**7. Beyond the beautiful: realising the full potential of Poaceae in human resilience**

Climate change brings with it benefits and opportunities, including the ability to use plants previously considered not hardy to a region. In 2016, I began testing plants on our newly installed Roof Ecosystem Research Lab that was designed to serve the needs of the Urban Ecosystem programme at Kwantlen Polytechnic University in Langley, BC, Canada (49° 6ʹ33.71ʺN; 122°38ʹ47.08ʺW, USDA Climate Zone 8b). On a roof, which receives and absorbs more heat than on the ground, we can test plants at soil temperatures more conducive to lower latitude climates. In doing so, we can gain insight into the potential for new outdoor food crops such as sub-tropical and tropical chilli peppers (*Capsicum* spp.) that were previously unsuitable for outdoor growing because of a shorter season, or cooler and wetter prevailing weather patterns.

One of the plants we grew was lemongrass (*Cymbopogon citratus* (DC.) Stapf.), a tropical perennial native to South and Southeast Asia where it is used as both food [128] and medicine, including antioxidant, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties [129]. Lemongrass and its traditional uses have spread throughout the sub-tropical and tropical regions of the world, in part because of its many outstanding medicinal qualities. In most parts of North America, it is hardy in USDA Climate Zones 10 and 11, where it thrives in summer heat. Lemongrass is not frost tolerant and is thus treated in our region as a novelty annual ornamental with spiky leaves, aromatic scent and culinary flavour enhancer anywhere prone to frosts. To achieve perenniality in temperate climates, winter cover is required to protect lemongrass from heavy frosts. While our plants did not survive the killing frosts of 2016–2017, we will be trialling lemongrass again in 2017, and covering with a low poly-hoop house on the roof for overwintering.

In the fall of 2016, a plant materials course taught by the author explored indigenous species from the West Coast of North America, including Poaceae, and their various cultural properties including food, medicine and technology uses. This nascent examination of the properties of Poaceae triggered a search of the university plant database to examine species planted on campus strictly as ornamentals, or labelled as weeds, that are used for food, medicine or technology in their places of origin. I have selected five species from our campus landscape to present as brief case studies, and highlight how little we know about the Poaceae. As designers, horticulturists and gardeners, we must move beyond the ornamental and aesthetic, to understand and embrace the full potential of all plant families to contribute to human resilience from human climate change and the need for food, medicine or different technologies.

components of cogongrass show promise in the treatment of colorectal cancer [141], and other research has identified root components such as alkaloids and flavonoids [142], and isolated

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The essential oils of cogongrass are used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various illnesses [144], and phytotoxic components of the essential oils have also proven effective in the control of other weed species [145]. While cogongrass has great spiritual and medicinal significance to Vedic cultures on the Indian sub-continent, it is suggested that more of the phytotoxic properties should be tested as alternatives to synthetic chemical treatments that result in negative impacts to the environment [146]. Because this plant spreads aggressively by rapidly growing rhizomes, there is potential to derive social value through mechanical management that harvests the roots for processing, rather than using herbicides to kill it outright, and harm

*Miscanthus sinensis* was originally introduced to North America from Asia in the 1890s as an ornamental plant, and quickly escaped cultivation and thrived because it produces viable seed, tolerates colder temperatures, has few pests and diseases, and has low demands for water and nutrients [147]. Over 150 cultivars of *M. sinensis* have been introduced [125], of which 40 are generally available to horticulture, and 10 occur on our campus. Traditional uses for *Miscanthus* include roof thatching material and fodder in Japan, where it is known as 'susuki' [148, 149, 150]. It is known as a wild food plant in Korea, where flowers and spikelets

Range expansion scenarios of *Miscanthus* due to climate change indicate that the species will move northwards in North America, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia [152]. *Miscanthus* is considered a weed in Asia, and it was only late in the twentieth century when the genus was evaluated for biofuel potential in Asia [153], following earlier work in Europe [153]. The same qualities that endear this plant as an ornamental have proven favourable for biofuel production.

*M. sacchariflorus* arrived in the US around the same time as *M. sinensis*, while in Denmark, sometime around 1935 they naturally crossed and formed a triploid (sterile) hybrid known as *M. x giganteus* (Greef and Deuter ex Hodkinson and Renvoize), which can grow to 3+ metres in height [149]. *M. x giganteus* is used in Europe as a commercial energy crop, providing heat and electricity, and ethanol biofuel [154]. The biofuel potential of *Miscanthus* in North America shows much promise as a non-food replacement in the production of ethanol [147, 154], and experimental biofuel production is also occurring in Asia [152]. Marginal lands, often infested with weeds and invasives, could be better managed if used for the production of biofuels such as *Miscanthus*, which, of all Poaceae, is the most productive and possibly the

Orchardgrass is a tall perennial bunch grass with stiff flat-sided flower/seed heads that resemble a cock's foot, which became its common name in Britain [156]. The plant has coarse foliage

**7.3. Case study 3: maiden grass (***Miscanthus sinensis* **Andress)**

the secondary metabolites [143].

the environment.

are consumed raw [151].

least destructive to the environment [155].

**7.4. Case study 4: orchardgrass** *(Dactylis glomerata* **L.)**

#### **7.1. Case study 1: millets, fountaingrass** *(Pennisetum spp.)*

Throughout human history, various species of millet have been cultivated for their cereal grains, and a wide variety of millet species is used because '*they tolerate a range of soil types, and have short-weather growing seasons'* [130, pp. 150–151]. Yet, from a horticultural perspective in the Northern Hemisphere, *Pennisetum* spp. are valued solely for their ornamental qualities and the focus on breeding has '*led to improvements such as more intense purple foliage color, disease resistance, and apparent sterility'* [131, p. 525]. While there are five species and numerous cultivars of the genus *Pennisetum* on our university campus, knowledge beyond their use as an ornamental is poorly developed, and sterility might prevent viable seed collection and use.

Purple ornamental millet *(P. glaucum* 'Purple Majesty') is grown for its deep purple leaves that spill from robust stalks and prolific flowers [132]. The cultivar was an All-America Selection Gold Medal winner in 2003 [133]. *P. glaucum* is known in agriculture as pearl millet, and it has been used primarily as a summer grazing and hay crop in the US [134], and incidentally that, '*the cattail-like flower spikes that we left on the plants became covered in tan, feathery seed that small birds such as wrens, finches, and sparrows flocked to'* [133, p. 12]. Habitat attributes aside, pearl millet is highly useful to humans too. The seeds are used raw or cooked like rice, ground into flour, malted, or fermented into beverages such as beer [135, 136].

#### **7.2. Case study 2: cogongrass** *(Imperata cylindrica* **[L.] Beauv.)**

In temperate regions, several cultivars of *I. cylindrica* have been selected for garden use as ornamental plants, including the red-leaved 'Red Baron', also known as Japanese blood grass. As a native species, cogongrass is found in African and Asian grasslands, but has since spread through human dispersal to Micronesia, Australasia, Europe, southeast USA and Mexico. It now has over 100 common names, and is estimated to cover 2,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (including natural grasslands) of the planet, so much so that it has been ranked in the top 10 worst weeds on the planet by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [137]. Initially, cogongrass was introduced to new places for soil erosion control on agriculture and reforestation sites. Because it has few environmental limitations, the grass dispersed far beyond human need, or seemingly ability to control. Considerable effort has, and is, being invested into finding management treatments including pesticides and bio-controls that have potential to eradicate it from a variety of ecosystems, for a variety of reasons [138, 139].

Despite the negative aspects of this species, many other uses have been reported including processing the stems for roof thatch, rope and paper-making. As a food, the rhizomes are used to make beer in Malaysia, and in Australia and China the rhizomes are chewed to extract a sweet juice [50]. Throughout Asia, the rhizome has been used in traditional medicine to treat a vast array of ailments, is antibacterial and a diuretic [140]. Recent research indicates that components of cogongrass show promise in the treatment of colorectal cancer [141], and other research has identified root components such as alkaloids and flavonoids [142], and isolated the secondary metabolites [143].

The essential oils of cogongrass are used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various illnesses [144], and phytotoxic components of the essential oils have also proven effective in the control of other weed species [145]. While cogongrass has great spiritual and medicinal significance to Vedic cultures on the Indian sub-continent, it is suggested that more of the phytotoxic properties should be tested as alternatives to synthetic chemical treatments that result in negative impacts to the environment [146]. Because this plant spreads aggressively by rapidly growing rhizomes, there is potential to derive social value through mechanical management that harvests the roots for processing, rather than using herbicides to kill it outright, and harm the environment.

#### **7.3. Case study 3: maiden grass (***Miscanthus sinensis* **Andress)**

technology in their places of origin. I have selected five species from our campus landscape to present as brief case studies, and highlight how little we know about the Poaceae. As designers, horticulturists and gardeners, we must move beyond the ornamental and aesthetic, to understand and embrace the full potential of all plant families to contribute to human resilience from human climate change and the need for food, medicine or different technologies.

Throughout human history, various species of millet have been cultivated for their cereal grains, and a wide variety of millet species is used because '*they tolerate a range of soil types, and have short-weather growing seasons'* [130, pp. 150–151]. Yet, from a horticultural perspective in the Northern Hemisphere, *Pennisetum* spp. are valued solely for their ornamental qualities and the focus on breeding has '*led to improvements such as more intense purple foliage color, disease resistance, and apparent sterility'* [131, p. 525]. While there are five species and numerous cultivars of the genus *Pennisetum* on our university campus, knowledge beyond their use as an ornamental is poorly developed, and sterility might prevent viable seed collection and use. Purple ornamental millet *(P. glaucum* 'Purple Majesty') is grown for its deep purple leaves that spill from robust stalks and prolific flowers [132]. The cultivar was an All-America Selection Gold Medal winner in 2003 [133]. *P. glaucum* is known in agriculture as pearl millet, and it has been used primarily as a summer grazing and hay crop in the US [134], and incidentally that, '*the cattail-like flower spikes that we left on the plants became covered in tan, feathery seed that small birds such as wrens, finches, and sparrows flocked to'* [133, p. 12]. Habitat attributes aside, pearl millet is highly useful to humans too. The seeds are used raw or cooked like rice, ground into

In temperate regions, several cultivars of *I. cylindrica* have been selected for garden use as ornamental plants, including the red-leaved 'Red Baron', also known as Japanese blood grass. As a native species, cogongrass is found in African and Asian grasslands, but has since spread through human dispersal to Micronesia, Australasia, Europe, southeast USA and Mexico. It

grasslands) of the planet, so much so that it has been ranked in the top 10 worst weeds on the planet by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [137]. Initially, cogongrass was introduced to new places for soil erosion control on agriculture and reforestation sites. Because it has few environmental limitations, the grass dispersed far beyond human need, or seemingly ability to control. Considerable effort has, and is, being invested into finding management treatments including pesticides and bio-controls that have potential to eradicate

Despite the negative aspects of this species, many other uses have been reported including processing the stems for roof thatch, rope and paper-making. As a food, the rhizomes are used to make beer in Malaysia, and in Australia and China the rhizomes are chewed to extract a sweet juice [50]. Throughout Asia, the rhizome has been used in traditional medicine to treat a vast array of ailments, is antibacterial and a diuretic [140]. Recent research indicates that

(including natural

**7.1. Case study 1: millets, fountaingrass** *(Pennisetum spp.)*

100 Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles

flour, malted, or fermented into beverages such as beer [135, 136].

**7.2. Case study 2: cogongrass** *(Imperata cylindrica* **[L.] Beauv.)**

now has over 100 common names, and is estimated to cover 2,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>

it from a variety of ecosystems, for a variety of reasons [138, 139].

*Miscanthus sinensis* was originally introduced to North America from Asia in the 1890s as an ornamental plant, and quickly escaped cultivation and thrived because it produces viable seed, tolerates colder temperatures, has few pests and diseases, and has low demands for water and nutrients [147]. Over 150 cultivars of *M. sinensis* have been introduced [125], of which 40 are generally available to horticulture, and 10 occur on our campus. Traditional uses for *Miscanthus* include roof thatching material and fodder in Japan, where it is known as 'susuki' [148, 149, 150]. It is known as a wild food plant in Korea, where flowers and spikelets are consumed raw [151].

Range expansion scenarios of *Miscanthus* due to climate change indicate that the species will move northwards in North America, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia [152]. *Miscanthus* is considered a weed in Asia, and it was only late in the twentieth century when the genus was evaluated for biofuel potential in Asia [153], following earlier work in Europe [153]. The same qualities that endear this plant as an ornamental have proven favourable for biofuel production.

*M. sacchariflorus* arrived in the US around the same time as *M. sinensis*, while in Denmark, sometime around 1935 they naturally crossed and formed a triploid (sterile) hybrid known as *M. x giganteus* (Greef and Deuter ex Hodkinson and Renvoize), which can grow to 3+ metres in height [149]. *M. x giganteus* is used in Europe as a commercial energy crop, providing heat and electricity, and ethanol biofuel [154]. The biofuel potential of *Miscanthus* in North America shows much promise as a non-food replacement in the production of ethanol [147, 154], and experimental biofuel production is also occurring in Asia [152]. Marginal lands, often infested with weeds and invasives, could be better managed if used for the production of biofuels such as *Miscanthus*, which, of all Poaceae, is the most productive and possibly the least destructive to the environment [155].

#### **7.4. Case study 4: orchardgrass** *(Dactylis glomerata* **L.)**

Orchardgrass is a tall perennial bunch grass with stiff flat-sided flower/seed heads that resemble a cock's foot, which became its common name in Britain [156]. The plant has coarse foliage which can grow to form dense tufts or tussocks if unimpeded by mowing and grazing. As a cool season species, it is native throughout most of Europe, temperate Asia and northern Africa. It is long established in other temperate regions, and is well adapted to areas with higher rainfall. As such, orchardgrass has long been favoured as a fodder and pasture grass [157], and is a ubiquitous reminder of the agricultural history of a region, long after the land has been converted to other uses.

a growing season, it functions as a cut meadow, which allows us to carry out riparian ecosystem repair projects that make the floodplain more resilient to flooding. Rather than dwell on whether it is native or not, we hold the species in check by removing the opportunity for seeds to disperse and spread further. At the same time, the rhizomes hold soil in place and prevent erosion. Our management technique has been to leave the cut grass to decay and add organic

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Finding cultural and economic uses for plants such as reed canary grass is perhaps the most ecologically sensitive approach to managing invasiveness. Ecotypes of reed canary grass that are translocated to suitable habitat in other regions behave far more aggressively than the native ecotype [167, 168], and reed canary runs rampant and out-competes other species in

In First Nations plant technology in British Columbia, reed canary grass is traditionally used in weaving, and the harvest of materials was sustainable, allowing the plants to be judiciously managed without depleting the resource [170]. By harvesting while the plants are still green and growing in late-spring, the reed canary grass can be managed through the removal of

*The Upper Sto:lo of the Fraser River, the Lowe Stl'atl'imx and probably other Salish groups imbricated coiled cedar-root baskets with the stout, smooth stems of Reed Canary Grass. They gathered pliable, green stems in May and early June, around the time when wild roses bloom, cut them into even lengths and soaked them in boiling water, then dried them in the sun for several days to bleach them white. They split the dried stems, soaked them, and used them, …., to superimpose white patterns on the weave of* 

By contrast, from the world of new technology, the potential use of reed canary grass as a short fibre material found that is more sustainable than the typical trees used in the pulp and paper industry [172]. In Finell's research, a delayed-harvest technique holds the harvest as late as possible until the biomass is completely dry, which may be as late as the following spring after snow-melt, but before new growth begins. The reason for this delay is that '*for fibre production, the delayed harvest gives higher pulp yield, less variation, and stronger fibres'* [172, pp. 19–20]. In drier interior climates, this technique would work; however, in rainy coastal

In other cultures, reed canary grass has long been recognized for its medicinal properties, most notably as a psychoactive drug from ancient Greece when Dioscorides reported that *P. arundinacea* was crushed and mixed with water or wine to treat bladder diseases [173]. The natural hallucinogenic alkaloids dimethyl-tryptamine and 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) can be extracted from reed canary grass [174], and while toxic to livestock,

It has been pointed out that the Internet has made it possible for anyone to find information on growing, harvesting and processing medicinal plants such as reed canary grass for use as a hallucinogen [176]. Humans have a long historical and cultural relationship with the use of hallucinogenic plants to alter the spirit, mind and body [173]. The harvesting of reed canary grass for any cultural or technological purpose would help manage and diminish its aggressive

flowering parts. The process involves several steps, timed to the seasons:

climates, biomass decay is more likely, requiring a fall harvest.

DMT has medical benefits to humans [175].

matter where it drops, which, as you will see in the subsequent text, may be wasteful.

the native ecosystem [169].

*split-root baskets.* [171, p. 119]

Besides feeding livestock, orchardgrass has found several human uses. In Poland, orchardgrass is known as 'kupkówka' and the sweet stem base and inner part of young shoots were eaten as a children's snack [158]. In Hungary, it is known as 'ebir', and also eaten as a snack [80]. In south-east Turkey, orchardgrass is called 'ayrik', and after infusing in water, the decoction is consumed to treat rheumatism and urinary inflammations [79].

Nitrate and pesticide contamination of soil and ground water is a serious environmental problem, and finding solutions is the focus of much research. In one study, orchardgrass was the most effective grass tested to remove toxic organic chemicals produced by the leaching of creosote into soil [159]. The *in situ* efficacy of various grasses in remediating soils contaminated with military explosive residues such as TNT found that orchardgrass was most effective at taking up TNT [160]. The versatility of orchardgrass has been demonstrated through successful recovery of nitrogen from the large amount of manure waste applied to pastures by dairies [161].

Along with several other cool-season grasses, orchardgrass was found effective at degrading atrazine in the soil column, and would be a suitable ground layer species for riparian buffer plantings in conventional agricultural areas that are heavily treated with herbicides and other chemicals [162]. Orchardgrass has proven to be a highly useful plant in bio-remediation initiatives to address past environmental mistakes, and this is possibly its highest and best use as we take responsibility for our misuses of ecological goods and services.

#### **7.5. Case study 5: reed canary grass** *(Phalaris arundinacea* **L.)**

Reed canary grass is one of five native *Phalaris* species in North America. It is circumboreal in distribution and native to both North America and Europe where it occurs naturally in wetlands and on the margins of aquatic habitat where there are wet, poorly drained soils [163]. On both continents, it is an important forage grass, which led to the importation of superior seed from Sweden to Canada in the early 1900s [164]. Other cultivars, both agricultural and ornamental, were imported from Asia, and both European and Asian ecotypes have escaped and hybridized with native North American populations. As a consequence, both the escaped cultivars and the hybridized ecotypes exhibit far more aggressive behaviour than the native species, resulting in some confusion over what is native or not, and the listing of reed canary grass as an invasive plant in many US states and Canadian provinces [165, 166].

On our university campus, *P. arundinacea* is the dominant plant species on wet meadows and the unbuilt floodplain areas of a creek that meanders through. Reed canary grass serves as a benchmark by marking the upper edges of flooding and more severe rainstorm effects, which are caused by climate change, and exacerbated by upstream urbanization. Left unmanaged reed canary forms impenetrable 200-cm tall thickets. When rough mown several times a growing season, it functions as a cut meadow, which allows us to carry out riparian ecosystem repair projects that make the floodplain more resilient to flooding. Rather than dwell on whether it is native or not, we hold the species in check by removing the opportunity for seeds to disperse and spread further. At the same time, the rhizomes hold soil in place and prevent erosion. Our management technique has been to leave the cut grass to decay and add organic matter where it drops, which, as you will see in the subsequent text, may be wasteful.

which can grow to form dense tufts or tussocks if unimpeded by mowing and grazing. As a cool season species, it is native throughout most of Europe, temperate Asia and northern Africa. It is long established in other temperate regions, and is well adapted to areas with higher rainfall. As such, orchardgrass has long been favoured as a fodder and pasture grass [157], and is a ubiquitous reminder of the agricultural history of a region, long after the land

Besides feeding livestock, orchardgrass has found several human uses. In Poland, orchardgrass is known as 'kupkówka' and the sweet stem base and inner part of young shoots were eaten as a children's snack [158]. In Hungary, it is known as 'ebir', and also eaten as a snack [80]. In south-east Turkey, orchardgrass is called 'ayrik', and after infusing in water, the

Nitrate and pesticide contamination of soil and ground water is a serious environmental problem, and finding solutions is the focus of much research. In one study, orchardgrass was the most effective grass tested to remove toxic organic chemicals produced by the leaching of creosote into soil [159]. The *in situ* efficacy of various grasses in remediating soils contaminated with military explosive residues such as TNT found that orchardgrass was most effective at taking up TNT [160]. The versatility of orchardgrass has been demonstrated through successful recovery of nitrogen from the large amount of manure waste applied to pastures by dairies [161].

Along with several other cool-season grasses, orchardgrass was found effective at degrading atrazine in the soil column, and would be a suitable ground layer species for riparian buffer plantings in conventional agricultural areas that are heavily treated with herbicides and other chemicals [162]. Orchardgrass has proven to be a highly useful plant in bio-remediation initiatives to address past environmental mistakes, and this is possibly its highest and best use as

Reed canary grass is one of five native *Phalaris* species in North America. It is circumboreal in distribution and native to both North America and Europe where it occurs naturally in wetlands and on the margins of aquatic habitat where there are wet, poorly drained soils [163]. On both continents, it is an important forage grass, which led to the importation of superior seed from Sweden to Canada in the early 1900s [164]. Other cultivars, both agricultural and ornamental, were imported from Asia, and both European and Asian ecotypes have escaped and hybridized with native North American populations. As a consequence, both the escaped cultivars and the hybridized ecotypes exhibit far more aggressive behaviour than the native species, resulting in some confusion over what is native or not, and the listing of reed canary

On our university campus, *P. arundinacea* is the dominant plant species on wet meadows and the unbuilt floodplain areas of a creek that meanders through. Reed canary grass serves as a benchmark by marking the upper edges of flooding and more severe rainstorm effects, which are caused by climate change, and exacerbated by upstream urbanization. Left unmanaged reed canary forms impenetrable 200-cm tall thickets. When rough mown several times

decoction is consumed to treat rheumatism and urinary inflammations [79].

we take responsibility for our misuses of ecological goods and services.

grass as an invasive plant in many US states and Canadian provinces [165, 166].

**7.5. Case study 5: reed canary grass** *(Phalaris arundinacea* **L.)**

has been converted to other uses.

102 Grasses - Benefits, Diversities and Functional Roles

Finding cultural and economic uses for plants such as reed canary grass is perhaps the most ecologically sensitive approach to managing invasiveness. Ecotypes of reed canary grass that are translocated to suitable habitat in other regions behave far more aggressively than the native ecotype [167, 168], and reed canary runs rampant and out-competes other species in the native ecosystem [169].

In First Nations plant technology in British Columbia, reed canary grass is traditionally used in weaving, and the harvest of materials was sustainable, allowing the plants to be judiciously managed without depleting the resource [170]. By harvesting while the plants are still green and growing in late-spring, the reed canary grass can be managed through the removal of flowering parts. The process involves several steps, timed to the seasons:

*The Upper Sto:lo of the Fraser River, the Lowe Stl'atl'imx and probably other Salish groups imbricated coiled cedar-root baskets with the stout, smooth stems of Reed Canary Grass. They gathered pliable, green stems in May and early June, around the time when wild roses bloom, cut them into even lengths and soaked them in boiling water, then dried them in the sun for several days to bleach them white. They split the dried stems, soaked them, and used them, …., to superimpose white patterns on the weave of split-root baskets.* [171, p. 119]

By contrast, from the world of new technology, the potential use of reed canary grass as a short fibre material found that is more sustainable than the typical trees used in the pulp and paper industry [172]. In Finell's research, a delayed-harvest technique holds the harvest as late as possible until the biomass is completely dry, which may be as late as the following spring after snow-melt, but before new growth begins. The reason for this delay is that '*for fibre production, the delayed harvest gives higher pulp yield, less variation, and stronger fibres'* [172, pp. 19–20]. In drier interior climates, this technique would work; however, in rainy coastal climates, biomass decay is more likely, requiring a fall harvest.

In other cultures, reed canary grass has long been recognized for its medicinal properties, most notably as a psychoactive drug from ancient Greece when Dioscorides reported that *P. arundinacea* was crushed and mixed with water or wine to treat bladder diseases [173]. The natural hallucinogenic alkaloids dimethyl-tryptamine and 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) can be extracted from reed canary grass [174], and while toxic to livestock, DMT has medical benefits to humans [175].

It has been pointed out that the Internet has made it possible for anyone to find information on growing, harvesting and processing medicinal plants such as reed canary grass for use as a hallucinogen [176]. Humans have a long historical and cultural relationship with the use of hallucinogenic plants to alter the spirit, mind and body [173]. The harvesting of reed canary grass for any cultural or technological purpose would help manage and diminish its aggressive invasiveness in sensitive ecosystems. Natural area managers should look to intersectional collaborations between the scientific approach, TEK and high-tech to address invasive grasses such as reed canary grass, which currently are tagged as wicked problems.

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