**4. Concluding discussion**

found in Maltese waters by using DNA barcoding (**Table 1**) as a first step toward accurate identification of species followed by other molecular markers once several specimens were sampled from different parts of their distribution, as has been carried out with native species. Alien species found in Maltese waters and constituting first records in the Mediterranean have been studied and monitored in these waters. Such studies that also involve fishermen's cooperation [53–60] furnish useful early warning signals for timely management of bioinvasions. Among the various alien reef species caught in shallow Maltese waters and identified genetically as well as morphologically one finds: the Cocoa damselfish, *Stegastes variabilis*; the Dory snapper, *Lutjanus fulviflamma*; the African sergeant, *Abudefduf hoefleri*; the Indopacific sergeant, *Abudefduf vaigiensis* (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) [56]; the Lowfin chub, *Kyphosus vaigiensis* (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) [57]); the African Hind, *Cephalopholis taeniops* and the Niger Hind, *Cephalopholis nigri*; the Squirrelfish, *Holocentrus adscensionis* (Osbeck, 1765) [59]; and the Monrovia doctorfish, *Acanthurus monroviae* (Steindachner, 1876) [60]). **Figures 4** and **5** show some of the alien species caught in Maltese waters. **Table 1** shows the habitat preference of these species and the current status of these species in Maltese waters. Through ongoing research and monitoring it was possible to confirm species establishment while other potentially dangerous and invasive species such as the pufferfish and lionfish species were also spotted [61] posing particular cumulative impacts on fisheries and native reef species. The diversity

of invasive species may produce diverse impacts that still need to be understood [8, 9].

**Figure 4.** Photo of the Squirrel fish, *Holocentrus adscensionis* (Osbeck, 1765) (Beryciformes: Holocentridae), first record of its presence in the Mediterranean Sea [59]. This species is a subtropical reef-associated fish native to the Atlantic Ocean

**Figure 5.** Photo of the alien Niger Hind, *Cephalopholis nigri* (Perciformes: Serranidae), from Maltese coastal water [58].

and may therefore compete with native Mediterranean reef species.

92 Selected Studies in Biodiversity

Small-scale artisanal fisheries are in fast decline in the Maltese Islands, which reflects a symptom around the Mediterranean where both policies and environmental change are having a heavy toll on these ancient maritime traditions. However, recreational fishing vessels that are not monitored closely are in rapid increase. According to the key elements of the Strategic Plan 2011–2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets, Strategic Goal A—*Target 1 states that by 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably*. Traditional small-scale fishers are the first to invoke conservation and sustainable use but need to be assisted in their adaptation to the many changes affecting their futures from climate change to closed seasons to increasingly importation of fish foods from abroad. *Target 2 states that by 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate and reporting systems*. Will this consider the poverty that is increasing among small-scale fishermen?

Strategic Goal B—*Target 6 states that by 2020, all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits*. This relevant and ambitious target demands close collaboration between fishers, researchers and managers in order to find effective ways forward without ignoring the socio-economic consequences to small-scale fishermen [63]. Just as in developing countries and island states, small-scale fisheries are increasingly considered as vulnerable and recognized as deserving greater attention and closer innovative interventions in collaboration with the fishers themselves, Maltese fishers need to find greater comprehension and assistance so as to facilitate their sustainability at both socioeconomic and environmental levels. Regulations need to be useful to both the environment and fishers, allowing equitable and sustainable sharing of the resources rather than allowing for exclusivity and monopoly of few commercial fishers. Regulations must be economically and environmentally viable, taking into account the impacts of climate change. At the same time, full-time fishers need to be allowed to become more active in research and monitoring. Inclusion rather than exclusion of stakeholders in the assessment and decision-making process would strengthen the efficacy of any long-term management plan [64]. Mediterranean fish populations tend to support multi-species and seasonal multi-gear SSF, where regional governance systems also affect fisheries sustainability levels. Management in such conditions requires an understanding of the nature of each fishery as a complex socio-ecological system needing to find effective and lasting solutions for the communities involved [65]. While smallscale fishing can be harmful when its aggregated impact on the stocks is significant, spatial and seasonal planning of shared SSF activities should avoid such impacts. There are also cases where small and large-scale fleets targeting the same stocks are not regulated through different mechanisms in reflection of the different levels of impact. A differentiated management design targeting the ecological sustainability of these shared stocks is essential [13]. At the same time, the environmental changes, including the increasing number of alien and invasive species, demand effective involvement of fishermen as valuable monitors and practitioners of sustainable fisheries in order to safeguard Mediterranean biodiversity and heritage.

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## **Acknowledgements**

Thanks are due to Maltese artisanal fishermen who have shared their experiences and concerns for their futures with us during our interviews and research. Mr. Clayton Buttigieg, Manager Fisheries & Aquaculture Licenses, Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture— Fishing Vessel Register, Ministry for Sustainable development, the environment and climate change for providing relevant information for 2015. Statistics officers at the Department of Fisheries and the National Statistics Office Malta for providing additional landings statistics.

The REACH HIGH Scholars Programme-Post Doctoral Grants, part-financed by the European Union, Operational Programme II - Cohesion Policy 2014 - 2020 "Investing in human capital to create more opportunities and promote the well-being of society" - European Social Fund.
