**Author details**

In addition, the prevalence of dyslexia is much lower in Spanish than in less transparent orthographies, ranging from 3 to 6%, approximately, with little (1.4:1 male to female ratio) or no evidence of gender‐related differences in transparent orthographies. Therefore, the existence of dyslexic subtypes could be the consequence of differences in orthographic systems, and the percentages of dyslexic subtypes in Spanish and opaque orthographies are quite different [69]. For this reason, surface dyslexics were classified between 45.5 and 53% and pho-

Different studies using reading‐age‐ and/or chronological‐age‐matched designs have also found that Spanish students with developmental dyslexia have numerous lags in several cognitive (e.g., phonological awareness, speech perception, temporal processing, rapid naming, verbal and visual‐spatial working memory, and executive functioning domains) and academic (e.g., pseudoword reading, spelling, and vocabulary, prosody) areas. In fact, these

Many children who feel like failures in school, for one reason or another, tend to have low expectations of learning achievement, a poorer academic self‐concept, a maladaptive attributional pattern for their successes and failures, and little motivation to read or be involved in school activities that require reading. Thus, children with dyslexia have a lower self‐concept, and even a lower‐reading self‐concept, presumably caused by their academic failure. Moreover, studies that have analyzed the attributional patterns of children with dyslexia show that although some students have an adaptive attributional pattern, other students with dyslexia have a completely maladaptive pattern. In other words, they explain their successes by referring to external causes (luck, low difficulty level of the task, help from others, etc.), and their failures tend to be attributed to internal and uncontrollable causes, such as low ability.

Finally, research carried out to analyze the efficacy of intervention procedures with students with dyslexia in the Spanish language is quite scarce, compared to research developed to characterize their difficulties in different areas [55]. Most interventions have evaluated the efficacy of different treatment approaches, mainly based on a combination of intensive, systematic training in letter‐sound correspondence, phonemic awareness, and even speech perception. In recent years, different fluency‐based programs have emerged. One of them is a multicomponent program that combines repeated readings with phonemic awareness and grapheme‐phoneme rules, along with a motivational component with social reward and attributional retraining. Another one is the application of a computerized‐reading acceleration program. In general, the remediation research developed in Spain follows the program development tendencies found in international research, especially in less transparent

This work has been supported by a Grant from the Plan Nacional I+D+I (Spanish Ministry of

Economy and Competitiveness), number EDU2012‐35786, awarded to M. Soriano.

nological dyslexics between 18 and 22.8%, respectively.

54 Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective

cognitive and academic difficulties persist into adulthood.

languages.

**Acknowledgements**

Manuel Soriano‐Ferrer\* and Manuel R. Morte‐Soriano

\*Address all correspondence to: manuel.soriano@uv.es

University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
