**3. Types of learning disabilities**

The most common types of SLDs affect the areas of math, reading, and writing [1]. Learning disabilities can be best described as having difficulties in academic achievement and related areas of learning and behavior. There is more than one cause for SLDs. Often, learning disabilities are a result of an individual's genetic makeup. The other cause may be from a stroke or traumatic brain injury that occurs later in an individual's lifetime.

This section of the chapter outlines several types of LDs. Some of the SLDs listed below are of high incidence, and others are of low incidence. It is also important to note that students who have a diagnosis of a SLD may have a comorbid diagnosis of another disability such as dyspraxia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or have patterns of weakness in executive functioning, which will impact the treatment they receive [2].

#### **3.1. Dyslexia**

Brain research became fundamental in understanding learning disabilities and their causes. In 2001, legislation known as No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) enhanced the states and district's accountability for students' progress. In 2002, research completed at Yale University looked at the differences between non-dyslexic and dyslexic brains. The researchers were able to view how the brains of those with dyslexia worked differently than non-dyslexic peers using MRI technology. Later in 2005, Yale University identified a gene associated with dyslexia. The overall public view at this time was evolving with regard to the way people per-

The reauthorization of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 increased responsibility of school districts and enhanced parental rights. Another important piece to the legislation is the alignment of IDEA and NCLB. As a result, response to intervention (RTI) was introduced to assist struggling students before they are referred for special education services. In 2007, researchers at the University College London used brain imaging to identify the areas of the brain that works differently when individuals have learning disabilities such

In 2013, the *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders*-5 (DSM-5) broadened the definition of learning disability (LD) to specific learning disorder (SLD) [1]. In 2015, NCLB was repealed, and the US Congress enacted new legislation referred to as Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This law provided each state within the United States of America to set their own goals for student achievement within a flexible federal framework. The ways in which students are identified as having a learning disability have changed over the years. Until recently, the most common approach to diagnose a student with a learning disability was to use a "severe discrepancy" formula. This referred to the gap, or discrepancy, between the child's intelligence or aptitude and his or her actual performance. In the 2004, reauthorization of IDEA changed how LD is determined. IDEA now requires that states adopt criteria that must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. In addition, states must permit local educational agencies (LEAs) to use a process based on the child's response to scientific, research-based intervention and allow the use of other alternative research-based

procedures for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability.

or traumatic brain injury that occurs later in an individual's lifetime.

To summarize the new practices, instead of using a severe discrepancy approach to determine a learning disability, school systems must provide the student with a research-based intervention. The student's performance must then be closely monitored related to their response to

The most common types of SLDs affect the areas of math, reading, and writing [1]. Learning disabilities can be best described as having difficulties in academic achievement and related areas of learning and behavior. There is more than one cause for SLDs. Often, learning disabilities are a result of an individual's genetic makeup. The other cause may be from a stroke

ceived individuals who have a learning disability.

102 Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective

as dyscalculia.

the selected interventions.

**3. Types of learning disabilities**

*Dyslexia* is a learning disability categorized by deficits in learning to read or understand words, letters, and other symbols of a learner's native language. Dyslexia is caused by neurobiological dysfunctions in the brain. It may be inherited from parents or be a result of a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia. A person who has a diagnosis of dyslexia may have difficulty in understanding letters, groups of letters or symbols, sentences, or paragraphs [2]. Dyslexia can be diagnosed through a battery of assessments including memory, vision, spelling, and reading tests.

#### **3.2. Dysgraphia**

*Dysgraphia* is a type of learning disability that impacts an individual's writing ability. Students who have dysgraphia may have difficulties that range from inability to formulate thoughts into text, illegible handwriting, inconsistent mix of print and cursive, upper and lower case, and unbalanced size, shape, and slant of letters. In addition, an individual with dysgraphia may display difficulties in copying words, may show poor spatial planning, may use inconsistent spacing between letters or words, or may not complete letters or familiar words. Dysgraphia may also impact an individual's ability to think and write at the same time; making note taking challenging [1].

#### **3.3. Dyscalculia**

*Dyscalculia* involves frequent difficulties with everyday arithmetic tasks, such as telling time, following directions, adhering to and creating schedules, and sequencing events [1]. Individuals with dyscalculia make mistakes with distinguishing between left and right. In addition, students with dyscalculia face challenges with consistently solving addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication problems. The knowledge of budgeting, financial planning, and estimating numbers is a daily challenge for individuals with dyscalculia.
