tainable rural livelihoods).

198 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

*5.2.1.1.1. Revolving loan fund*

• Benefits to community members from business ownership and auxiliary enterprises and job opportunities

#### *5.2.1.1.2. Administration and governance of the RLF*

The KAZA TFCA, through its governance structure/committee of ministers could identify and negotiate with one of the commercial banks operating in the KAZA TFCA partner countries to manage the RLF. The bank could do this as a social responsibility, and the governments would also consider rewarding such a bank with some recognition, such as waiving of some taxes. Ministers responsible for the development of the KAZA TFCA could serve as the Board of Directors, responsible for reviewing loan proposals from eligible community entrepreneurs and contracting a local bank for the loan fund's portfolio management responsibilities, as well as appointing firms to annually audit the RLF.

#### *5.2.2. Promote biodiversity stewardship*

Biodiversity stewardship is 'the wise use, management and protection of the biodiversity that has been entrusted into the landowners [23]. Through the biodiversity stewardship, the critical wildlife dispersal corridors that traverse the communal lands would be managed by the local communities, through defined protocols (e.g. the allowable use of land in the WDCs), with some benefits to the landowners/communities. The communal landowners would commit land towards the free movement of wildlife by means of formal agreements entered between the communities and the KAZA TFCA governance structure. The agreements would state the conditions on allowable land uses in the WDCs that do not constrain free transboundary wildlife movements in the TFCA.

The purpose of the proposed biodiversity stewardship is to:


Communal landowners who would participate in the stewardship programme would access a suite of possible incentives and benefits to offset the opportunity costs of allocating their land to the WDCs, such as:

• Social amenities in support of rural livelihoods (e.g. health, education, water, etc.). The KAZA TFCA should endeavour to mobilise donor/NGOs' support for the development of rural livelihoods for the communities that will commit their land to the WDCs.

where the WDCs are greatly threatened by human population growth. The KAZA TFCA partner countries should harmonise policies and legislation on lowering infant and child mortality, which should lead to fertility decline, and broaden access to primary and reproductive health services and improve girls' education to encourage voluntary reduction of fertility.

Integration of Ecological and Socioeconomic Factors in Securing Wildlife Dispersal Corridors...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70443

201

**a.** Targeting the larger population of the youth in the 15–29 years age group, by purposefully creating conditions for increasing investment in human capital development through higher-quality education and health services and job creation as a means of facilitating a rapid decline in fertility. Evidence in African countries shows that fertility levels are gener-

**b.** Encouraging stronger commitment to family planning for improving maternal health and social planning. This commitment should be based on the recognition of everyone's rights of access to sexual and reproductive health services, including KAZA partner countries' regular funding flows for population and family planning programmes over the next two

**c.** Empowerment of women, through enacting legislative changes, which should include inter alia, increasing the legal age at marriage, adopting new Family Codes to guarantee equal rights and duties for males and females and removing the husband's and/or parents' consent to allow women and young girls to have easy access to family planning services. This will require promotion of reproductive rights, while, at the same time, making sure that women and couples can exert their reproductive choices freely without coercion.

In view of the multiplicity of the strategies recommended for securing WDCs, the KAZA partner countries should prioritise the implementation of strategies that will significantly reduce poaching and habitat fragmentation, as well as promotion of the wildlife-based economy, aimed at tangibly and sustainably contributing to the socioeconomic development of the local

, Victor Siamudaala<sup>3</sup>

, Morris Mtsambiwa<sup>4</sup>

and

communities in order to win them as allies in securing the WDCs in the KAZA TFCA.

\*, Nicholas Smart2

4 Kavango-Zambezi TFCA Secretariat, Kasane, Botswana

1 ECORYS, Capital City, Lilongwe, Malawi

3 The Nature Conservancy, Lusaka, Zambia

\*Address all correspondence to: muchina.munthali@gmail.com

2 ECORYS International Development, Johannesburg, South Africa

ally lower among the most educated and working-class women [24].

Specific strategies should include, among others:

decades.

**Author details**

Simon M. Munthali<sup>1</sup>

5 ECRYS, Lusaka, Zambia

Eleanor Harvie5


The proposed biodiversity stewardship programme would also target the youth, who will be the majority in KAZA TFCA by the mid-twenty-first century. The youth that would participate in the stewardship programme would access a suite of possible incentives and benefits, including training in entrepreneurship development and access enterprise development grants or soft loans.

#### *5.2.3. Reduction of human-wildlife conflicts in the WDCs*

An integrated strategy should be adopted in the KAZA TFCA to mitigate HWCs, based on:

**a.** Land-use planning and community awareness campaigns

The KAZA TFCA needs macro-, meso- and micro-level land use plans to delineate land committed to various categories, including protected areas, conservancies, WDCs, developed areas (government administration and commercial nodes),and communal areas (settlements, cultivated and range lands). This spatial separation is essential in identifying HWC hotspots, requiring targeted HWC mitigation measures. Broad-based awareness campaigns, using multiple media outlets (radio, television, meetings, newsletters, etc.) should be used to inform the local communities and the general public about the location and values of the WDCs.

To enable legal recognition of the delineated WDCs, they should be gazetted in the relevant wildlife legislation in the KAZA partner countries.

#### **b.** Targeted fencing

The Model 3 fencing (four-strand electrified fence) encircling clusters of villagers' crops and facilities is intuitively the most desirable fencing that could be adopted in the KAZA TFCA, as part of an integrated approach to mitigating human-elephant conflicts. However, its success will depend on the sustainable mechanisms for regular maintenance and prevention of vandalism.

**c.** Olfactory deterrents (chilli methods)

The use of chilli-based olfactory repellents to deter elephants from entering crop fields or human habitation should also be opportunistically used on cheap fencing that uses sisal string strung between bush-cut poles or existing trees surrounding crop fields.

#### *5.2.4. Promote harmonised enabling policies and legislation to facilitate slowing down of human population growth*

While this approach should be adopted at the KAZA TFCA-wide scale, the primary focus should be on the southern and western provinces of Zambia and Zambezi Region of Namibia, where the WDCs are greatly threatened by human population growth. The KAZA TFCA partner countries should harmonise policies and legislation on lowering infant and child mortality, which should lead to fertility decline, and broaden access to primary and reproductive health services and improve girls' education to encourage voluntary reduction of fertility.

Specific strategies should include, among others:

• Social amenities in support of rural livelihoods (e.g. health, education, water, etc.). The KAZA TFCA should endeavour to mobilise donor/NGOs' support for the development

of rural livelihoods for the communities that will commit their land to the WDCs.

The proposed biodiversity stewardship programme would also target the youth, who will be the majority in KAZA TFCA by the mid-twenty-first century. The youth that would participate in the stewardship programme would access a suite of possible incentives and benefits, including training in entrepreneurship development and access enterprise development

An integrated strategy should be adopted in the KAZA TFCA to mitigate HWCs, based on:

The KAZA TFCA needs macro-, meso- and micro-level land use plans to delineate land committed to various categories, including protected areas, conservancies, WDCs, developed areas (government administration and commercial nodes),and communal areas (settlements, cultivated and range lands). This spatial separation is essential in identifying HWC hotspots, requiring targeted HWC mitigation measures. Broad-based awareness campaigns, using multiple media outlets (radio, television, meetings, newsletters, etc.) should be used to inform the

To enable legal recognition of the delineated WDCs, they should be gazetted in the relevant

The Model 3 fencing (four-strand electrified fence) encircling clusters of villagers' crops and facilities is intuitively the most desirable fencing that could be adopted in the KAZA TFCA, as part of an integrated approach to mitigating human-elephant conflicts. However, its success will depend on the sustainable mechanisms for regular maintenance and prevention of vandalism.

The use of chilli-based olfactory repellents to deter elephants from entering crop fields or human habitation should also be opportunistically used on cheap fencing that uses sisal

While this approach should be adopted at the KAZA TFCA-wide scale, the primary focus should be on the southern and western provinces of Zambia and Zambezi Region of Namibia,

*5.2.4. Promote harmonised enabling policies and legislation to facilitate slowing down of human* 

string strung between bush-cut poles or existing trees surrounding crop fields.

local communities and the general public about the location and values of the WDCs.

• Provision of enterprise development grants or soft loans (e.g. through the RLF).

• Being prioritised for conservation agriculture support.

*5.2.3. Reduction of human-wildlife conflicts in the WDCs*

wildlife legislation in the KAZA partner countries.

**c.** Olfactory deterrents (chilli methods)

**a.** Land-use planning and community awareness campaigns

grants or soft loans.

200 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

**b.** Targeted fencing

*population growth*

• Being prioritised for human-wildlife conflict (HWC) mitigation.


In view of the multiplicity of the strategies recommended for securing WDCs, the KAZA partner countries should prioritise the implementation of strategies that will significantly reduce poaching and habitat fragmentation, as well as promotion of the wildlife-based economy, aimed at tangibly and sustainably contributing to the socioeconomic development of the local communities in order to win them as allies in securing the WDCs in the KAZA TFCA.
