**3. Anthropogenic threats most pertinent to wildlife dispersal in the KAZA TFCA**

#### **3.1. Poaching**

Three types of poaching [6] take place in the KAZA TFCA. These include:


In the KAZA TFCA, poaching of valuable species such as the African elephant is serious, as exemplified by the number of carcasses observed during the 2015 wildlife aerial censuses coordinated by the African Elephant Without Borders (EWB) in the region (**Figure 4**).

The most affected elephant population is in the Angolan component of KAZA TFCA, where the number of carcasses represents about 43% of the live elephants, followed by Zambia (12%) and Zimbabwe (8%), implying that the illegal offtake of the elephant is very high in some parts of the KAZA TFCA. Considering that this TFCA has the highest number of elephants (≈199,031) on the African continent, the increasing international demand for ivory on the black market will continue to exert pressure on the KAZA elephant populations, more especially due to the projected human population growth (**Figure 5**) and if the socioeconomic status of the local communities living in and around the KAZA TFCA continues to be underdeveloped. Already the illegal offtake of elephant in Sioma Ngwezi National Park (Zambia), which forms part of the KAZA TFCA (**Figure 1**), exceeds the intrinsic growth capacity of the species.

The WDCs that are most threatened by poaching are Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs, Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem), Hwange-Kazuma-Chobe and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 5.** (a) Population of southern province of Zambia (http://www.geohive.com/cntry/zambia.aspx), projected to 2050. (b) Population of Zambezi Region of Namibia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics\_of\_Namibia), projected to 2050. (c) Population of Western Province of Zambia (http://www.geohive.com/cntry/zambia.aspx), projected to 2050.

**Figure 4.** Elephant population and carcasses observed during aerial surveys in the KAZA TFCA in 2015 (EWB, *pers*. *com*).

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resulting in range contractions and reduced abundances. However, while the impact of climate change will be experienced throughout the KAZA TFCA, the Hwange-Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan, Hwange-Kazuma-Chobe (**Figure 2**) and Khaudum-Ngamiland, which currently

(i) *Subsistence poaching*: typically targeting small game to meet subsistence needs, character-

(ii) *Commercial poaching*: operating within organised syndicates that target commercially valuable species, e.g. elephants, lion, leopard (*Panthera pardus*), black rhino (*Diceros bicornis*), white rhino (*Ceratotherium simum*) and others. Commercial poachers use advanced technologies, including firearms, GPS, mobile phones, etc. Commercial poaching has devas-

(iii) *Hybrid form of poaching*: combining commercial and subsistence poaching, typically engaged in commercial hunting for bushmeat, which is a common phenomenon in east

In the KAZA TFCA, poaching of valuable species such as the African elephant is serious, as exemplified by the number of carcasses observed during the 2015 wildlife aerial censuses

The most affected elephant population is in the Angolan component of KAZA TFCA, where the number of carcasses represents about 43% of the live elephants, followed by Zambia (12%) and Zimbabwe (8%), implying that the illegal offtake of the elephant is very high in some parts of the KAZA TFCA. Considering that this TFCA has the highest number of elephants (≈199,031) on the African continent, the increasing international demand for ivory on the black market will continue to exert pressure on the KAZA elephant populations, more especially due to the projected human population growth (**Figure 5**) and if the socioeconomic status of the local communities living in and around the KAZA TFCA continues to be underdeveloped. Already the illegal offtake of elephant in Sioma Ngwezi National Park (Zambia), which forms part of the KAZA TFCA (**Figure 1**), exceeds the intrinsic growth capacity of the

The WDCs that are most threatened by poaching are Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs, Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem), Hwange-Kazuma-Chobe and Chobe-

Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs (**Figure 2**).

coordinated by the African Elephant Without Borders (EWB) in the region (**Figure 4**).

**3. Anthropogenic threats most pertinent to wildlife dispersal in the** 

experience severe shortage of natural water, will be most affected.

Three types of poaching [6] take place in the KAZA TFCA. These include:

tating impact on wildlife populations on the African continent [7, 8].

ised by low technology (e.g. the use of traps and snares).

and southern Africa, including KAZA TFCA.

**KAZA TFCA**

186 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

**3.1. Poaching**

species.

**Figure 4.** Elephant population and carcasses observed during aerial surveys in the KAZA TFCA in 2015 (EWB, *pers*. *com*).

**Figure 5.** (a) Population of southern province of Zambia (http://www.geohive.com/cntry/zambia.aspx), projected to 2050. (b) Population of Zambezi Region of Namibia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics\_of\_Namibia), projected to 2050. (c) Population of Western Province of Zambia (http://www.geohive.com/cntry/zambia.aspx), projected to 2050.

#### **3.2. Human population growth**

**Figure 5**(**a**–**c**) illustrates the current and projected human populations in the KAZA TFCA, where the most populous areas by 2050 will be the Southern Province of Zambia (**Figure 5a**), Zambezi Region of Namibia (**Figure 5b**) and Western Province of Zambia (**Figure 5c**), where the population densities will be 35, 20 and 11 people per km<sup>2</sup> , respectively, by 2050. While these population densities may not be outrageously alarming, the semiaridness of these areas and the dominance of the Kalahari sands, which are not suitable for agriculture, imply that the population densities will be higher than what would be sustained, more especially as the human settlements and cultivation are often in areas that have the most fertile soils, such as river banks and floodplains, which are also vital for wildlife to access water and forage, which are far apart within the TFCA landscape.

poor regulatory mechanisms is a serious problem, causing deforestation and habitat degradation around the Kafue National Park, thus aggravating habitat fragmentation. Deforestation due to charcoal production is being heightened by illegal extraction of hardwood timber, such as Zambezi teak (*Baikiaea plurijuga*) and others. The WDCs most threatened by charcoal production and/or timber extraction are Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem), especially on the Zambian side; Chobe-Zambezi floodplain-Sioma Ngwezi ecosystem; and

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189

Uncontrolled bushfires are a common phenomenon in the KAZA TFCA with potential to modify the physiognomic characteristics of the KAZA landscape. Although all wildlife corridors are threatened by uncontrolled bushfires, those with high human populations, currently and in the future, are the most prone to bushfires, such as Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.

**4. Ranking of the threats to wildlife dispersal corridors in KAZA TFCA**

**Poaching Charcoal Timber** 

Khaudum-Ngamiland 1 2 0 0 4 3 4 **2.0**

**extraction**

5 5 5 5 5 2 0 **3.9**

5 5 5 5 5 2 0 **3.9**

5 5 0 4 5 2 0 **3**

1 3 0 0 5 3 4 **2.3**

1 3 0 0 4 3 0 **1.5**

**Bushfire Climate change**

**Veterinary fences**

**Mean score**

A qualitative ranking of the threats to WDCs on a scale of 0–5 is shown in **Table 1**, where a score of 0 = no threat, 1 = negligible threat, 2 = low threat, 3 = moderate threat, 4 = high threat and 5 severe threat. Based on ranking of the aggregate threat scores, the most threatened WDCs, requiring multiple strategies and concerted effort to mitigate the threats, are the Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-

Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.

**3.5. Uncontrolled bushfires**

**WDCs Habitat** 

Simalaha (Chobe-Kafue ecosystem)

Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue/Luiana National Parks

Chobe-Zambezi Region/Namibia-Luengue/Luiana National Parks

Makgadikgadi-Nxai

Hwange-Kazuma-

Hwange-

Pan

Chobe

Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs (**Figure 2**).

**fragmentation**

**Table 1.** Summary of key threats to the WDCs in the KAZA TFCA.

The projected population growth will affect the natural resource base in many ways. First, it will trigger increased demand for arable land, food, water and other essential materials, such as firewood. Second, expanded agricultural activities will lead to encroachment into the remnant wilderness areas (forests and woodlands), including wildlife dispersal corridors that facilitate ecological linkages among the 36 protected areas in the KAZA TFCA. Third, the degradation of the natural resource base in turn will impinge on the people's livelihoods, particularly rural communities. Besides habitat fragmentation and degradation, expanding human populations and settlements will trigger increased human-wildlife conflicts and poaching—both for the enlarged local consumption of bushmeat and for the illegal trade of wildlife trophies—more especially, among the socioeconomically underprivileged communities, who depend on natural resources and are vulnerable to criminal syndicates' influence to poach and supply wildlife trophies for illegal trade.

The WDCs most threatened by the projected population growth include Simalaha (Chobe National Park-Kafue ecosystem) and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs (**Figure 2**).

#### **3.3. Veterinary fences**

Veterinary fences in the KAZA TFCA have been erected to control the spread of livestock diseases in order to protect the European Union beef market. These fences have been implicated in curtailing movement of migratory wildlife species such as giraffe (*Giraffa giraffa*), tsessebe (*Damaliscus lunatus lunatus*), wildebeest, zebra, buffalo, elephant and others, with some animals dying from dehydration and entanglements in the fences, thus contributing to the decline of wildlife species [9]. The WDCs most threatened by veterinary fences are Khaudum-Ngamiland, along the border with Namibia; Hwange-Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan, along the southern tip of Hwange National Park; and the Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.

#### **3.4. Charcoal production and illegal timber extraction**

There is high demand for bioenergy in some parts of the KAZA TFCA. Even in the electrified communities, the high cost of electricity has prevented a move away from dependency on bioenergy. In the Zambian component of KAZA, for instance, charcoal production facilitated by poor regulatory mechanisms is a serious problem, causing deforestation and habitat degradation around the Kafue National Park, thus aggravating habitat fragmentation. Deforestation due to charcoal production is being heightened by illegal extraction of hardwood timber, such as Zambezi teak (*Baikiaea plurijuga*) and others. The WDCs most threatened by charcoal production and/or timber extraction are Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem), especially on the Zambian side; Chobe-Zambezi floodplain-Sioma Ngwezi ecosystem; and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.

#### **3.5. Uncontrolled bushfires**

**3.2. Human population growth**

188 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

are far apart within the TFCA landscape.

poach and supply wildlife trophies for illegal trade.

**3.4. Charcoal production and illegal timber extraction**

Luengue-Luiana NPs (**Figure 2**).

Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.

**3.3. Veterinary fences**

**Figure 5**(**a**–**c**) illustrates the current and projected human populations in the KAZA TFCA, where the most populous areas by 2050 will be the Southern Province of Zambia (**Figure 5a**), Zambezi Region of Namibia (**Figure 5b**) and Western Province of Zambia (**Figure 5c**), where

these population densities may not be outrageously alarming, the semiaridness of these areas and the dominance of the Kalahari sands, which are not suitable for agriculture, imply that the population densities will be higher than what would be sustained, more especially as the human settlements and cultivation are often in areas that have the most fertile soils, such as river banks and floodplains, which are also vital for wildlife to access water and forage, which

The projected population growth will affect the natural resource base in many ways. First, it will trigger increased demand for arable land, food, water and other essential materials, such as firewood. Second, expanded agricultural activities will lead to encroachment into the remnant wilderness areas (forests and woodlands), including wildlife dispersal corridors that facilitate ecological linkages among the 36 protected areas in the KAZA TFCA. Third, the degradation of the natural resource base in turn will impinge on the people's livelihoods, particularly rural communities. Besides habitat fragmentation and degradation, expanding human populations and settlements will trigger increased human-wildlife conflicts and poaching—both for the enlarged local consumption of bushmeat and for the illegal trade of wildlife trophies—more especially, among the socioeconomically underprivileged communities, who depend on natural resources and are vulnerable to criminal syndicates' influence to

The WDCs most threatened by the projected population growth include Simalaha (Chobe National Park-Kafue ecosystem) and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-

Veterinary fences in the KAZA TFCA have been erected to control the spread of livestock diseases in order to protect the European Union beef market. These fences have been implicated in curtailing movement of migratory wildlife species such as giraffe (*Giraffa giraffa*), tsessebe (*Damaliscus lunatus lunatus*), wildebeest, zebra, buffalo, elephant and others, with some animals dying from dehydration and entanglements in the fences, thus contributing to the decline of wildlife species [9]. The WDCs most threatened by veterinary fences are Khaudum-Ngamiland, along the border with Namibia; Hwange-Makgadikgadi-Nxai Pan, along the southern tip of Hwange National Park; and the Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma

There is high demand for bioenergy in some parts of the KAZA TFCA. Even in the electrified communities, the high cost of electricity has prevented a move away from dependency on bioenergy. In the Zambian component of KAZA, for instance, charcoal production facilitated by

, respectively, by 2050. While

the population densities will be 35, 20 and 11 people per km<sup>2</sup>

Uncontrolled bushfires are a common phenomenon in the KAZA TFCA with potential to modify the physiognomic characteristics of the KAZA landscape. Although all wildlife corridors are threatened by uncontrolled bushfires, those with high human populations, currently and in the future, are the most prone to bushfires, such as Simalaha (Chobe National Park, Kafue ecosystem) and Chobe-Zambezi floodplain/Namibia-Sioma Ngwezi-Luengue-Luiana NPs.
