**12. Discussions**

The farms surveyed are less than 0.1 hectare in size. This constraint prevents the development of the sector, its modernization and competition, and making its participation in the formal economy invisible [44, 45]. The equipment is basic and the use of inputs, especially fertilizers, is minimal. Squatting (illegal occupation) of land is the dominant tenor.

Although entrepreneurial horticultural production systems constitute only 5.45% of horticultural holdings, they hold almost the entire public market as they have completed the administrative formalities toward the municipal administration and paid the taxes. They are private farms characterized by the use of permanent wage labor, the use of modern tools (lawn mower, hedge shears, and motorized sprayer). However, employees have no specialty in horticulture. The main destination of production is local consumption. The ornamental horticultural sector in Togo is therefore not registered for export.


**11. Other uses identified for ornamental plants in Togo**

**Figure 9.** Spectrum of different methods of preparation of medicinal plants.

*formis* L.) and as firewood (*Cassia siamea* Lam.).

**12. Discussions**

216 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

Although the first reason for their cultivation is ornamentation and beauty, many ornamental plants are used for other purposes. In Togo, the present study identified: plants for psychomagic, feeding, traditional or industrial cosmetics (**Table 2**), and toxic plants (**Table 3**).

For food plants, fruits and leaves (*Eugenia malaccensis* L. *Gomphrena globosa* L.) are the most used while wood is very useful as timber (*Gmelina arborea* Roxb.) in buildings (*Acacia auriculi-*

For human consumption, 15 plant species was identified, 3 others are reported for traditional

The farms surveyed are less than 0.1 hectare in size. This constraint prevents the development of the sector, its modernization and competition, and making its participation in the formal economy invisible [44, 45]. The equipment is basic and the use of inputs, especially fertilizers,

Although entrepreneurial horticultural production systems constitute only 5.45% of horticultural holdings, they hold almost the entire public market as they have completed the administrative formalities toward the municipal administration and paid the taxes. They are private farms characterized by the use of permanent wage labor, the use of modern tools (lawn mower, hedge shears, and motorized sprayer). However, employees have no specialty in horticulture. The main destination of production is local consumption. The ornamental

cosmetics and 11 in the agro-food system, industrial cosmetics, and wood industry.

is minimal. Squatting (illegal occupation) of land is the dominant tenor.

horticultural sector in Togo is therefore not registered for export.


**Table 2.** Other uses identified for ornamental plants.


The cultivation of cut flowers is fairly technical and requires technical training. Large companies operating in Africa belong to European groups that market in the European community and participate in major international exhibitions. Currently, the best way for the African horticulturist to integrate this commercial network is to outsource, as recommended by IQRHH [46] to Quebec horticulturists. Indeed, it is a question of settling near big companies to benefit from advice, technical aids and outlets without having to risk a depreciation of the goods during the transport, and the search of a final clientele. Organizing in a formal grouping (ADF, 2007) is also a solution. Such a grouping is a success in various countries exporting other products (coffee, cocoa, etc.). Government assistance through chambers of commerce and industry to the organization of the sector is a necessity and a non-negligible source of foreign exchange for producers but also for the state. Everything argues in favor of this sector in Togo which has land, labor, and the climate allowing the development (reproduction and harvesting) of crops throughout the year.

**Scientific names Part used Main chemical composition Effects**

diterpen (tirucalicin)

Toxic terpenoid

Latex Euphorbone, résine, caoutchouc, substance non identifiée crystallized into needless

> (euphorbinol, cycloeuphorbinol, euphoron, 31-nortriterpen cycloeuphordénol), and macrocyclic

Saponosides, tannins, sterols, and alkaloids

Very caustic and toxic, makes blind, and irritating to the 219

stomach

Usefulness of Plant Biodiversity in the Cities of Togo http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76776

*Cycas revoluta* Thunb. Whole plant Carcinogenic alkaloid and neurotropic agent

*Euphorbia turicalli* L. Latex Euphol, tirucallol, tinyatoxine, triterpénoïdes

Seeds Caustic latex

Whole plant Anthocyan βD-glucan

Whole plant Cardiotoxic heterosides

Whole plant Cardiotoxic heterosides

*Erythrina indica* Lam. Whole plant Saponin (sterols), alkaloids, and acid cyanhydrique

*Duranta repens* L. Fruit Saponin (sterols)

seeds

flowers

Sap

**Table 3.** Ornamental plants with toxic constituents.

*Euphorbia millii* Des

*Jatropha multifida* L. Leaves and

*Lantana camara* L. Leaves and

Moul.

*Pedilanthus tithymaloides* (L.) Poit.

Stern

Boan

ex Steud

*Rhoeo spathacea* (Sw.)

*Setcreasea purpuracea*

*Thevetia neriifolia* Juss.

*Thevetia peruviana* (Pers.) Merr.

Technicity remains to be formed.


**Table 3.** Ornamental plants with toxic constituents.

**Scientific name Organs consumed Products obtained** *Cocos nucifera* L. Fruit Vegetable oil consumption

*Lantana camara* L. Leaves Sandpaper to polish wood

stems powder

*Thevetia neriifolia* Juss. Fruit Ordeals and divinations

*Croton zambesicus* Müll Arg. Whole plant Protection and hunting evil spirits

**Scientific names Part used Main chemical composition Effects**

cyanogenic derived

Whole plant Alkaloid, oxalate de calcium

Cyanhydric acide

Cardiotoxic

*Cycas circinalis* L. Whole plant Methylazoxyméthanol, and alkylating agents

Cyanhydric acid and acids oleic acid

Whole plant Saponin, alkaloid

Whole plant Calcium oxalate

Whole plant Steroids, saponoides, polyphenols, tannins, and

wood

*Mangifera indica* L. Green or dried fruit,

*Bambusa vulgaris* Trunk, leaves, and

**Table 2.** Other uses identified for ornamental plants.

Latex and root

*Allamanda cathartica* L. Whole plant Cardiotoxic heterosides

*Asclepias curassavica* L. Whole plant Cardiotoxic heterosides

Racines and seeds

Whole plant and latex

seed

**Psycho-magic**

218 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

*Acalypha hispida* Burm.f.

*Adenium obesum* (Forssk.) Roem. &

*Alocasia macrorhiza*

*Aralia balfouriana* Bailey

*Caesalpinia pulcherrima*

*Caladium bicolor* (Ait.)

*Crescentia cujete* L. Pulpe, fruit,

*Calotropis procera* (Aiton) W.T. Aiton

Schult.

Schott.

(L.)Sw.

Vent

*Ealeis guineensis* Jacq. Seed, fruit, and stipe Palm kernel cake, construction, bridges, straw, fencing,

*Gmelina arborea* Roxb. Wood Frames, poles, woodmaking, sculpture, crates, plywood,

*Aloe vera* Leaves Negative influences and household accidents protection

and brush

and fortune

Firewood, and for matches

Fuel, construction, tincture, and black ink

Cardiotoxic heterosides Dangerous for eyes

Protection against negative energies, bad luck, brings luck,

and cause of violent

diarrhea

The cultivation of cut flowers is fairly technical and requires technical training. Large companies operating in Africa belong to European groups that market in the European community and participate in major international exhibitions. Currently, the best way for the African horticulturist to integrate this commercial network is to outsource, as recommended by IQRHH [46] to Quebec horticulturists. Indeed, it is a question of settling near big companies to benefit from advice, technical aids and outlets without having to risk a depreciation of the goods during the transport, and the search of a final clientele. Organizing in a formal grouping (ADF, 2007) is also a solution. Such a grouping is a success in various countries exporting other products (coffee, cocoa, etc.). Government assistance through chambers of commerce and industry to the organization of the sector is a necessity and a non-negligible source of foreign exchange for producers but also for the state. Everything argues in favor of this sector in Togo which has land, labor, and the climate allowing the development (reproduction and harvesting) of crops throughout the year. Technicity remains to be formed.

Like foliage and flowers, the colorful fruits are used to beautify the gardens. Fruit size, shape, and appearance contribute to the recognition of taxa. Of a generally bright color (yellow, orange, red, green-yellow, etc.), the fruits are easily enhanced in the greenish foliage.

The work of Waliczek et al., (2005) supports the idea that gardening is a hobby that can enhance

Usefulness of Plant Biodiversity in the Cities of Togo http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76776 221

There are plants inspiring all sorts of beliefs [50, 51]; some are known as beneficial or lucky (*Croton zambesicus*), and others evil or mischievous (case of Cactaceae). The presence or absence of a type of plant in the life environment can have a positive or negative influence on the activities of the inhabitants of this framework. This fact is called superstition. Indeed, superstition is the belief in the manifestation of mysterious forces linked to acts, objects or phenomena [52]. Biley [50] describes different types of trees that can be planted in the perimeter of a hospital where patients, visitors, and employees will not only benefit from the esthetic appeal of trees but also mythical powers. Vendors and users of ornamental plants report that plants with abundant flowering or pleasantly perfumed flowers are lucky plants. This is the case of *Mussaenda philippica*, *Cananga odorata*, and *Murraya paniculata*. *Setcreasea purpurea* is also listed in this category. They attribute to Draceana fragrans massangeana the role of removing the quarrels from the homes, thus ensuring by their presence in the concession a certain tranquility and security to the couples [40]; to *Euphorbia tirucalli* the role of moving creeping animals away and to *Croton zambesicus*, that of keeping evil spirits away. The color of the flowers also has an interpretation. White symbolizes peace, reconciliation, reunion, the red expresses a sincere love, and the pink is in relation with the friendship. On the other hand, plants whose organs exhale an unpleasant odor are termed dishwashing plants and sellers

Despite the extensions of the Togolese cities, the social stratification is not pronounced. All types of housing can be found in all neighborhoods. Apart from residential cities, spatial seg-

Plants are still the first reservoir of new drugs. Approximately 75% of drugs are of plant origin and each year new drugs are developed [53]. African countries have a long tradition of medicine and traditional medicinal plant-based know-how. Approximately 80% of the populations in developing countries use traditional medicine for primary health care [54–58], either through cultural tradition, or due to the lack of other alternatives, such as the difficulty of accessing conventional care or the higher cost of conventional medicines [59]. The majority of the medicinal species in this study are used 49% to treat diseases of the digestive system and 17% against skin diseases. This is in line with the work of Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60] who

The diversity of parts of the plants from which natural medicines are extracted is surprising. In addition to leaves and flowers, sap (Aloe vera), bark (*Khaya senegalensis*), seeds, fruits, wood (Gaiacum officinale), walnut (Cocos nucifera), stem, resin, straw, tuber, bulb, and roots ([61, 62]). These organs are used raw, dried or extracted in "sodabi" and local alcoholic beverage [38]. In this study, leaves (43%) are mostly solicited and this confirms the work of Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60], Poffenberger et al., (1992) in Ouattara [63], Zihiri (1991), and Adjanohoun and Aké Assi [64]. If the value of 30% found by Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60] seems lower than that of 43% of the present work, the other authors found percentages ranging from 50.90% for Vangah (1986) to 64.49% for Zirihi [65]. Poffenberger et al. (1992) quoted

the level of satisfaction with life and improve general health [49].

avoid cultivating them on their site [38].

regation [40] is not characteristic of cities in Togo.

find 50% and 15%, respectively, for the same conditions.

Age, size, shape, and ecological requirements can provide information on the use of plants. Among these criteria, the ecological requirements are decisive for the place of a harmonious development of the plant. According to these requirements, three main categories are identified for the place of use of ornamental plants:


Moreover, the use of ornamental plants is related to the type of housing and the standard of living of the populations. We can thus distinguish three types of populations [40]:


The use of ornamental plants, in relation to the living environment, informs about the standard of living and cultures. Whatever the standard of living of the population, the current trend is to have a plant in its place of residence [38] and many people are convinced that contact with trees and other [47, 48]. For the population still in rental house or not very well, this is expressed by the presence at the portal of a pot containing a plant symbol, usually an herbaceous. This is the case of *Setcreasea purpurea*, Aloe vera, *Rhoeo spathacea*, *Euphorbia millii* or a shrub (*Schefflera arboricola*, *Codiaeum variegatum*, etc.). For the average or well-to-do population, it is a garden of varying size with a flowerbed and a flower-lined terrace. The type of pot and its contents are also indicators of the standard of living of the owner of the concession. The work of Waliczek et al., (2005) supports the idea that gardening is a hobby that can enhance the level of satisfaction with life and improve general health [49].

Like foliage and flowers, the colorful fruits are used to beautify the gardens. Fruit size, shape, and appearance contribute to the recognition of taxa. Of a generally bright color (yellow,

Age, size, shape, and ecological requirements can provide information on the use of plants. Among these criteria, the ecological requirements are decisive for the place of a harmonious development of the plant. According to these requirements, three main categories are identi-

• outdoor garden plants: planted in isolated, massive, ornamental or safe hedges, ground

Moreover, the use of ornamental plants is related to the type of housing and the standard of

• the wealthy population is found in the "common courtyards", rental dwellings of which the inhabitants do not own. In these dwellings, the inhabitants are placed in front of their room, the ornamental plants in the cement pots. These are usually shrubs or herbs. The few trees found there are planted in the middle of the common courtyard and serve as species

• The population with an average level of living resides in more spacious dwellings with an interior space where they can install pots with indoor plants or a cemented terrace, where they also have pots with green plants, variegated foliage or able to bloom. In these types of concessions, the external space is cemented and does not allow the installation of an

• The high-income population is found in residential neighborhoods or in private and individual dwellings. Outside the pots of indoor plants or terraces/balconies, an outside garden is implanted. It is often composed of lawns, flower beds, hedges, and odoriferous plants

The use of ornamental plants, in relation to the living environment, informs about the standard of living and cultures. Whatever the standard of living of the population, the current trend is to have a plant in its place of residence [38] and many people are convinced that contact with trees and other [47, 48]. For the population still in rental house or not very well, this is expressed by the presence at the portal of a pot containing a plant symbol, usually an herbaceous. This is the case of *Setcreasea purpurea*, Aloe vera, *Rhoeo spathacea*, *Euphorbia millii* or a shrub (*Schefflera arboricola*, *Codiaeum variegatum*, etc.). For the average or well-to-do population, it is a garden of varying size with a flowerbed and a flower-lined terrace. The type of pot and its contents are also indicators of the standard of living of the owner of the concession.

• indoor garden plants that can be installed on the balcony or in apartments.

living of the populations. We can thus distinguish three types of populations [40]:

orange, red, green-yellow, etc.), the fruits are easily enhanced in the greenish foliage.

fied for the place of use of ornamental plants:

cover, and water plants;

220 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

of shade and rest.

• plants of shade or alignment along avenues and roads;

outdoor garden requiring resources for its maintenance.

and requires a labor often permanent for its maintenance.

There are plants inspiring all sorts of beliefs [50, 51]; some are known as beneficial or lucky (*Croton zambesicus*), and others evil or mischievous (case of Cactaceae). The presence or absence of a type of plant in the life environment can have a positive or negative influence on the activities of the inhabitants of this framework. This fact is called superstition. Indeed, superstition is the belief in the manifestation of mysterious forces linked to acts, objects or phenomena [52]. Biley [50] describes different types of trees that can be planted in the perimeter of a hospital where patients, visitors, and employees will not only benefit from the esthetic appeal of trees but also mythical powers. Vendors and users of ornamental plants report that plants with abundant flowering or pleasantly perfumed flowers are lucky plants. This is the case of *Mussaenda philippica*, *Cananga odorata*, and *Murraya paniculata*. *Setcreasea purpurea* is also listed in this category. They attribute to Draceana fragrans massangeana the role of removing the quarrels from the homes, thus ensuring by their presence in the concession a certain tranquility and security to the couples [40]; to *Euphorbia tirucalli* the role of moving creeping animals away and to *Croton zambesicus*, that of keeping evil spirits away. The color of the flowers also has an interpretation. White symbolizes peace, reconciliation, reunion, the red expresses a sincere love, and the pink is in relation with the friendship. On the other hand, plants whose organs exhale an unpleasant odor are termed dishwashing plants and sellers avoid cultivating them on their site [38].

Despite the extensions of the Togolese cities, the social stratification is not pronounced. All types of housing can be found in all neighborhoods. Apart from residential cities, spatial segregation [40] is not characteristic of cities in Togo.

Plants are still the first reservoir of new drugs. Approximately 75% of drugs are of plant origin and each year new drugs are developed [53]. African countries have a long tradition of medicine and traditional medicinal plant-based know-how. Approximately 80% of the populations in developing countries use traditional medicine for primary health care [54–58], either through cultural tradition, or due to the lack of other alternatives, such as the difficulty of accessing conventional care or the higher cost of conventional medicines [59]. The majority of the medicinal species in this study are used 49% to treat diseases of the digestive system and 17% against skin diseases. This is in line with the work of Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60] who find 50% and 15%, respectively, for the same conditions.

The diversity of parts of the plants from which natural medicines are extracted is surprising. In addition to leaves and flowers, sap (Aloe vera), bark (*Khaya senegalensis*), seeds, fruits, wood (Gaiacum officinale), walnut (Cocos nucifera), stem, resin, straw, tuber, bulb, and roots ([61, 62]). These organs are used raw, dried or extracted in "sodabi" and local alcoholic beverage [38]. In this study, leaves (43%) are mostly solicited and this confirms the work of Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60], Poffenberger et al., (1992) in Ouattara [63], Zihiri (1991), and Adjanohoun and Aké Assi [64]. If the value of 30% found by Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60] seems lower than that of 43% of the present work, the other authors found percentages ranging from 50.90% for Vangah (1986) to 64.49% for Zirihi [65]. Poffenberger et al. (1992) quoted by Ouattara [63] estimates that harvesting 50% of the leaves of a tree would not significantly affect its survival.

Ornamental horticulture in Togo is characterized by the weakness of the areas exploited and the inorganization of the sector. It makes it possible to satisfy in part the ornamental plants needs of the capital, to participate in the generation of direct and indirect income, to partially reduce unemployment and to improve the environmental landscape of cities. The mode of acquisition and exploitation of the spaces is precarious as soon as the cities of the country and especially Lomé (the capital) are under construction especially in the construction of road infrastructures. This work, as is currently the case for operators located on the Boulevard du Mono (Lomé—Benin Border) axis, force operators installed on public roads to forcible removal, plunging the sector into precarious situations. The maintenance of a balance between urbanization and ornamental horticulture may exist provided that the authorities concerned are aware of its importance in improving the quality of urban life, in supplying cities with ornamental species and diversity, the elimination of unemployment and participation in the national economy. It is therefore important that all the actors on the ground have an integrated and concerted approach not only to improve the performance of production systems but also to take horticultural holdings into account in urban planning schemes.

Usefulness of Plant Biodiversity in the Cities of Togo http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76776 223

As part of the policy of embellishing cities, flowers can play a very important role. It is therefore necessary to take action to enable the nascent horticultural sector to play its full part in this policy and in the economy of the country. The training of a skilled workforce would be

Laboratory of Forest Research, Faculty of Science, University of Lomé, Lomé, Togo

Deuxième Cahier du Conseil national des parcs et jardins; 2008. pp. 10-17

[1] Durnerin A. Les grandes expéditions botaniques du XVIIe au XIXe siècle et le transport des plantes. In: Le voyage des plantes: Les jardins, acteurs culturels de la biodiversité.

[2] Bellec F, Girault de Coursac P. La généreuse et tragique expédition Lapérouse. Ouest-

[3] Brunel JF, Hiepko P, Scholz H. Flore analytique du Togo. Eschborn: GTZ éd; 1984. 750p

[4] Aké Assi L. Présence d'un Piper d'Amérique du Sud sur les pentes de la montagne Klouto (Togo). Mitteilungen der Botanischen Staatssammlung München. 1971;**10**:169

[5] Ern H. Die Vegetation Togos. Gliederrung, Gefährdung, Erhaltung. Willdenowia. 1979;**9**:

an asset for its development.

Radji Raoufou\* and Kokou Kouami

\*Address all correspondence to: pradji@hotmail.com

**Author details**

**References**

France; 1985

295-312

In addition, the most used method of preparation in this study is the decoction (47%). This result is very close to the 42.30% established by N'Guessan et al. [66] and equals the 47% found by Mehdioui and Kahouadji [60]. On the other hand, it is very much higher compared to the 32.94% reported by Adjanohoun and Aké Assi [64]. As for the mode of administration of the drugs, the buccal absorption is solicited to 82%. If this mode is similarly reported in other studies, its value is far superior to that of N'Guessan et al. [66] which indicate 48.97%, to that of 32.35% established by Ouattara [63] or of 27.06% indicated by Adjanohoun and Aké Assi [64].

Ornamental horticulture that incorporates the cultivation of medicinal plants could reduce the pressure on the medicinal plant species most used in traditional pharmacopeia. In the case of rare, threatened or overexploited plants for commercialization, cultivation is the only way to obtain the necessary plant quantities without further compromising the survival of these species [67].
