**2. Two different and complementary models of protected areas**

Two models of networks of protected areas, the Biosphere Reserves Network and the Natura 2000 network, currently coexist in the territory of the European Union. Although they have a clearly different configuration, organization, and functioning, since their inception, the two models have shared common objectives oriented to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. This coincidence determines that in many cases there is a strong complementarity between both figures, resulting in greater effectiveness of their objectives and especially in a greater interrelation of environmental policies with the society that lives in these territories.

The Biosphere Reserves have been consolidated as a long-term conservation model, with 45 years of experience. The Earth Summit of Rio, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the European Biodiversity Strategy have had a wide impact on the evolution of the Man and Biosphere Programme, reflected in its Seville Strategy (worldwide strategy of working and sustainable development) and the approval of the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 1995 [7]. Biosphere Reserves have become a successful example of adaptive management, incorporating the latest trends and the best available scientific-technical knowledge through the implementation of the successive Action Plans for the World Network of Biosphere Reserves until the last one approved recently in Lima [8].

In 1992, the European environmental policy was reinforced with the approval of the Directive 92/43/EEC and the creation of Natura 2000 network, made up of various types of protected areas (including Sites of Community Importance and Special Areas of Conservation and incorporating Special Protected Areas according to Directive 79/409/EEC, now replaced by Directive 2009/147/EC), and destined to the conservation of biodiversity. Up to now, Natura 2000 network has been established as the largest ecological network worldwide [9, 10], with a total area of 1,147,956 km2 , which represents 18.12% of the European Union territory. Therefore, Natura 2000 network accomplishes and surpasses the 11th target established in the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity for the 2011–2020 period [5]. In addition, Natura 2000 areas are estimated to provide ecosystem services valuated between 223,000 and 314,000 million euros a year; to retent 35,000 million tons of carbon dioxide (CO2); and to generate about 12 million jobs every year in the European Union [11].

incorporation of two new protected figures: the Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, 02/02/1971) and the Biosphere Reserves created by

In 1992 during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), known as the "Earth Summit," the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed. Months before, the Council of European Communities promulgated Directive 92/43/EEC, creating Natura 2000 network and establishing a new nature conservation policy in the European Economic Community. CBD endorsed a really ambitious goal when the parties approved "to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current loss rate of biological diversity, globally, regionally and nationally, as a contribution to the mitigation of poverty

Despite world and European efforts, it was not possible to stop the loss of biodiversity before 2010. This failure led to the elaboration and adoption by the CBD of the "Strategic Plan for Biodiversity," for the 2011–2020 period, which includes 20 operational targets (known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets) in terms of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity [5] to be met at the end of the programming period. Notable efforts have been made since then. The European Union has been one of the organizations, which has promoted the most activity from its competences, with the promulgation of different environmental regulations, the creation of an extensive network of protected areas, Natura 2000 network, and the adoption in 2011 of a new Biodiversity Strategy to protect and improve the state of biodiversity during the next decade [6].

Two models of networks of protected areas, the Biosphere Reserves Network and the Natura 2000 network, currently coexist in the territory of the European Union. Although they have a clearly different configuration, organization, and functioning, since their inception, the two models have shared common objectives oriented to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. This coincidence determines that in many cases there is a strong complementarity between both figures, resulting in greater effectiveness of their objectives and especially in a greater interrelation of environmental policies with the society that lives in these territories. The Biosphere Reserves have been consolidated as a long-term conservation model, with 45 years of experience. The Earth Summit of Rio, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the European Biodiversity Strategy have had a wide impact on the evolution of the Man and Biosphere Programme, reflected in its Seville Strategy (worldwide strategy of working and sustainable development) and the approval of the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 1995 [7]. Biosphere Reserves have become a successful example of adaptive management, incorporating the latest trends and the best available scientific-technical knowledge through the implementation of the successive Action Plans for the World Network

In 1992, the European environmental policy was reinforced with the approval of the Directive 92/43/EEC and the creation of Natura 2000 network, made up of various types of protected areas (including Sites of Community Importance and Special Areas of Conservation and

**2. Two different and complementary models of protected areas**

of Biosphere Reserves until the last one approved recently in Lima [8].

the UNESCO in 1974 within the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

and for the benefit of all forms of life on earth" [4].

26 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

Both in the model of Biosphere Reserves Network and Natura 2000 network, the protected areas must meet a set of environmental criteria, evaluated in the context of a biogeographical sectorization with an impact on the organization and management of the sites.

Designated Biosphere Reserves must be able to fulfill three basic functions: conservation of natural resources, economic and social development according to sustainability principles, and creation and participation in networks [7]. To achieve this, a zoning model is established, which includes one or several separate core areas within the Biosphere Reserve, aimed to ensure the biodiversity conservation function. On the contrary, Natura 2000 network areas (SCI, SAC, SPA) have been designed by adjusting their morphology to the spatial distribution of certain types of habitats or species, so they are identified with areas destined primarily for conservation. These are comparable with the core areas of the Biosphere Reserves but lacking a clear designation of buffer and transition zones. This absence generates serious problems when Natura 2000 areas are designated into the member states, but it is being addressed with the brand new Green Infrastructure Strategy [12].

Natura 2000 network has an important level of regulatory development, supported by both Directives 92/43/CEE and 2009/147/CE. This regulatory complexity of Natura 2000 network clash against the maintenance of an unsustainable use generating a widespread rejection among sectors that maintain the hopes of achieving a profit based on an irrational exploitation.

Biosphere Reserves lack specific regulations, or rather, do not generate their own regulations, although their establishment and development implies the incorporation of European Union regulations, including reference to the Natura 2000 network. Without these protected areas, it would be impossible to comply the objectives established by the Man and Biosphere Programme.

The model management shows important differences between Biosphere Reserves and Natura 2000. The ordinary management of Biosphere Reserves is carried out from the own territory, through a set of management bodies, including a manager, as well as public participation and advisory bodies. Regarding to Natura 2000 network, the national or regional authorities directly manage the protected areas, but there are no participation bodies, and it's not possible to identify the manager of each of them into the territory. Therefore, Natura 2000 management is more detached from the territory, which in many cases supposes malfunctioning of participation channels and the lack of collaboration with local society and entities during the implementation of specific plans or programs or the search for the simple implication of citizenship. At this point, the Biosphere Reserves have demonstrated a greater capacity for management and involvement with real problems.

**Figure 1.** Number of LIFE projects led by the EU member states (prepared from [13]).

Funding is another key aspect in both models of protected areas. The MAB Programme does not provide any kind of financial aid or credit to the Biosphere Reserves or to the countries that have designated them. On the contrary, the countries are responsible to bear the expenses of the UNESCO and United Nations. Even in most European countries, there is also no specific financial program for Biosphere Reserves.

The European Union financing for environment is carried out globally through the ERDF, ESF, and ECF funds. In addition, the EU maintains a successful program for support environmental conservation and restoration activities, the LIFE Programme (acronyms that come from the French l'instrument financier pour l'environnement). This program, mainly focused on the Natura 2000 network, has cofinanced more than 4,600 projects dedicated exclusively to the environment and climate change [13] across the European Union and beyond (**Figure 1**).
