**3. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences**

The benefits of using digital tools have been demonstrated in various studies of students with learning disabilities. The use of these systems has been shown to have positive effects on the acquisition of reading skills [5, 6]; acquisition of vocabulary, language and listening skills [7]; on the treatment of dysgraphia [8]; and on learning mathematics [9–11]. Its effects have also been studied in cases involving ADHD. Students with this developmental disorder face problems including abnormal executive functioning or the reduced capacity to control behaviour, and difficulties in regulating emotion, motivation and arousal or activation in general. These problems have been shown to be reduced by using digital tools [12–14]. In an earlier study [29], the use of this type of tool demonstrated a positive effect on academic achievement in a sample of students with ADHD, while more recent studies [30] found that students with ADHD exhibited increased levels of attention and better achievement in tasks when they were shown simultaneous videos, images and short narrations, whereas they demonstrated more difficulties when presented information in the form of linear texts. One of the explanations for these results is linked to the inherent properties of digital tools—that is, they make it easy to receive information through multiple channels. So, if one channel is being ignored, the information may be captured via another channel instead of being lost. Thus, presenting information through multiple channels increases the probability of relevant information being retained [28]. A very important aspect to consider is the level to which these new systems are adaptive [8] that is, whether the functioning and difficulty levels adapt to variables of individual students, such as previous knowledge or pace of learning. While there is a lot of current research into the impact of digital tools on learning disabilities and ADHD, investigations into the adaptability of these tools when used in this population has so far been limited. Some exceptions include programs such as Number Race [31] for the treatment of dyscalculia and Agent‐Dysl

86 Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective

for dyslexia [32], both of which are aimed at treating students in primary education.

Number Race [31], primarily for children aged 4–8, is especially designed to address mathematical learning disabilities (dyscalculia) by strengthening the brain circuits for representing and manipulating numbers. Children who are making their first steps with numbers learn the basic concepts of number and arithmetic, while older children, who are already familiar with numbers, build their fluency in arithmetic and in mapping numbers to quantities (number sense). The objective of Agent‐Dysl [32] is to help narrow the gap between good and poor (due to dyslexia) readers in school‐aged children. Agent‐Dysl is an intelligent assistive reading system that gives personalised treatment, customising the presentation of the reading material (usually study material for a school lesson) to help each child improve their reading. The system builds and maintains individual profiles by observing each child reading the text on the system's viewing area and recognising the reading errors. The individual profiles are then used to customise text presentation for that individual so that each child's reading performance is improved. By employing image analysis techniques, the system can also assess the child's emotional and physical state and dynamically adapt the document presentation accordingly. Similar system adaptability should be considered and incorporated during the future development of tools designed for the contexts of learning disabilities and ADHD also. The studies described above demonstrate how digital resources, utilised in the right way, can bring about improvements in students with learning disabilities. However, there have also The Theory of Multiple Intelligences is one of the most prevalent in the context of non‐unitary theories of intelligence. This theory emphasises a combination of skills, abilities and capabilities that are independent of each other and are present in everyone, to a greater or lesser extent, waiting to be developed. Gardner called these abilities 'intelligences' and his theory considers each individual to exhibit a unique profile of intelligences. That is, although we are all born with these intelligences, there are no two people who have identical intelligences in the same combinations [34]. In accordance with these ideas, Gardner defined intelligence as a biophysical potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture [34]. He originally identified seven intelligences: musical, bodily kinaesthetic, logical‐mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal; he later added naturalistic intelligence to his theory [34]. Gardner did not only identify these types of intelligences. He also equated them with linguistic and mathematical intelligence as, at that time, these where considered key to determining an individual's intelligence and were the only intelligences used as references in traditional tests of capability [2, 3, 15–38].

This theory was the subject of great interest in the educational community and gave rise to a concept of education far removed from the uniform school model. It proposed individual‐ centred teaching that considered each student as distinct in terms of the level and combination of intelligences they possessed. Thus, it suggested that different students should not have the same content, methods or evaluations [2, 3, 35, 36, 38, 39].

The fundamental aspect of this approach is the need to discover the intellectual capabilities and outstanding aptitudes of each individual in order to develop them from the very earliest stages of education by designing learning tasks which foster development of the basic skills and abilities of each intelligence [2]. The theory focused not only on the need to evaluate the skills that stand out the most but also on seeking ways in which this information could be used to modify methodologies for individual needs and thus foster academic achievement and adaptation to school [2, 36, 38–40].

Once evaluation has identified stronger areas (areas in which a student exhibits better motivation and more confidence), it is necessary to move to the key step, which is intervention.

This intervention utilises the concept that these skills or strong points can be used to 'bridge the gap' in areas where the student has difficulties [2]. Thus, there are two necessary phases of a procedure incorporating this theory: it must begin with an evaluation of the individual's abilities and strong points, and then an intervention must be prepared which uses those strong points as a way to improve weak or problematic areas.
