**6. Use of marula and its products by households in the study area**

The majority of the respondents (76.4%; n = 216) used marula for brewing *buganu*. Others used it as a source of food (67.5%; n = 191) and others sold the kernels (51.9%; n = 147) for income. The findings concur with observations by Marula Natural Products [35] and Mabaya et al. [33] who highlight different uses of marula. The respondents also indicated that marula is used for medicinal purposes (12.5%; n = 35)—a finding that confirms those of several other authors [11, 16, 32, 37]. The findings also show that marula is used in carving artifacts, as animal fodder, fencing homesteads, for cultural practices, for spiritual purposes including chasing away Gremlins (*tokolosi)*, divination counters and for banishing evil spirits. These findings agree quite well with those of Nwongwu [51] and O'Brien [52] who reported similar uses of marula. The respondents also indicated that the marula kernel is used for pressing out the oil for cooking and for home-made body care lotion, which is in concert with other authors, such as Abdalbasit and Ibrahim [1], Glew et al. [13] and Wynberg et al. [75].

## **7. Changes in consumption patterns of marula**

Respondents were asked to indicate the number of years they have been involved in marula harvesting (**Figure 1**). The data showed that, out of the 219 respondents who responded to the question, 38% (n = 83) have been harvesting marula for less than 10 years, while 31% (n = 68) have harvested marula for 10–15 years and 31% (n = 68) have been doing so for 16 years and above. The data suggest that the 38% who have been involved in marula trade for less than 10 years joined the marula enterprise after the introduction of the marula processing plants in 2004. These marula processing plants could have attracted more people to join the marula trade. This is a very significant number of harvesters added and, has increased the burden on marula resources. The increase in numbers of harvesters in this study agrees fairly well with the increase in the number of basket makers in the case of the introduction of basketry in Botswana in the 1970s [46] which contributed to the collapse of the basket industry due to resource depletion.

of marula in Swaziland could compromise the livelihood activities and well-being of large numbers of the rural poor in terms of income generation, as they derive a substantial part of

The researchers wanted to first ascertain the sources of livelihoods for the people in the study area. The majority (73.2%; n = 255) of the respondents depended on subsistence crop production, while 36.6% (n = 127) relied, to a very low level, on rearing/breeding animals such as cattle, goats and chickens. Others sourced income from selling marula products (50.4%; n = 173), which emphasizes the importance of marula to the Swazi nation. Others relied on harvesting and selling other wild fruits and seeds except marula (54%; n = 54). Some (12.4%; n = 37) relied on other sources, such as collecting Mopani worms, wild fruits (wild berries and guava) and wild vegetables [like Amaranthus (*umbidvo*), Black Jack (*Imbuya*) and okra (*ligusha)*]*,* and other

respondents are housewives who depend mainly on their husbands' income.

as Abdalbasit and Ibrahim [1], Glew et al. [13] and Wynberg et al. [75].

**7. Changes in consumption patterns of marula**

**6. Use of marula and its products by households in the study area**

The majority of the respondents (76.4%; n = 216) used marula for brewing *buganu*. Others used it as a source of food (67.5%; n = 191) and others sold the kernels (51.9%; n = 147) for income. The findings concur with observations by Marula Natural Products [35] and Mabaya et al. [33] who highlight different uses of marula. The respondents also indicated that marula is used for medicinal purposes (12.5%; n = 35)—a finding that confirms those of several other authors [11, 16, 32, 37]. The findings also show that marula is used in carving artifacts, as animal fodder, fencing homesteads, for cultural practices, for spiritual purposes including chasing away Gremlins (*tokolosi)*, divination counters and for banishing evil spirits. These findings agree quite well with those of Nwongwu [51] and O'Brien [52] who reported similar uses of marula. The respondents also indicated that the marula kernel is used for pressing out the oil for cooking and for home-made body care lotion, which is in concert with other authors, such

Respondents were asked to indicate the number of years they have been involved in marula harvesting (**Figure 1**). The data showed that, out of the 219 respondents who responded to the question, 38% (n = 83) have been harvesting marula for less than 10 years, while 31% (n = 68) have harvested marula for 10–15 years and 31% (n = 68) have been doing so for 16 years and above. The data suggest that the 38% who have been involved in marula trade for less than 10 years joined the marula enterprise after the introduction of the marula processing plants in 2004. These marula processing plants could have attracted more people to join the marula

their livelihoods from harvesting marula products.

**5. Findings**

308 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

Also in Zimbabwe, Terry and Cunningham [66] reported that a weaving club that was started in 1986 with 20 members expanded to 500 people by 1988 due to the expansion in market demand and eventually contributed to the collapse of the weaving club. This means that the introduction of commercial market economy to natural products, such as marula, tends to attract more entrepreneurs to the enterprise which, in turn, leads to overharvesting and, subsequently, to depletion of the resource base. Our data indeed revealed that 53.8% (n = 171) of the respondents were of the opinion that marula is becoming less available than before, and attributed the decline to the increase in the number of harvesters. Once a communal resource is exposed to an improved market, it tends to attract many harvesters, which leads to overexploitation and depletion of the resource [20, 21]. These findings concur with those reported by Shackleton and Shackleton [61] where more than one-third of their respondents in the Bushbuckridge area in South Africa opined that there had been a decrease in marula following the introduction of improved market for marula products.

The Swaziland Indigenous Products (SIP) (2012) observed that the factors currently threatening the continued productivity and biodiversity in Swaziland are largely a result of socioeconomic changes without appropriate adaption, exacerbated by repeated droughts and, possibly, climate change, which are interlinked and, in some cases, form negative synergies. Other factors threatening biodiversity in Swaziland (and thus the sustainability of marula harvesting) include population growth, which has resulted into changes in land use and more intense use of natural resources, overgrazing, deforestation, erosion, and an increase in invasive alien plants [65].

Infestation of marula trees and fruits by pests in the study area has also been reported. This was confirmed by the Swaziland Minister of Tourism and Environmental Affairs when he pointed out that marula is commonly being affected by worms [50]. According to the Minister, the worms make the marula trees dry out in a very strange way, leaving them with no leaves and yielding no fruits, which disturbs the production of marula fruits. The impact of the pests on the marula tree not only affects the popular *Buganu* ceremony but also the production of various products by the two local commercial companies—the Swazi Secrets and the Swaziland Marula—as well as the livelihoods of the poor rural communities. Some respondents indicated worries on the pest situation, alluding to the fact that some of the trees are no longer yielding fruits due to the impact of pests. This worry was also echoed by the spokesperson for the Swazi Secrets marula company. Besides, storms frequently occur annually in Swaziland and when they do, marula trees fall down and, thus, reduce fruit yield which in turn impact negatively on the commercial marula enterprises and rural livelihoods in the country.

With regard to expected future availability of marula, if levels of harvesting and selling were to continue at the current rate, 44.7% (n = 140) of the respondents opined that marula will only be available in the next 5 years, while 40.0% (n = 125) thought it might still be available for the next 10 years. These responses suggest that the respondents are aware that, with increased harvesting, marula will get exhausted in the near future. This seems to concur fairly well with Helm and Witkowski [21] who reported that marula is declining at an unprecedented rate in the Kruger National Park and other areas in South Africa. Aggravating the prospects for sustainable marula harvesting is the absence of dedicated leadership to start implementing strategies for sustaining marula, as there seems to be no government body or non-governmental organization helping in conservation activities in the area. In addition, it was observed that there is no overarching policy and no regulations were in place to govern access to and harvesting of marula products. If depletion of marula were to occur, it will adversely affect poor rural households that depend on it for income, food and other services. Observations around the households during the socio-economic interviews showed glaringly that the poorest households in the study area were food insecure and it was obvious that marula played a huge role as a source of food in those circumstances. Kirkland et al. [28] as well as Tibesigwa et al. [67] made a similar observation in their respective studies in South Africa.

quantities for income generation. This commercialized pattern of harvesting is considered a very important factor in accelerating the potential depletion of marula resources in Swaziland and is threatening the quest for its sustainability if appropriate measures are not put in place.

Commercial Harvesting of Marula (*Sclerocarya Birrea*) in Swaziland: A Quest for Sustainability

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76606

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Marula plays a crucial role in the livelihoods of poor rural households in Swaziland. The current level of commercialized harvesting of marula products in Swaziland is unsustainable as it has negatively impacted on the regeneration potential of marula and, thus, requires deliberate monitoring and strict control of the harvesting process. Many socio-economic factors are interlocking to accelerate the harvesting of marula products beyond its sustainability thresholds to support the livelihoods of many poverty-stricken rural households in Swaziland. Therefore, overconsumption or even depletion of marula in Swaziland will deepen the existing poverty levels among the rural poor, particularly women, who are proportionately more dependent on marula, and therefore most vulnerable to the loss of a natural resource that will

To sustain the harvesting of marula in Swaziland, a combination of environmental and socioeconomic policy interventions are imperative. The community members, for instance, should plant marula in the fields around the homesteads to replace the current old marula trees when they die out or stop producing fruits so as to ensure the reliable supply of marula products, and at the same time reduce the harvesting pressure in the agricultural fields and grazing areas. Therefore, the communities should dedicate the planting of marula in an agroforestry system to alleviate the pressure on marula and enhance its population size and structure, thus increasing the sustainable utilization of the marula species and the economic sustainability of the commercial marula enterprises in the country. The communities should furthermore restrict domesticated animals from accessing the agricultural fields to reduce the browsing of

At a policy level, the local authorities should stop people from cutting down marula trees, engage the communities in education on the importance of marula conservation and the practice of not collecting all the marula fruits and seeds from the ground for purposes of regenerating new seedlings. Rural development policies in particular should be revisited and realigned towards encouraging job creation in the rural areas of Swaziland. The Ministry of Education should widen the base and access to quality educational opportunities in the rural areas through provision of adult education programmes which will increase the chances of rural dwellers, especially women, of finding employment opportunities. This would, in turn, empower rural communities and minimize overdependence on natural forest products, thus

**9. Conclusion**

impact their livelihoods negatively.

growing marula seedlings in those fields.

relieving the harvesting pressure on marula.

**10. Recommendations**

#### **8. Discussion**

The study revealed that a large proportion of rural people in the study area relied mainly on marula harvesting for their livelihoods, in addition to subsistence crop production and subsistence animal rearing. The current production of value-added products from marula fruits and seeds in Swaziland has given impetus to rural people, especially women, to harvest marula products on commercial scale. The harvesting process itself, driven by market demand, is thus threatening the sustainability of marula harvesting and, inevitably, also the survival of the species. Every year during the marula season, the majority of rural people in Swaziland take up the opportunity of harvesting marula fruits and seeds for making an extra income to cater for multiple needs that the households face, ranging from payment of school fees to buying of electricity, medicines and food. As observed by Campbell et al. [6], as well as Shackleton and Shackleton [59], trade in marula products is one of the important local income-generating options available to the rural poor, and particularly women in southern Africa. The interface between poverty, rural livelihoods and marula harvesting in Swaziland reflects the dependency of impoverished rural populations on natural capital and, thus, demonstrates the intricate linkage between people and the ecosystems in which they live [69].

Apart from the commercialization of marula products in Swaziland, the study found that several socio-economic factors interlock to contribute to the intense harvesting of marula in Swaziland. Widespread conditions of poverty fuelled by low levels of education are well established in several places across southern Africa where a strong dependency on and wide range of uses of marula have led to the increased exploitation of the resource. All agricultural and grazing fields in the study area have been exploited for marula harvesting causing the level of regeneration of marula in those areas to be very low due to constant removal of the fruits and seeds. The multiple uses of marula products, combined with the introduction of the processing companies, have encouraged many people to harvest large amounts of marula in large quantities for income generation. This commercialized pattern of harvesting is considered a very important factor in accelerating the potential depletion of marula resources in Swaziland and is threatening the quest for its sustainability if appropriate measures are not put in place.
