Preface

The biodiversity of life forms occurring in different habitats, from seemingly desolate arctic tundra to the species-rich tropical region, is the greatest wonder as well as richness of our planet. In fact, the world provides home for an amazing array of plants and animals. Thus, it is possible to define the earth's biosphere as an intricate tapestry of interwoven life forms with complex interactions. Biodiversity is also considered to be one of the valuable sources of many countries with their biological, medical and economical importance. However, bio‐ diversity loss has become one of the most significant issues for scientists, for environmental‐ ists and also for the public and governments. Particularly land-based pollution, deforestation, uncontrolled agriculture and tourism activities are the main factors responsi‐ ble both for habitat degradation and biodiversity loss. Unfortunately, many vital habitats of rare and vulnerable organisms have already been damaged or totally destroyed. Conse‐ quently, many plant and animal species have already extincted or are at risk of extinction. It is no coincidence that many societies have recently been founded for protection and conser‐ vation of biodiversity. In addition, significant Conventions on Biological Diversity (CBD) have been signed by many countries, thus committing themselves to carrying full responsi‐ bilities for the conservation of plant, animal and microbiological life in wild habitats. It holds true that in many countries, millions of dollars are spent each year for the conserva‐ tion of biodiversity.

Biodiversity is receiving a considerable attention, and the present book offers an overall upto-date overview of the biological diversity, comprising many interesting chapters focussing on the different aspects of biodiversity. Most of the chapters produce findings of investiga‐ tions and observations on biodiversity, whilst a few are based on statistically and theoreti‐ cally derived information. The book provides sufficient information on the occurrence and distribution of many plant and animal species and groups of organisms both from interest‐ ing terrestrial and aquatic habitats in different parts of the world. In addition, many interest‐ ing topics related to biodiversity such as "methods for biodiversity assessment", "biodiversity restoration", "seabed biodiversity", "ecological functions", "ecosystem serv‐ ices", "safeguarding marine diversity" and "transboundary animal migrations" are effi‐ ciently and sufficiently explained with noticeable examples and case studies in a variety of chapters. Accelerating changes in global climate are causing highly influential impacts on species persistence, and climate change and climate regime shifts in the future of biodiversi‐ ty are evaluated thoroughly in the book. Some chapters allow clarifying the origin of the countries of the plant species, particularly focussing on ornamental species that are signifi‐ cant in horticulture. The knowledge of species distribution is a vital component in the wild‐ life conservation and management, and it is worth to mention that many chapters provide an update of many of the principal issues in conservation biology and resource manage‐ ment. The book also includes the urgent warnings and innovative approaches concerned with management and conservation of biological diversity on earth. Information aiding in quantifying organism-habitat relationships and identifying habitats is also one of the valua‐ ble parts of the book.

The book consists of elaborately prepared 18 chapters written by conspicuous scientists from many countries all over the world. With the book, I do expect a noticeable rise in inter‐ est that will support in picking up the momentum for the concept of biodiversity. Most of the chapters are expected to help in the development of the growing awareness of the close linkage between the conversation of biodiversity and economic development. On this basis, I am confident that the book would definitely be an ideal source of scientific information to the advanced students, junior researchers, scientists and a portion of the public involved in ecology and other research areas involving biodiversity studies.

Finally, I am deeply grateful to all the contributors for making this book possible with their wills and efforts to take place in the book. The book relies on the willingness of these dedi‐ cated scientists and the pool of their collective knowledge. In fact, without their enthusiastic commitment to biodiversity and species conservation, this book would not be possible.

> **Prof. Dr. Bülent Şen, PhD** Fırat University, Turkey

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on**

**Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from** 

**Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70470

**Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from**

Climate change and variability pose a threat to wildlife resources in semi-arid savannahs. With examples from selected protected areas in Southern Africa, this chapter highlights studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, outlines the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in savannah ecosystems and highlights the adaptation and mitigation strategies and implications for conservation. Literature indicates that Southern Africa is characterised by highly variable, erratic and unpredictable rainfall and increasing temperature coupled with an increasing trend in climate-related extreme events such as frequent droughts, cyclones and heat waves. Drought, in particular, has led to death in several wildlife species. This has implications on long-term survival of the species. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns influence habitat quality and consequently abundance of distribution of wildlife species. Large herbivores such as elephants and hippopotamus in particular are vulnerable to climate change due to their ecology, whereas other species are less vulnerable. Climate-related extreme events, coupled with other anthropogenic stressors, interact to influence changes in abundance and distribution of wildlife resources. Understanding the influence of these climatic factors on wildlife resources is vital for adaptive management and protection of biodiversity.

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Climate change poses major risks to global biodiversity in the twenty-first century [1] as it affects ecosystems processes, flora and fauna abundances and distribution [2]. Climate change refers to

**Keywords:** adaptation, biodiversity, climate, management, mitigation, resilience

**Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe**

**Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe**

Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie Kativu and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70470

Kativu and Godwell Nhamo

Godwell Nhamo

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

**Dr. Oscar Grillo, PhD** Stazione Consorziale Sperimentale di Granicoltura per la Sicilia, Italy

**Provisional chapter**

## **Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa: Experience from Selected Protected Areas in Zimbabwe**

**Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.70470

Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie Kativu and Godwell Nhamo Kativu and Godwell Nhamo Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Olga L. Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, Shakkie

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70470

#### **Abstract**

ment. The book also includes the urgent warnings and innovative approaches concerned with management and conservation of biological diversity on earth. Information aiding in quantifying organism-habitat relationships and identifying habitats is also one of the valua‐

The book consists of elaborately prepared 18 chapters written by conspicuous scientists from many countries all over the world. With the book, I do expect a noticeable rise in inter‐ est that will support in picking up the momentum for the concept of biodiversity. Most of the chapters are expected to help in the development of the growing awareness of the close linkage between the conversation of biodiversity and economic development. On this basis, I am confident that the book would definitely be an ideal source of scientific information to the advanced students, junior researchers, scientists and a portion of the public involved in

Finally, I am deeply grateful to all the contributors for making this book possible with their wills and efforts to take place in the book. The book relies on the willingness of these dedi‐ cated scientists and the pool of their collective knowledge. In fact, without their enthusiastic commitment to biodiversity and species conservation, this book would not be possible.

Stazione Consorziale Sperimentale di Granicoltura per la Sicilia, Italy

**Prof. Dr. Bülent Şen, PhD** Fırat University, Turkey **Dr. Oscar Grillo, PhD**

ecology and other research areas involving biodiversity studies.

ble parts of the book.

X Preface

Climate change and variability pose a threat to wildlife resources in semi-arid savannahs. With examples from selected protected areas in Southern Africa, this chapter highlights studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, outlines the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in savannah ecosystems and highlights the adaptation and mitigation strategies and implications for conservation. Literature indicates that Southern Africa is characterised by highly variable, erratic and unpredictable rainfall and increasing temperature coupled with an increasing trend in climate-related extreme events such as frequent droughts, cyclones and heat waves. Drought, in particular, has led to death in several wildlife species. This has implications on long-term survival of the species. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns influence habitat quality and consequently abundance of distribution of wildlife species. Large herbivores such as elephants and hippopotamus in particular are vulnerable to climate change due to their ecology, whereas other species are less vulnerable. Climate-related extreme events, coupled with other anthropogenic stressors, interact to influence changes in abundance and distribution of wildlife resources. Understanding the influence of these climatic factors on wildlife resources is vital for adaptive management and protection of biodiversity.

**Keywords:** adaptation, biodiversity, climate, management, mitigation, resilience

#### **1. Introduction**

Climate change poses major risks to global biodiversity in the twenty-first century [1] as it affects ecosystems processes, flora and fauna abundances and distribution [2]. Climate change refers to

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

any change in the state of climate that is reflected in shifts in mean climatic variables over extended periods, typically decades or longer [3]. Climate change may result from natural internal processes within the climate system [4] or variations in natural or persistent anthropogenic external variability [5]. Climate results from fluctuations in the mean state or other climate statistics on temporal scales beyond those of individual weather events [6]. Climate change impacts, such as increased water shortages due to persistent droughts, present a threat to wildlife resources and consequently wildlife-dependent livelihoods in Africa. Thus, managing wildlife resources populations requires an understanding of the nature, magnitude and distribution of current and future climate impacts [7].

IPCC AR4 acknowledges that there is gap in knowledge on the climate change impacts across

Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.70470

3

Common effects of climate change on species and ecosystems include (1) changes in life-history events or phenology, (2) effects on demographic rates, such as survival and fecundity, (3) reductions in population size and (4) shifts in species distributions. Climate change poses direct and indirect effects on herbivore species [19] through changes in the fitness, survival and reproductive success [20]. In semiarid ecosystems, climatic changes in frequency and severity of droughts are likely to exacerbate the effects of drought on forage availability, which can feed back to regulate reproduction and offspring recruitment among ungulates [21]. Forrest et al. [22] highlighted that climate change is likely to affect the persistence of

Understanding the effects of climate change and variability on wildlife species is vital in conservation biology and wildlife management [21], especially proactive management and formulation of conservation status decisions [23]. Large mammalian herbivores are key drivers of rangeland dynamics [24] hence assessing the effects of climate change and variability on these populations is essential for the stewardship of ecosystems and biodiversity [25]. The World Wide Foundation [26] noted that the impacts of climate change on global biodiversity and how biological species may (or may not) adapt are yet to be quantified. To date, few studies have assessed the impacts of climate change and variability on resources that support wildlife in Southern Africa [27]. Using case study examples, this chapter reviews the potential impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in some protected areas in Southern Africa. The objectives of this chapter are to: (1) highlight studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, (2) outline the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in Southern Africa and (3) highlight climate change adaptation and

This study adopted both quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain data on the effects of climate change and variability on mammalian species on selected national parks in Zimbabwe. We conducted a review existing literature (1980–2015) from peer-reviewed journal articles, books, edited book chapters, electronic academic theses, technical reports from Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science covering issues on climate change, climate variability and wildlife resources in Southern Africa. Data were also obtained from unpublished internal scientific reports and management plans from the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA) and other and external reports from policy documents related to biodiversity and climate change in Southern Africa. Technical reports and public publications from key stakeholders, such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), were also reviewed. The following keywords or phrases were used: "climate change," "climate variability," "impacts/effects," "wildlife," "mammals," "biodiversity," "ecosystems," "drought," "rainfall," "temperature," "herbivores," "global environmental change," "plants," "flora" and "fauna" with a combination of "AND" between the keywords to retrieve the relevant literature.

large, space-requiring species through habitat shifts, loss and fragmentation.

mitigation strategies and implications for conservation.

**2. Materials and methods**

many regions.

The term wildlife collectively refers to all forms of undomesticated flora and fauna found in terrestrial or aquatic environments [8]. In the present study, wildlife resources refer to faunal or floral species with potential benefit to human kind. Climate change has greater impacts on livelihoods of people in developing countries due to their low adaptive capacity [9]. However, this chapter focuses on terrestrial and semi-aquatic vertebrates, specifically mammals and their habitats. In Southern Africa, wildlife species promote the lives and livelihoods of local communities, particularly those living adjacent to protected areas [10]. Such communities generate revenue from activities such as eco-tourism, safari and consumptive hunting and bush meat trading. Therefore, there are huge economic losses associated with floods, droughts and wildfire. Against this backdrop, different mechanisms have been put in place to encourage climate change adaptation and mitigation in the biodiversity sector at global, regional and national levels [11].

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [12] projects a rise in surface temperature over the twenty-first century under all assessed emission scenarios. Global averaged temperatures are projected to increase by between 0.15 and 0.3°C per decade [13]. The frequency and intensity of heat waves are also likely to be more frequent and prolonged [14]. Many regions are likely to experience more frequent and extreme precipitation events. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [15], there is high likelihood that climate-related extremes, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones and wildfires, will expose some ecosystems, rendering them vulnerable to climate variability. Climate models project increased aridity and persistent droughts in the twenty-first century for most of Africa, Southern Europe, Middle East, Southeast Asia and Australia [16].

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [17], climatic changes are occurring at a faster rate than expected, particularly in Southern Africa. The IPCC predicts a 10 to 24% in mammalian species in sub-Saharan Africa national parks [13]. Climate change due to natural variability is therefore affecting terrestrial biological systems. Diffenbaugh and Field noted that there has been significant rise in temperatures of terrestrial ecosystems due to global warming [18]. Climate change directly affects ecosystems through seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature and indirectly through other disturbances such as fire and drought [11]. The IPCC [12] also notes that generally there is high confidence that several terrestrial, freshwater and marine species have shifted their geographic ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, abundances and species interactions in response to climate change. Based on available scientific literature, the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) also reports that there is medium confidence that terrestrial ecosystems could have faced some impacts in Africa in recent decades due to climate change [12]. Additional threats from extensive land use and degradation, changes in frequency and severity of extreme events and interactions with other stresses [18] further threaten the resilience of terrestrial ecosystems. However, the IPCC AR4 acknowledges that there is gap in knowledge on the climate change impacts across many regions.

Common effects of climate change on species and ecosystems include (1) changes in life-history events or phenology, (2) effects on demographic rates, such as survival and fecundity, (3) reductions in population size and (4) shifts in species distributions. Climate change poses direct and indirect effects on herbivore species [19] through changes in the fitness, survival and reproductive success [20]. In semiarid ecosystems, climatic changes in frequency and severity of droughts are likely to exacerbate the effects of drought on forage availability, which can feed back to regulate reproduction and offspring recruitment among ungulates [21]. Forrest et al. [22] highlighted that climate change is likely to affect the persistence of large, space-requiring species through habitat shifts, loss and fragmentation.

Understanding the effects of climate change and variability on wildlife species is vital in conservation biology and wildlife management [21], especially proactive management and formulation of conservation status decisions [23]. Large mammalian herbivores are key drivers of rangeland dynamics [24] hence assessing the effects of climate change and variability on these populations is essential for the stewardship of ecosystems and biodiversity [25]. The World Wide Foundation [26] noted that the impacts of climate change on global biodiversity and how biological species may (or may not) adapt are yet to be quantified. To date, few studies have assessed the impacts of climate change and variability on resources that support wildlife in Southern Africa [27].

Using case study examples, this chapter reviews the potential impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in some protected areas in Southern Africa. The objectives of this chapter are to: (1) highlight studies on detected climate changes particularly rainfall and temperature, (2) outline the predicted and observed impacts of climate change and variability on wildlife resources in Southern Africa and (3) highlight climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies and implications for conservation.
