**2. History of learning disabilities**

to the selected treatment and proven effectiveness. In the current chapter, distinct types of SLDs will be emphasized. An overview of response to intervention (RTI), as well as an explanation of the multitiered system, will be illustrated throughout the chapter and within **Figure 1**. Progress monitoring is a key component to successful RTI implementation. This chapter will describe the assessments used to observe improvements. The benefits associated with RTI methods are discussed from multiple perspectives within this chapter. The role of speech-language patholo-

**TIER 3**

**TIER 2**

**TIER 1**

the student population requiring such interventions within each tier.

**Placement:** Special educaon is likely

**Method:** High-quality intensive intervenons

**Placement:** General educaon, small-group

**Method:** Evidence-based intervenons by

instrucon, individualized support **Level of support:** Moderate

**Placement:** General educaon seng

**Method:** Evidence-based, high-quality instrucon; ongoing assessment, CBM.

specialists; targeted topic. **Student need:** 15-20%

**Level of support:** Mild

**Student need:** 80-90%

**Figure 1.** The figure presents each of the three levels (Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3) of response to intervention (RTI). Each tier refers to the general descriptors of the strategies implemented in an increasingly intensive method [10]. Each tier presents the percentage of students requiring the specific tier's level of intervention and a description of each of the following: typical placement, level of support, method of intervention, and student need presented as a percentage of

**Level of support:** Intensive

**Student need:** 1-5%

gists (SLPs) and special educators is highlighted below.

100 Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective

This section provides a historical presentation of learning disabilities in the United States of America. Over the past few decades, students with learning disabilities have improved their ability to contribute to society as a result of receiving better services and a clearer diagnosis in relation to their deficits [3].

In the past, learning and attention issues were not on the public radar. In 1905, the first publication by W.E. Bruner reported about childhood reading difficulties. It was not until the 1930s that the term dyslexia was coined. In the 1960s, in the United States of America, professionals first started to recognize the term learning disability (LD), which is later regarded as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). At this time, inclusion of students with learning disabilities and their nondisabled peers was not practiced in the United States of America [4]. Instead, students with learning disabilities were educated separately. In 1963, Samuel A. Kirk was the first psychologist to use the term learning disability at a professional conference. It was around this time that public school and the federal government started paying attention to learning disabilities.

The Association for Children with Learning Disabilities (ACLD) was created in 1963. This organization is now known as the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) and is spread across the United States of America. LDA's vision is that all individuals with learning disabilities are empowered to thrive and participate fully in the society; the incidence of learning disabilities is reduced; and learning disabilities are universally understood and effectively addressed. LDA's mission is to create opportunities for success for all individuals affected by learning disabilities and to reduce the incidence of learning disabilities in future generations. LDA provides a plethora of resources to educators, individuals, families, states, and professional resources.

In 1969, the first federal law was passed to mandate services for students with learning disabilities. In 1973, an act that prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in programs receiving public finding was passed. This act is referred to as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. The US Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA), which popularized Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) for all students living in the United States of America, in 1975. The National Center for Learning Disabilities was founded in 1977, which was the former Foundation for Children with Learning Disabilities. In the 1980s and 1990s, trends continued to progress for individuals with learning disabilities. In 1985, the first dyslexia state law was enacted in Texas requiring instructional interventions to be put in place for students. In 1996, the National Institute of Mental Health completed research that identified the regions of the brain affected when a person has a diagnosis of dyslexia. The first learning disability web source, for parents and teachers, was established this decade. In the year 2000 and beyond, the awareness and research of learning disabilities continued to grow. Public laws and policies provided individuals with more rights and guidelines were established for professionals responsible for educating students with disabilities.

Brain research became fundamental in understanding learning disabilities and their causes. In 2001, legislation known as No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) enhanced the states and district's accountability for students' progress. In 2002, research completed at Yale University looked at the differences between non-dyslexic and dyslexic brains. The researchers were able to view how the brains of those with dyslexia worked differently than non-dyslexic peers using MRI technology. Later in 2005, Yale University identified a gene associated with dyslexia. The overall public view at this time was evolving with regard to the way people perceived individuals who have a learning disability.

The reauthorization of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004 increased responsibility of school districts and enhanced parental rights. Another important piece to the legislation is the alignment of IDEA and NCLB. As a result, response to intervention (RTI) was introduced to assist struggling students before they are referred for special education services. In 2007, researchers at the University College London used brain imaging to identify the areas of the brain that works differently when individuals have learning disabilities such as dyscalculia.

In 2013, the *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders*-5 (DSM-5) broadened the definition of learning disability (LD) to specific learning disorder (SLD) [1]. In 2015, NCLB was repealed, and the US Congress enacted new legislation referred to as Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This law provided each state within the United States of America to set their own goals for student achievement within a flexible federal framework. The ways in which students are identified as having a learning disability have changed over the years. Until recently, the most common approach to diagnose a student with a learning disability was to use a "severe discrepancy" formula. This referred to the gap, or discrepancy, between the child's intelligence or aptitude and his or her actual performance. In the 2004, reauthorization of IDEA changed how LD is determined. IDEA now requires that states adopt criteria that must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in determining whether a child has a specific learning disability. In addition, states must permit local educational agencies (LEAs) to use a process based on the child's response to scientific, research-based intervention and allow the use of other alternative research-based procedures for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability.

To summarize the new practices, instead of using a severe discrepancy approach to determine a learning disability, school systems must provide the student with a research-based intervention. The student's performance must then be closely monitored related to their response to the selected interventions.
