**5. Automaticity in writing and spelling**

Luria [67, 122] suggests that writing follows other mental processes in being a process which changes on a functional level through use and that changes on a functional level reflect greater functional integration in the brain. In the initial stages, writing depends on memorisation of the graphic form of each letter. With practice, the performance on each individual element becomes altered as writing develops into a single "kinetic melody," in which the structures underpinning the process of writing individual letters become automatised and integrated. Similar changes also take place in other higher mental processes to which the writing process is linked.

In the course of this development, it is not only the functional structure of the process which changes but also its cerebral organisation, as the activities of writing and spelling start to depend on different systems of concertedly working zones [123]. Following Vygotsky [7], this process of organisation would be based on new, intermediate structures of mental processes and new interfunctional relationships which would enable the performance of increasingly complex tasks by new methods. Automaticity would be central to the development of writing and spelling, as processes which enable their development into a single "kinetic melody" [67] capable of supporting the use of writing and spelling in higher mental activity.

Following Luria, assessment of writing and spelling would need to be linked to the assessment of reading ability. Luria [124] suggests that the investigation of writing should be conducted with a series of tests designed to analyse the state of the various elementary components and levels in writing. As writing is intimately connected with spelling, its assessment should also be linked to the investigation of phonetic analysis and synthesis of words and begin with the writing of individual letter, syllables and words. It should end with investigation of complex forms of written speech. In the course of these tests, the investigator would not only observe the quality of writing from dictation but also note the distinguishing features of the actual writing process.

On the level of instruction, Luria's theories would suggest that it would be important to develop both automaticity in reading and automaticity in writing and spelling, if these processes are not fluent. The work of the Spaldings [125–127] is based on the assumption that both writing and reading are stage-related and linked and that the rapid recognition of phonograms forms the basis through which writing is linked to the development of reading ability. Frith [128] has also suggested that the processes relating to the development of reading and the development of writing and spelling are stage-related and linked, as the following diagram suggests.

and components of, and issues surrounding, fluency and comprehension, will contribute to understanding of both reading development, and dyslexia subtypes. There would thus be justification on a theoretical level for incorporating assessment of oral reading fluency as one aspect of psychometric measurement of reading, together with other indicators of automatic-

At the same time, Moors and De Houwer [121] caution that there is wide usage of terms associated with automaticity as a concept, but no agreed definition as to what automaticity actually means. The author of this chapter follows Logan [50] in defining automaticity as relating to learned automatic processes, to which, following Luria [18, 19], fluency in speech

Luria [67, 122] suggests that writing follows other mental processes in being a process which changes on a functional level through use and that changes on a functional level reflect greater functional integration in the brain. In the initial stages, writing depends on memorisation of the graphic form of each letter. With practice, the performance on each individual element becomes altered as writing develops into a single "kinetic melody," in which the structures underpinning the process of writing individual letters become automatised and integrated. Similar changes also take place in other higher mental processes to which the writing process

In the course of this development, it is not only the functional structure of the process which changes but also its cerebral organisation, as the activities of writing and spelling start to depend on different systems of concertedly working zones [123]. Following Vygotsky [7], this process of organisation would be based on new, intermediate structures of mental processes and new interfunctional relationships which would enable the performance of increasingly complex tasks by new methods. Automaticity would be central to the development of writing and spelling, as processes which enable their development into a single "kinetic melody" [67]

Following Luria, assessment of writing and spelling would need to be linked to the assessment of reading ability. Luria [124] suggests that the investigation of writing should be conducted with a series of tests designed to analyse the state of the various elementary components and levels in writing. As writing is intimately connected with spelling, its assessment should also be linked to the investigation of phonetic analysis and synthesis of words and begin with the writing of individual letter, syllables and words. It should end with investigation of complex forms of written speech. In the course of these tests, the investigator would not only observe the quality of writing from dictation but also note the distinguishing features of the actual

On the level of instruction, Luria's theories would suggest that it would be important to develop both automaticity in reading and automaticity in writing and spelling, if these processes are not fluent. The work of the Spaldings [125–127] is based on the assumption

capable of supporting the use of writing and spelling in higher mental activity.

and language, as well as fluency in reading, writing and spelling, would be related.

ity, (for example, see [117–120]).

122 Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective

is linked.

writing process.

**5. Automaticity in writing and spelling**

The terms used in **Table 1** reflect Frith's contention that initially, pre-readers use logographic strategies, which involve the use of non-linguistic contextual cues, as well as the use of visual cues related to the whole shape of the word or to letter configurations within the word. This stage is primarily based on a visual route to learning, in that words are learned by rote memory through association of visual cues with the graphic representation of the word. The second alphabetic stage relies on a phonological route to learning which is more analytical. During this stage, both phonemes and graphemes become associated as children learn to sound out words [129].

Phonological processing then forms the basis for the establishment of an orthographic lexicon, in which alphabetic representations become precise enough to enable transfer from reading to spelling. The orthographic stage then develops after acquisition of phoneme-grapheme conversion knowledge, based on the application of phonological processing to spelling. At this stage, readers have learned to analyse words, and both letter groupings and word structure become important for increasingly fluid reading [129–131].

Frith suggests that there is initial dissociation between the strategies used in reading and writing in Stage 1 of each phase, whereas one and the same strategy is used in Stage 2 of each phase as children proceed from stage to stage in learning to read and spell [132]. Ehri [99] also suggests that spelling links closely with reading, but contends that beginning readers/spellers progress through phases of proficiency as opposed to stages. These phases are termed pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, full alphabetic and consolidated alphabetic and are related to the child's developing alphabetic and phonological knowledge. Ehri suggests that orthographic learning comes about through experience with printed language, in the process


Note that Frith's model assumes interplay between the evolving processes of reading and writing, which develop through logographic, alphabetic and orthographic stages. The numbers in the table indicate different stages in reading and writing development, whereas the arrows indicate how different stages in reading and writing development are linked. The small letters a and b indicate how the processes of reading and writing evolve in the different stages, become synchronised and ultimately become fluent.

**Table 1.** The six-step model of skills in reading and writing acquisition [128].

of which longer and longer letter strings become stored in memory. Children in the final consolidated alphabetic phase are able to read fluently as well as spell accurately, by relying upon these stored orthographic representations.

Besides requiring integration between the processes of instruction used to develop reading, writing and spelling [133], it would also be important to conceptualise the development of fluency in writing and spelling as a long-term process. Both Frith [132, 134] and Ehri [133, 135] are in agreement that considerable practice at reading by means of an alphabetic procedure is necessary to enable the reader to establish internal representations of word forms, as the basis for developing the ability to spell accurately and fluently.

Kellogg [136] suggests that mastering the mechanics of writing forms the foundations for a 10-year process of achieving fluency in the acquisition of knowledge, as well as written and spoken production in the telling of knowledge. This would then be followed by a second decade post school to advance from knowledge-telling to knowledge-transforming. As Kellogg observes, this is similar to the process of development involved in becoming an outstanding performer in music, chess, typewriting and other domains, in which deliberate practice needs to continue for a minimum of a decade for an individual to acquire expert standing [137, 138].
